1

MINISTRY OF HIGHER AND SECONDARY SPECIALIZED

EDUCATION OF THE REPUBLIC OF UZBEKISTAN

NATIONAL UNIVERSITY of UZBEKISTAN

named after MIRZO ULUGBEK

ENGLISH LINGUISTICS DEPARTMENT

Speciality: 5120100 – Philology and teaching languages (English)

Xabibullayeva Sabohat Hayrullaevna

On the theme: “Strategies for designing materials”

COURSE PAPER

Scientific adviser:
Ahmadjonova O’.M.

TASHKENT 2022
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CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION IMPORTANCE OF MATERIALS DESIGN IN 3

TEACHING ……..………………….

CHAPTER I PRINCIPLES FOR DESIGNING MATERIALS

1.1 Role of materials used in ELT............................ 5

1.2 Types of teaching learning materials ..................... 8

1.3 Characteristics of effectively designed materials..... 11

CHAPTER II DESIGNING PROCESS EFFECTIVE TEACHING

MATERIALS
2.1 Process of selecting and adapting classrom 17
materials ..............................................................

2.2 Learning materials development process................ 23

2.3 Guidelines for designing effective materials............ 28

CONCLUSION …… ….. ……….. ………. ……… . …………………… 34

RESYUME …… … …. … . ……….. ………… ………….. ……… ….. 35

THE LIST OF USED LITERATURE ……. ………………. . ………. …. 36

INTRODUCTION
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Teaching materials or aids are tool and equipment used in teaching as a

supplement in class room instruction to enhance the interest of students. Teaching
materials are important catalysts of effective instructions. Besides the traditional
teaching methods, there are wide varieties of teaching aids available to the teacher.
They help students to improve reading and other skill. In the present age of
sciences and technology, the process of teaching and learning also depends on the
latest technology. Teaching becomes interesting when a teacher uses different
teaching materials because it directly involves student in the teaching- learning
process. It makes lessons enjoyable and memorable. Teaching materials are key
factor in creating effective teaching and learning environments. These aids directly
address to the five senses so the chances of forgetting become less and process of
learning becomes more effective.
The use of teaching materials in English Language class is important because
English has gained much more attention around the world. As a result, effective
materials become need of the time. To teach a language using text book is regarded
artificial because it can not connect the students to the second language. To teach a
new language, different teaching materials should be used in order to enhance
learners’ learning process so that the learner may be able to communicate the
learned language in real life. Linguistics now encourages the use of teaching
materials in teaching because of their positive effects on students.
One other important factor about teaching materials is that the materials should
meet students’ needs as every person has its own level of understanding. As
Cunningsworth says, “Students particularly more sophisticated adults and
teenagers need to feel that the materials from which they are learning have to be
connected with the real world and at the same time they must be related positively
to the aspects of their inner make up such as age, level of education, social
attitudes, the intellectual ability and level of emotional maturity.Teaching materials
are especially important to learn a new language because they develop the proper
images in their mind and create an interesting atmosphere for the students to make
learning easy and clear. It helps to increase the vocabulary and simplify the course
because teacher can deliver lectures easily and explain the concepts of chapters.
Teaching aids enable all students of the class to participate actively and they can
relate the topic to real life situations.
Teaching materials play a central role in instructing and learning, and materials
are vital to language gaining information of and instructing then again elements
can't be seen independently of their users. This declaration gives two fundamental
traits of instructing materials that suggest their relevance in coach education.
The actuality of the research. Teaching materials are key factor in creating
effective teaching and learning environments. These aids directly address to the
five senses so the chances of forgetting become less and process of learning
becomes more effective. In teaching language, teaching aids/ materials are
important because every individual has tendency to forget but proper use of these
aids, help to remember lessons permanently. All teachings aids can be effectively
used in class to motivate the students to learn better.
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The object of the work. All kind of materials can be used in class
The subject of the work. Approaches and strategies to design teaching
materials
The theoretical basis of the study is based on the theories and works of
language researchers, authors such as Brian Tomlinson(founder of MATSDA(The
Materials Development Association), Nancy Grimm(author of the book “Teaching
English), David Block and so on.
The aim of this work is to study teaching materials and designing them for
class to teach languages.
The tasks of the work are:
- to study how to design materials to use in class
- to analyse different types of materials
- to give information about the process of designing materials
Theoretical and practical value of the work. All the learned and analyzed
theoretical principles of designing materials for language teaching can be used at
high schools or universities to give basic knowledge students to create their own
materials and use them to teach their future pupils. Practical value of this work can
be seen as a guideline for young teachers to differentiate types of and criterias to
design materials or adapt alternative materials.
The structure of the work. This reasearch work consists of introduction, two
chapters, conclusion, resume and list of used literature.
The first chapter presents a general principles of teaching materials, types of
materials and guidelines for designing them as well.
The second chapter can be seen as practical aspect of the work due to it includes
process of material design with pictures and created aids.
And there is a conclusion with briefly given information. After that, there are
resume in my native - uzbek language and the list of used literature to write this
work.

CHAPTER I. PRINCIPLES FOR DESIGNING MATERIALS

1.1. Role of materials used in ELT

Teaching materials are a key component in most language programs. Whether

the teacher uses a textbook, institutionally prepared materials, or his or her own
materials, instructional materials generally serve as the basis for much of the
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language input learners receive and the language practice that occurs in the
classroom.1In the case of inexperienced teachers, materials may also serve as a
form of teacher training — they provide ideas can how to plan and teach lessons as
well as formats that teachers can use. Much of the language teaching that occurs
throughout the world today could not take place without the extensive use of
commercial materials. These may take the form of (a) printed materials such as
books, workbooks, worksheets, or readers; (h) nonprint materials such as cassette
or audio materials, videos, or computer-based materials- (c) materials that
comprise both print and nonprint sources such as self-access materials and
materials on the Internet. In addition, materials not designed for instructional use
such as magazines, newspapers, and TV materials may also play a role in the
curriculum.
Cunningsworth (1995, 7) summarizes the role of materials (particularly course
books) in language teaching as:2
• a resource for presentation materials (spoken and written)
• a source of activities for learner practice and communicative interaction
• a reference source for learners on grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, and
so on
• a source of stimulation and ideas for classroom activities
• a syllabus (where they reflect learning objectives that have already been
determined)
• a support for less experienced teachers who have yet to gain in confidence
Dudley-Evans and St. John (1998, 170-171) suggest that for teachers of ESP
courses, materials serve the following functions:
• as a source of language
• as a learning support
• for motivation and stimulation
• for reference
ESP materials may therefore seek to provide exposure to the specialized genres
and registers of ESP, to support learning through stimulating cognitive processes
and providing a structure and progression for learners to follow, to motivate
learners through providing achievable challenges and interesting content, and to
provide a resource for self-study outside of the classroom.
Some teachers use instructional materials as their primary teaching resource. The
materials provide the basis for the content of lessons, the balance of skills taught,
and the kinds of language practice students take part in. In other situations,
materials serve primarily to supplement the teacher's instruction. For learners,
materials may provide the major source of contact they have with the language
apart from the teacher. Hence the role and uses of materials in a language program
are a significant aspect of language curriculum development. In this chapter, we
will examine the role, design, and use of materials in language teaching, with
particular focus on print m trials and textbooks.

1
Materials Development for TESOL Freda Mishan and Ivor Timmis. Edinurgh University Press
2
Cunningsworth, A. 1995. Choosing your coursebook. Oxford: Heinemann.
 6
Teaching materials play a central role in teaching and learning, and as Garton
and Graves (2014, p.11) assert: “Materials are fundamental to language learning
and teaching (…) but materials cannot be viewed independently of their users.”
(Emphasis added). His assertion presents two important characteristics of teaching
materials that imply their relevance in teacher education; they are a fundamental
part of language learning and teaching and they are dependent on their users (both
teachers and learners).Exactly because of the dependent nature of teaching
materials, when a (student) teacher is assigned to design them, a number of
contextual decisions have to be made and these have a great potential to raise
designers’ relection about what and how to teach (who/where the learners are;
what they are learning the language for; how much time is available; available
resources, among others). Generally speaking, material design should consider and
try to harmonize situated possibilities with learners’ needs and wants. Besides,
choosing and adapting materials represent quite a challenge for most (new)
language teachers. At the same time, as pointed out by Harwood 2010, (p.4),
quoting Allwright (1981), “ (…) no pre-prepared teaching materials can meet the
needs of any given class precisely; some level of adaptation will be necessary”. It
is, consequently, important that teachers become aware of that, understand why
and develop informed means to perform this task, inherent to the profession.
Materials have always been considered as the only way to supply enriched input
in the language classroom, and in this respect have undergone many changes
following methodological and other theoretical trends. Whether successful or not,
they have been able to provide a natural link between the teachers, the students and
the language to be learned. The selection, evaluation and development of materials,
on the other hand, have aroused considerable controversy among professionals.
The arguments against using either contrived materials which focus on the features
of the language being taught (i.e., short and easy texts helping learners to focus
their attention on the target feature) or authentic materials (i.e., ordinary texts not
produced for teaching purposes) has made the pendulum swing back and forth.
Teachers amidst all this have often been the casualties of this pendulum by
suffering the problems imposed by the momentum. There is no doubt that
materials are a central feature for the achievement of successful language learning
and they offer structure and consistency in the foreign language classroom.
However, teacher-training programmes have not always managed to prepare and
equip teachers with the necessary tools to cope with changes in language learning
materials. We want materials to:3
a. arouse our learners’ interest b. be challenging enough
c. make the students feel that they are having a properly planned class
d. support and guide both the students and the teacher, and provide structure
and progression (even if this is not explicit)
e. provide a variety of experience in terms of texts
f. be a resource that introduces and/or reinforces areas of lexis or grammar.
g. teach new skills and strategies that our learners really need
3
[1] Materials Development for TESOL Freda Mishan and Ivor Timmis. Edinurgh University Press
 7
h. provide knowledge about other cultures
i. be a ‘springboard’ that stimulates students to engage with the language and use it
j. stimulate interest in non-linguistic issues
k. guide learners to be more autonomous
l. be flexible for other teachers to use or for teachers to personalise
m. provide teachers with sound teaching principles
We would argue that these answers encapsulate five key purposes of materials:
1. Materials meet a psychological need (a, b, c, d). Firstly, through texts, topics,
tasks and visuals, materials can provide motivation for the learner which it is
difficult for the teacher alone to sustain. Secondly, in the case of a set of course
materials, they give learners and teachers at least a sense of ordered progression
and, indeed, meet their expectation that learning involves materials. While there is
a good deal of evidence that progress in a language is not steady and systematic,
the belief that one is making steady and systematic progress can itself can be
important.
2. Materials provide exposure to the language (e). Teachers themselves are, of
course, important sources of exposure to the target language (TL), but they cannot
provide the range of exposure – different spoken and written genres and styles,
different accents and so on – which can be achieved through carefully selected
listening and reading texts and through visual media.
3. Materials are vehicles of information (f, g, h). Materials can provide information
about grammar and vocabulary and about the TL culture/s and other cultures which
may be more accurate and comprehensive than the teacher’s alone. They can also
provide learner training in different skills and strategies.
4. Materials provide a stimulus for other activities (i, j, k, l). Materials – texts or
tasks, for example – can elicit an oral or written response from learners. This might
be in the form of an immediate reaction to a text or a more extended discussion,
debate or project. Materials can also be of broader educational value in introducing
learners to topics beyond their own experience and by fostering more independent
learning. Materials can also stimulate teachers to think of their own ideas of how
best to exploit them.
5. Materials can act as teacher education (m). Materials, particularly those with an
accompanying teacher’s book, can provide good models of practice for teachers,
especially if the teacher’s book gives a clear rationale for the approach. As we have
shown above, materials can have a range of purposes, and the way they are used
will vary from context to context depending on factors such as the aim of the
course, the experience and confidence of the teacher, the requirements of the
institution and the expectations of the learner. Richards, cited in McGrath: ix)
stresses the importance of materials in language teaching.

1.2 Types of teaching learning materials

Teaching-learning materials are the materials, which render a significant
contribution in facilitating the teaching and learning processes.4In the past, the
4
Teaching-Learning Materials: Significant in Facilitating the Teaching-Learning Processes
Dr. Radhika Kapur
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materials were made use of to teach the students in class. But in the present
existence, there have been changes taking place in the materials. There has been a
change in the emphasis from teaching to learning in a learner-centred approach.
The learners need to generate information in terms of more materials of various
types to enhance their capacity to learn in groups or on an individual basis. Hence,
the learning materials can be recognized as teaching aids. They are used by the
students in learning and understanding. Whereas, instructors make use of them to
impart information to the students. Therefore, these are known as the teaching and
learning materials. When the individuals are in teaching jobs or they are pursuing
education, in such cases, it is of utmost significance for them to be well-equipped
in terms of teaching and learning materials.
When research is to be conducted on the teaching-learning materials, it needs to
be found out that how these would be effective and meaningful to the instructors in
performing one’s job duties well, facilitating student learning, achieving academic
goals and objectives and up-grading the overall system of education. The
implementation of teaching-learning materials need to be in accordance to various
factors, i.e. grade levels of students, age groups, professional needs and
requirements, academic goals and overall system of education. The instructors and
the students need to augment their knowledge and be well-equipped in terms of
utilization of teaching and learning materials. The instructors do not find their job
duties tedious and learning of new concepts become manageable for the students, if
they are informative in terms of teaching-learning materials. It is the integral job
duty of the instructors to present the learners with new information. In addition,
they impart them information in terms of utilization of teaching and learning
materials in acquiring an efficient understanding of subjects and concepts.
Therefore, when adequate and satisfactory information is possessed in terms of the
teaching-learning materials, up-gradation will be brought about in the overall
system of education. The teaching-learning materials vary at different levels of
education (Unit 6, n.d.). For instance, in the stage of early childhood education,
elementary education, secondary, senior secondary and higher educational
institutions, the teaching and learning materials are different. The various materials
relating to the desired objectives can play a vital and a positive role in breaking
down the monotony of the teacher-centred classrooms, which in most cases put
emphasis on rote learning. The presentation of these materials by the instructors
before the students, enables them to utilize them in learning. In understanding a
lesson plan and the associated concepts, the teaching and learning materials are
required to play an important part. Therefore, the meaning and significance of
teaching and learning materials is recognized, when the instructors incur the
feeling of job satisfaction and the students too are able to acquire an efficient
understanding of the lesson plans and academic concepts. Teaching learning
materials (TLMs) are, therefore, tools, which are used by teachers to help learners
to learn concept with ease and efficiency. TLMs have been in existence in our
educational system since ancient times, (Lal, 2011). The role of TLMs in the
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classroom are to make learning real, practical and fun for children. Teachers use
TLMs to illustrate or reinforce a skill, fact or idea. TLMs also help in bringing
novelty and freshness in classroom teaching as it relieves learners from anxiety,
fear and boredom. Teaching learning materials provide a range of learning
experiences to learners from direct to indirect. Teaching learning materials are of
various types and thus are classified and categorized in several ways. Edgar Dale’s
cone of experience is one of the simplest ways of categorizing TLMs. He
experimented with different TLMs and categorized them on the basis of type of
experiences the learner acquires – from concrete to abstract. Another widely
accepted and popular way of categorizing TLMs is based on the senses they
stimulate in learners, which, in turn affect the effectiveness of teaching learning
process. TLMs can broadly be classified into three categories.
i) Audio TLMs
ii) Visual TLMs
iii) Audio Visual TLMs
Let us look: into these categories in details.
i) Audio TLMs: These TLMs primarily stimulate the hearing sense of learner.
It includes – human voice, telephonic conversation, audio discs/tapes, gramophone
records, Radio broadcast.
ii) Visual TLMs: These types of TLMs involve the sense of vision. They stimulate
the visual impulses. These can be of various types as given below:
• Visual (Verbal) Print. (the text is the main instructional or teaching learning aid)
• Textbook, Supplementary book.
• Reference books, encyclopedia, etc.
• Magazine, Newspaper
• Documents and Clippings
• Duplicated written material
• Programmed material or SLM
• Case Studies/Reports etc.
• Visual (Pictorial- Non Projected )–
a) Non-projected two dimensional – Here the TLM is in form of an
image or picture explaining the concept. Examples of such type of
TLMs are blackboard writing and drawing Charts, Posters, Maps,
Diagrams, Graphs, Photographs, Cartoons, Comic strips.
b) Non-Projected three-dimensional – This category includes threedimensional
representation of the real object or phenomenon. It helps learners in
conceptualization. It includes – Models, Mock-up, Diorama, Globe, Relief Map,
Specimen, Puppet, and Hologram.
• Visual (Projected but still) – Here the images are projected or displayed on a
screen and thus are nearer reality than visual non-projected ones. It includes –
Slide, Filmstrips, Over Head Projector (OHP), Microfilm, Micro card, etc.
iii) Audio Visual TLMs are the projected aids, which use both auditory and visual
senses to enhance learning. The greatest advantage of these is they are the closest
representation of reality. These include – Motion Picture Film, Television, Video
discs/cassettes, slide – tape presentations, Multimedia Computer. The teaching-
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learning materials are primarily the materials, which are made use of in educational
institutions at all levels and training centres. These are made use of by the
instructors as well in order to impart information to the students and students also
make use of them to up-grade their learning. In some cases, they are manageable to
be made use of, whereas, in other cases, the individuals may experience problems
and challenges. In some cases, they can be obtained in a manageable manner,
whereas, in other cases, they are difficult to obtain. For the benefit of acquiring,
storing and utilizing different materials within the classroom settings with the main
objective of putting into practice the teaching and the learning activities, it is of
utmost significance to classify the types of teaching-learning materials. The
instructors are mainly vested with the job duties of classifying and making
selection of the appropriate teaching and learning materials in order to facilitate the
teaching and learning processes. The various types of teaching-learning materials
are stated as follows:
Books, Articles and Other Reading Materials – Books, articles and other reading
materials are regarded as the most common types of teaching-learning materials
that are put into practice at all levels of education. These are regarded as
fundamental in facilitating the education processes.
Models – Models have numerous meanings, i.e. reproductions, replicas, copies,
representations, facsimiles, prototypes, simulations and mock-ups. At all levels of
education, these need to be utilized to facilitate the teaching processes and to
promote student learning. These are utilized by the teachers in nursery, elementary,
secondary, senior secondary as well as in higher educational institutions.
Charts – A chart is a graphical representation of data. The data is represented by
symbols. The various types of charts are, bar chart, line chart and pie chart. A chart
represents the data in a tabular, in a numerical form and in some form of quality
structure. Charts are frequently used to ease the understanding of large quantities
of data and the relationships between parts of data. It is usually easier for the
individuals to read and understand the charts. These are made use of in the variety
of fields. These can be created manually or through the use of computers.
Maps – A map is referred to as the symbolic depiction, putting emphasis upon the
relationships between the elements of some space, i.e. objects, regions and themes.
There are number of maps that are static, fixed on paper or some other durable
medium, whereas, others are dynamic or interactive. Although the most commonly
used maps are used to depict geography. Furthermore, maps represent space, real
or fictional without any regards to context and scale, such as, brain mapping, DNA
mapping, or computer network typology mapping.
Pictures and Images – Pictures and images are regarded as teaching-learning
materials, which are of utmost significance. Within books, when there are pictures
and images, the students develop motivation towards learning. When the
individuals are making use of technologies to acquire information in terms of a
particular concept, then too they will be able to understand well, when there are
pictures and images. The viewing of pictures and images enables the individuals to
understand the concepts in a clear manner..
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Diagrams – A diagram is referred to the symbolic representation of information
through making use of visualization techniques (Antofina, n.d.). The term diagram
is used in a sense that signifies a specific meaning. These are pictorial and yet
abstract representations of information. In primarily science subjects of physics,
chemistry and biology, the students need to learn how to draw diagrams.
Technologies – In the present existence, the usage of technologies has gained
prominence. The instructors and the students at all levels of education are making
use of them in facilitating teaching and learning processes. Hence, they are able to
carry out their job duties well. On the other hand, the students are making use of
technologies to prepare assignments, projects, reports and so forth
Television and Videos – Television and videos are primarily regarded as the
sources of entertainment. The individuals, belonging to all age groups, categories
and backgrounds take pleasure in watching television and videos. But these are not
only regarded as the sources of entertainment, but promote teaching and learning
as well. The research studies have indicated that in educational institutions at all
levels, the instructors sometimes show videos to the students, related to the lesson
plans. When they see the videos, they are able to up-grade their learning and
understanding. Sometimes learning does not get facilitated through reading books,
articles or browsing the internet as through watching television and videos.
Audio-Visual Aids – Audio-visual aids are the devices, which are made use of
within the classroom settings to make the teaching and the learning processes
effectual and meaningful. The teaching methods need to be put into operation in
such a manner, that students should take pleasure in learning. Hence, audio-visual
aids are regarded as the most favourable tools that are made use of for making the
teaching processes meaningful. (Meaning of Audio-Visual Aids, 2011).
Slide Projectors - Slide projectors is an opto-mechanical device for displaying of
photographic slides. In other words, it is a machine that shines light through a
photograph made into a slide to produce a larger image on the screen.

1.3.Characteristics of effectively designed materials

Materials obviously reflect the writers' views of language and learning, and
teachers (and students) will respond according to how well these match their own
beliefs and expectations5. If materials are to be a helpful scaffold, these underlying
principles need to be made explicit and an object of discussion for both students
and teachers. The remainder of this paper looks at the assumptions about language
and learning which the author feels should underpin materials used in language
classrooms. Individual end-users will, of course, weight these factors differently,
and so need to adapt the materials to their own context and learners. In terms of our
present understanding of second language learning, however, effective materials
are likely to reflect the following statements: (i) Language is functional and must
be contextualised. Language is as it is because of the purposes we put it to. For this

5
The Role of Materials in the Language Classroom:
Finding the Balance. Jane Crawford. TESOL in Context Volume 5 No 1 June 1995
 12
reason, materials must contextualise the language they present. Without a
knowledge of what is going on, who the participants are and their social and
psychological distance in time and space from the events referred to, it is
impossible to understand the real meaning of an interaction. In other words,
language, whether it is input or learner output, should emerge from the context in
which it occurs. One possible way to build a shared context for learners and their
teachers is to use video drama. Familiarity with the context helps make the
language encountered meaningful, and also extends the content of the course
beyond that other rich source of contextualised language use, the classroom itself.
That is to say, the fictitious world of a video drama can provide a joint focus which
is culturally broader than the classroom, and which serves as a springboard into
other real world contexts. These will need to be negotiated carefully, however,
because they are not shared by all members of the group. Again it is the teacher
who must ensure that a balance is achieved between input and the reapplication of
this to the unique context of a given class.
(ii) Language development requires learner engagement in purposeful use of
language. The focus of input and output materials should thus be on whole texts,
language in use, rather than on so called 'building blocks' to be used at some later
date. This does not mean there should be no focus on form but rather that this
normally comes out of whole texts which have already been processed for
meaning.
Study of grammar looks at how such texts use the system to express meaning and
achieve certain purposes. Depending on the background and goals of their learners,
teachers can decide whether to enhance or reduce this focus on form and the
language used to do this. For the majority of learners, however, some explicit
discussion of language at the whole text level is presumably useful and will
contribute positively to the language learning process and learner autonomy (Borg
1994). Materials need to include such information for students so that they can be
used as references beyond the classroom and independently of the teacher.
(iii) The language used should be realistic and authentic-like. An outcome of our
understanding that language is a social practice has been an increased call for the
use of 'authentic' materials, rather than the more contrived and artificial language
often found in traditional textbooks (Grant 1987). The problem with using
authentic materials (in Nunan's sense of "any material which has not been
specifically produced for the purpose of language teaching" (1989:54) is that it is
very difficult to find such materials which scaffold the learning process by
remaining within manageable fields. It is also difficult for teachers legally to
obtain a sufficient range of audiovisual materials of an appropriate quality and
length. The quality of the materials is, nevertheless, important because of its
impact on learners and their motivation: Hi-tech visual images are a pervasive
feature of young people's lives. Textbooks, worksheets and overheads are a poor
match for these other, more complex, instantaneous and sometimes spectacular
forms of experience and learning. In this context, the disengagement of many
students from their curriculum and their teaching is not hard to understand.
Teachers are having to compete more and more with this world and its surrounding
 13
culture of the image). Materials, therefore, need to be authentic-like, that is,
"authentic, in the sense that the language is not artificially constrained, and is, at
the same time, amenable to exploitation for language teaching purposes". 6 Another
related aspect of authenticity concerns the classroom interaction to which the
materials give rise (Crawford 1990, Taylor 1994). The more realistic the language,
the more easily it can cater to the range of proficiency levels found in many
classes. At the same time, the proposed activities must be varied and adaptable to
classroom constraints of time and concentration span.Vernon (1953), for example,
found that there was a steep decline in the amount of aural information retained
during the course of a half-hour transmission, and that six to seven minutes is
probably the optimal maximum even for native-speaking viewers. A video drama
which contained five-minute episodes would not, therefore, be authentic in terms
of typical TV programs, but it would be pedagogically practical and efficient in
terms of language comprehension. (iv) Classroom materials will usually seek to
include an audio-visual component. This is not only because we live in an
increasingly multimedia world in which advances in technology allow for
expanding flexibility in delivery, but also because such materials can create a
learning environment that is rich in linguistic and cultural information about the
target language. Materials such as video and multimedia allow teachers and
learners to explore the non-verbal and cultural aspects of language as well as the
verbal. Intonation, gesture, mime, facial expression, body posture and so on, are all
essential channels of communication which not only help learners understand the
verbal language to which they are exposed, but are also an integral part of the
system of meaning which they are seeking to learn. The distance created by the
video and the replay/pause options allows for analysis and crosscultural
comparisons which can then be extended to members oi the class and local
community. Visuals also provide information about the physical context of the
interaction. This crucial comprehension support occurs particularly with formats
such as soap opera, where there is greater convergence between the audio and
visual strands than in other video materials such as documentaries with voice-overs
(MacWilliam1986). (v) In our modern, technologically complex world, second
language learners need to develop the ability to deal with written as well as spoken
genres. Reading materials will normally need to cover a range of genres, possibly
including computer literacy. These will emerge from the context and be
accompanied by activities and exercises which explore both their meaning in that
context and, if appropriate, their schematic structure and language features. The
extent to which teachers focus explicitly on the latter will depend on the needs and
goals of their learners, and whether this kind of analysis fits with learning
preferences. For many learners, however, these reading materials will provide
models which can be used to develop familiarity with the structure of such texts,
and provide a scaffold to assist with the learners' subsequent attempts to write
similar texts. Materials should be integrated and not require students to write
genres which have not already been encountered. This means that when learners do
6
McWilliams, B.J., Morris, H.L. and Shelton, R.L. (1990) Cleft Palate Speech. 2nd
Edition, BC Decker, Philadelphia.
 14
begin their analysis, they have already had an opportunity to acquire a certain
familiarity with the genre. These previous examples can then be used for additional
practice in identifying the schematic structure and language features, thus
providing learners with an opportunity to elaborate and revise their interlanguage
(Ellis 1989).Writing in a second language is sometimes daunting for L2 learners,
especially because, as native speakers know, we tend to be less forgiving of
grammatical and other inaccuracies. Learners need to come to terms with this
aspect of written language, and develop appropriate strategies for tackling written
tasks. Except for informal notes, most writing involves more than one draft.
Materials can incorporate learning cycles which allow learners to explore choices
and options and choose the most appropriate to their purpose before they begin
working on their own. Individual writing will usually occur at the end of a number
of activities in which learners have (a) worked with examples of the genre but with
the focus on meaning, not form; (b) analysed examples of the genre to determine
its social purpose and generic structure; (c) built up their knowledge of the topic
through discussion, reading and so on, so that they have something to write about
and have covered the necessary vocabulary; and (d) engaged in a joint
construction, either as a whole group or in smaller groups. The discussion such
collaborative work provokes engages learners in purposeful interaction and gives
them an opportunity to check their understanding of the requirements of the task.
(vi) Effective teaching materials foster learner autonomy.
Given the context-dependent nature of language, no language course can predict
all the language needs of learners and must seek, therefore, to prepare them to deal
independently with the language they encounter as they move into new situations.
The activities and materials proposed must be flexible, designed to develop skills
and strategies which can be transferred to other texts in other contexts. The
materials writer can also suggest follow-up activities to encourage this process and
to provide additional practice for those who need it. This not only assists the
teacher in catering for a range of learning styles and levels, but also contributes to
developing their teaching repertoire. Learners can likewise be asked to explore the
strategies they and their fellow students use and, where appropriate, try new ones.
One of the advantages of talking about language as proposed above, is that such
discussion contributes to the development of skills for continued autonomous
learning (Borg 1994), and students gain confidence in their ability to analyze the
data available in the language to which they have access. Making generic and
cultural aspects of the language explicit and available to learners in their textbook
gives them more control over their learning environment. Another important aspect
of the move to greater self-direction is the ability to evaluate the performance of
oneself and others. Materials, therefore, need to build in self-assessment tasks
which require learners to reflect on their progress. (vii) Materials need to be
flexible enough to cater for individual and contextual differences. While language
is a social practice, learning a language is largely an individual process as learners
seek to integrate newly perceived information into their existing language system.
It is essential for teachers to recognize the different backgrounds, experiences and
learning styles that students bring to the language classroom, and the impact these
 15
experiences have on what aspects of the input are likely to become intake. In other
words, it is to a large extent the learners, not the teachers, who control what is
learnt since it is they who selectively organise the sensory input into meaningful
wholes. This diversity of response provides classroom teachers with a rich source
of potential communication as learners and teachers share their reactions to the
materials and compare cultural differences. Such assumptions and values become
negotiable when they are made overt. (viii) Learning needs to engage learners both
affectively and cognitively. The language classroom involves an encounter of
identities and cultures, and it needs to be recognized that language learning
(particularly in a second language context but increasingly in foreign language
contexts as the world shrinks) requires the active participation of the whole learner.
The integration of new knowledge into the learner's existing language system
occurs with certainty only when the language is used spontaneously in a
communicative (purposeful) situation to express the learner's own meaning. Such
real communication, however, implies the engagement of genuine interest and will
depend, in part at least, on the presence of a positive group dynamic in the
classroom. The input from the materials provides linguistic and cultural
preparation before, or in parallel with, the learner-generated language which is the
ultimate goal of the learning process. As O'Neill (in Rossner and Bolitho
1990:155-6) suggests: Textbooks can at best provide only a base or a core of
materials. They are a jumping-off point for teacher and class. They should not aim
to be more than that. A great deal of the most important work in a class may start
with the textbook but end outside it, an improvisation and adaptation, in
spontaneous interaction in the class, and the development of that interaction.

CHAPTER II. DESIGNING PROCESS OF EFFECTIVE TEACHING

MATERIALS

2.1. Process of adapting and selecting materials

In many cases, the teacher using published materials in any given classroom is not
involved with creating the materials and may have little to do with adopting the
materials for her institution.7However, even when the classroom teacher selects the
book, knows every student in the class well and is using materials designed
specifically for the context they are in, she will still have to adapt the materials
either consciously or subconsciously. Materials adaptation can span a range of
procedures from adding carefully contextualized role plays with the objective of
providing more opportunities to communicate to not finishing a pronunciation drill
7
Developing Materials for Language Teaching
Chapters from the fi rst edition Edited by Brian Tomlinson © Brian Tomlinson and Contributors, 2014
 16
because of time constraints. Whether pre-planned or spontaneous, materials
adaptation is an integral part of the success of any class. An awareness of the
various reasons for adapting materials (as well as of current approaches and
procedures) can be beneficial when considering how best to use the materials
adopted for the classroom. One reason for adaptation is that published materials are
necessarily constrained by the syllabus, unit template and other space concerns.
Language was viewed primarily in structural terms and was not treated as a tool for
communication, while learning was seen in terms of forming correct behavioral
patterns. Despite an increased awareness and sensitivity to language as
communication and learning as a developmental process, many teachers were
finding themselves faced with materials that did not reflect these teaching and
learning principles. In their book Materials and Methods in ELT (1993),
McDonough and Shaw devote a chapter to the issue of adapting materials. They
quote Madsen and Bowen (1978) to set a context for materials adaptation:
‘Effective adaptation is a matter of achieving ‘‘congruence’’ . . . The good teacher
is . . . constantly striving for congruence among several related variables: teaching
materials, methodology, students, course objectives, the target language and its
context, and the teacher’s own personality and teaching style.’ McDonough and
Shaw’s list of reasons for adaptation clearly reflects a concern that communicative
language teaching implies an unsystematic approach to grammar presentation and
a belief that a systematic approach to grammar presentation is necessary.
In Choosing Your Course book (1995), Cunningsworth also includes a chapter that
deals with the challenge of materials adaptation and provides a list of possible
reasons for adapting materials. There is quite a bit of overlap between the two lists,
but Cunningsworth draws on a knowledge of learner styles and the learner as a
whole, considerations which are absent from McDonough and Shaw’s list.
According to Cunningsworth, adaptation depends on factors such as:
The dynamics of the classroom
The personalities involved
The constraints imposed by syllabuses
The availability of resources
The expectations and motivations of the learners
Adaptation is also appropriate when materials are not ideal, as presented in the
following:
Methods (e.g., an exercise may be too mechanical, lacking in meaning, too
complicated). Language content (e.g., there may be too much emphasis on
grammar your students learn quickly or not enough emphasis on what they find
difficult).
Subject matter (e.g., topics may not be interesting to students or they may be
outdated or not authentic enough).
Balance of skills (e.g., there may be too much emphasis on skills in the written
language or skills in the spoken language, or there may not be enough on
integrating skills).
Progression and grading (order of language items may need to be changed to fit an
outside syllabus or the staging may need to be made steeper or more shallow).
 17
Cultural content (cultural references may need to be omitted or changed).
Image (a coursebook may project an unfriendly image through poor layout,
low quality visuals, etc.).
There are some factors which should be considered in the process of adapting
teaching materials within particular classroom environments where there is a
perceived need for change and manipulation of certain design features. There is
clearly a direct relationship between evaluating and adapting materials, both in
terms of the reasons for doing so, and the criteria used. A starting point for
considering the relationship between evaluation and adaptation is to think of the
terms 'adopting' and 'adapting'. Adaptation, then , is a process subsequent to, and
dependent on, adoption. Furthermore, whereas adoption is concerned with whole
course books, adaptation concerns the parts that make up the whole.
An important perspective on evaluation is to see it as a management issue whereby
education-al decision-makers formulate policy and work out strategies for
budgeting and for purchasing and allocation of resources. In this sense, teachers do
not always have direct involvement. So, activity among teachers is that of
adaptation since they are changing and adjusting the various parts of a course book
and they are more closely related to the reality of dealing with learners in the
dynamic environment of the classroom.
External factors comprise both the overt claims about materials and the
characteristics of particular teaching situations. Internal factors are concerned with
content, organization and consistency. Thus :

External(what we have) Internal (what the materials offer)

Learner characteristics Choice of topics
Physical environment Skills covered
Resources Proficiency level
Class size Grading of exercises

To adapt materials is to try to bring together these individual elements under each
heading, or combinations of them, so that they match each other as closely as
possible. Madsen and Bowen (1978) refer to this matching as the principle of
'congruence': Effective adaptation is a matter of achieving "congruence"….The
good teacher is…. constantly striving for congruence among several related
variables: teaching materials, methodology, students, course objectives, the target
language, and its context, and the teacher's own personality and teaching style.
With an emphasis on materials, Stevick (1972) talks of bridging a gap: 'the teacher
must satisfy the demands of the text-book, but in ways that will be satisfying to
those who learn from it'. It is worth mentioning that adapted material does not
necessarily need to be written down or made permanent. While satisfying students
'short-term needs, teachers may need to introduce extra material. Madsen and
Bowen (1978) make the point clearly:' the good teacher is constantly adapting. He
adapts when he adds an example not found in the book or he adapts even when he
refers to an exercise covered earlier, or when he introduces a supplementary
picture. Therefore, adaptation is essentially a process of matching. Its purpose is to
 18
maximize the appropriacy of teaching materials in context, by changing some of
the internal characteristics of a course book to better suit our particular
circumstances.
The Reasons for Adapting
There are many reasons for making modifications to our materials; these reasons
depend on the whole range of variables operating in our own teaching situation,
and one teacher’s priorities may differ from those of another. Some think that
materials should aim to be 'communicative' and 'authentic'. However, these
priorities are relative, and there is no absolute notion of right or wrong, also,
priorities change over time even within the same context. Nor does a need to adapt
necessarily imply that a course book is defective. It will be useful to state a list to
show some of the possible areas of mismatch(no congruence) that teachers identify
and that can be dealt with by adapting.
-Not enough grammar coverage in general
-Not enough practice of grammar points of particular difficulty to these learners
-The communicative focus means that gram-mar is presented unsystematically
-Reading passages contain too much unknown vocabulary
-Comprehension questions are too easy, be-cause the answers can be lifted directly
from the text with no real understanding
-Listening passages are inauthentic, because they sound too much like written
material being read aloud
-Not enough guidance on pronunciation
-Subject-matter inappropriate for learners of this age and intelligence level
-Photographs and other illustrative materials not culturally acceptable
-Amount of material too great/too little to cover in the time allocated to lessons
-No guidance for teachers on handling group work and role play activities with a
large class
-Dialogs too formal, and not really representative of everyday speech
-Audio material difficult to use because of problems to do with room size and
technical equipment
-Too much or too little variety in the activities
-Vocabulary list and a key to the exercises would be helpful
-Accompanying tests needed
Undoubtedly much more could be added to this list, but it must serve as an
illustration of some of the possibilities. All aspects of the language classroom can
be covered: these examples above include: (a) aspects of language use ,(b) skills,
(c) classroom organization and (d) supplementary material.
Principles and Procedures
The reasons for adapting that we have discussed can be thought of as dealing with
the modification of content, whether that content is expressed in the form of
exercises and activities; texts; instructions; tests and so on. We should consider the
requirements of a particular teaching environment which need a number of changes
that will lead to greater appropriacy. This is most likely to be expressed in terms of
a need to personalize, individualize, or localize the content. We take '
personalizing' here to refer to increasing the relevance of content in relation to
 19
learners' interests and their academic, educational, or professional needs.
'Individualizing' will address the learning styles both of individuals and of the
members of a class working closely together. "Localizing" takes into account the
international geography of English language teaching and recognizes that what
may work well in Mexico City may not do so in Edinburgh or in Kuala Lumpur.
Madsen and Bowen(1978) include a further category of 'modernizing', and
comment that not all materials show familiarity with aspects of current English
usage, sometimes to the point of being not only out of date or misleading but even
incorrect.
Regarding the main techniques that can be applied to content in order to bring
about change, there are some points to keep in mind. Firstly, this can be seen as
another kind of matching process where techniques are selected according to the
aspect of the materials that need alteration. Secondly , content can be adapted using
a range of techniques; or conversely, a single technique can be applied to different
content areas. Thirdly, adaptation can have both quantitative and qualitative
effects. That is, we can simply change the amount of material, or we can change its
methodological nature. Finally, techniques can be used individually or in
combination with others, so the scale of possibilities clearly ranges from
straightforward to rather complex. The techniques we use are as follows:
1. Adding: It can be in two forms; namely, extending whereby we can add in a
simple quantitative way, and expanding, which brings about a qualitative as well as
a quantitative change.
2. Deleting or omitting: This is the same as addition, but it does not have a
significant impact on the overall methodology. The changes are greater if material
is not only subtracted , but also what we shall term abridged.
Addition and deletion often work together. Material may be taken out and then
replaced with something else. Where the same kind of material is substituted, as
for instance one set of minimal pairs for another, the internal balance of the les-son
or the syllabus is not necessarily altered. The methodological change is greater
when, for ex-ample, grammar practice is substituted after the omission of an
inappropriate communicative function, or when a reading text is replaced by a
listening passage.
3. Modifying: It can be applied to any aspect of 'content'. It can be subdivided
under two related headings: re-writing, when some of the linguistic content needs
modification; and re-structuring, which applies to classroom man-agement.
Modifying materials, then, even in the restricted sense is a technique that has a
very wide range of applications. It refers essentially to a 'modality change’, to a
change in the nature or focus of an exercise, or text, or classroom activity.
4. Simplifying: Many elements of a language course can be simplified, including
the instructions and explanations that accompany exercises and activities, and even
the visual layout of material so that it becomes easier to see how different parts fit
together. The main application of this technique has been to texts, most often to
reading passages. For instance we can simplify according to: sentence structure,
lexical content and grammatical structures.
 20
5. Re-ordering: It refers to the possibility of putting the parts of a course book in a
different order. This may mean adjusting the sequence of presentation within a
unit, or taking units in a different sequence from that originally intended. There are
limits, of course, to the scale of what teachers can do, and too many changes could
result, unhelpfully, in an almost complete re-working of a course book.
A Framework for Adaptation
Adapting materials is trying to consider individual-al items or combination of them
in such a way that they could match each other as much as possible. This math or
congruence should be among several related criteria namely external and internal,
such as teaching materials, methodology, student characteristics, course objectives,
teacher variables, target language, and its context. There is a need to localize,
personalize, and individualize the material to bridge a gap (Stevick, 1972). The
teacher must satisfy the demands of the text-book as to satisfy the needs of the
students by means of different techniques such as adding, modifying, reordering,
simplifying, and deleting. The purpose of applying these techniques to con-tent
areas such as language use, texts, skills, and classroom management is to
maximize the appropriacy of teaching materials in context. The following is a
workable model into which the main points of adaptation can be fitted:

Selecting materials and activities for our students is not a haphazard decision; it is
one that embraces making effective and opportune decisions for their benefit. That
is why we utterly agree with Graves (1997) who had the conception that any text
by itself is not the course, but rather a tool that can be divided or cut up into
components and then rearranged so as to suit the needs, abilities, interest, and
 21
expectations of the students comprising a course. Therefore, textbooks can be
modified to incorporate activities that encourage students and move them beyond
the constraints of the textbook. In fact, a proper selection of activities must
consider a range of factors such as usefulness in attaining the course purpose;
suitability of students’ age, interests, needs and expectations; availability of use;
and plausibility of being adjusted up or down according to students’ particular
learning styles. Ideally, learners should be exposed to a set of carefully planned,
graded, sequenced and very well-articulated learning activities that will eventually
enhance students’ self-confidence and self-worth as a result of learning at their
own pace and in their own styles. Moreover, an appropriate selection of activities
will simultaneously allow teachers to make autonomous opportune decisions that
foster a harmonious and efficient development of their classes and the attainment
of students’ learning objectives.

2.2. Learning material development process

Although the expression “materials development” (Tomlinson, 1998) has

different denominations in available literature, such as instructional materials
design, course development, course books , instructional design strategies, we
prefer the term materials development since it offers a more inclusive definition. 8 It
embraces an array of behaviours leading to fostering effective teaching and
learning settings. Moreover, it includes the adaptation and/or creation of a
learning- teaching exercise, a task, an activity, a lesson, a unit, or a module
composed by one or two units. Materials development implies the combination of
both reasoning and artistic processes. In this respect, Low states that “designing
appropriate materials is not a science: it is a strange mixture of imagination,
insight, and analytical reasoning” In the same thread of thought, Maley asserts 9
that the writer should trust “…intuition and tacit knowledge” ….“and operate with
a set of variables that are raised to a conscious level only when he [she] encounters
a problem and so works in a more analytical way” Then, these authors agree on the
fact that materials development entails a rational process and artistic inspiration
that together perform a central role in attaining appealing teaching-learning
resources. Considering that our duty as teachers is to care for our students’
learning, developing appropriate tailor-made materials that suit all of our learners’
profiles becomes a fundamental must. According to UNESCO (2004), “... to
respond to the diversity of learners and enhance the quality of education we should
improve the effectiveness of teachers, promote learning-centred methodologies,
develop appropriate textbooks and learning materials, and ensure that schools are
safe and healthy for all children”. Finally, Tomlinson’s (1998) definition of
materials development suits our perception of inclusiveness as it is “anything
which is done by writers, teachers or learners to provide sources of language input
8
[1] ELT Materials: The Key to Fostering Effective Teaching and Learning Settings, Astrid Nuflez Pardo Maria
Fernanda Tellez, University of Columbia, 171-186
9
Alan Maley, Issues in materials development, Prabhu 1998. Pp 22-25
 22
and to exploit those sources in ways which maximize the likelihood of intake” (p.
2).In developing language learning materials, in addition to referring to the
principles chosen, language learning materials developers have to follow logical
steps or procedure to produce useful and logical language learning materials. The
general procedure of development includes design/development, implementation,
and evaluation. Dick and Carey (1990)10 suggest ten components of the systems
approach model, that is, identify an instructional goal, conduct an instructional
analysis, identify entry behaviors and characteristics, write performance objectives,
develop criterion-referenced test items, develop an instructional strategy, develop
and/or select instructional materials, design and conduct the formative evaluation,
revise instruction, and conduct summative evaluation. This English language
learning materials implementation is used as a formative evaluation of the
materials being developed. If it turns out that in the implementation of the
materials
The materials users find it inaccurate, the developer can revise for better product.

Materials Development Demands

Acknowledging that students learn at particular speeds and succeed in different

manners, teachers should consider this diversity when teaching the target language
and when developing their materials trying, at the same time, to keep a balance
among students’ language learning needs, preferences, motivations and
expectations, their affective needs, and the institutional policies. In the same way,
and following Oxford (1997), teachers should also bear in mind that since
knowledge is socially built, fostering pair and group learning activities is a “must”
as they enhance motivation, improve self-esteem in students, and lower anxiety
and prejudice. Additionally, they are helpful in sharing information, cooperating
with each other’s learning, enhancing commitment to subject learning as well as to
developing a sense of belonging to the educational institutions and classmates.
Furthermore, it is relevant to highlight the valuable element of enjoyment in our
practices and in the material being produced for our students, which results in
having students motivated and engaged in a comfortable, warmhearted and
challenging learning atmosphere. To that extent, Tosta (2001) and Small (1997)
assert that an essential element of success in an EFL classroom is the possibility
for the class to be an opportunity to learn and the students to find learning
enjoyable. For this reason, teachers ought to create materials that promote pleasant
learning settings, thereby fostering motivation, interaction, and long-term
learning.Moreover, language learning materials constitute a key factor in creating
effective teaching and learning environments. Following Tomlinson (1998), these
materials could be considered effective if they facilitate the learning of a language
by increasing learners’ knowledge, experience and understanding of it and,
simultaneously, helping learners learn what they want and need to learn. In
addition, the effectiveness of materials used for language teaching depends largely
Dick, W. & Carey, L.M. (1978, 1985, 1990, 1996).The systematic design of instruction. New York:
10

HarperCollins.
 23
on how meaningful, relevant and motivating they are to the learners. These three
conditions are met when there is a match between the materials and tasks proposed
in them, with the learners’ needs, interests, attitudes and expectations. In other
words, teachers should do their best to develop the most effective, appropriate, and
flexible materials for their students and their programs. Above all, materials
development requires designers to be reflective, resourceful and receptive (RRR)
agents with regard to their teaching practice, besides becoming more willing to
take risks and make decisions related to the way they handle classes, and being less
willing to single out what should not have been done as well as attentive to
complimenting and praising their students’ attempts to perform tasks in a different
manner as there are not necessarily incorrect ways to do things, but rather different
ways to do them. Consequently, RRR teachers inspire and do most of these things:
devote time to teaching, facilitating, and guiding their students’ learning process;
implement changes or innovations in their teaching practice; see students as
holistic, unique individuals; minimize differences and maximize similarities
among students; match students’ language learning needs, concerns and
motivation; comply with institutional targets and students’ affective needs in their
teaching methodology; create a language learning atmosphere that keeps students’
attention and imagination going; envision and cope with the syllabus models; and
deal with the types of learning/teaching activities, the role of the learners as well as
that of the instructional materials. Figure 2 depicts the triple RRR acronym and the
way we conceive the kind of teachers needed to carry out the process of materials
development for teacher development.

Figure 2. Teachers' qualities to meet materials development demands

 24

Process of material development

Identification of Needs

This is the planning stage where the developer can prioritise and strategise on
issues to consider. The developer is therefore required to:

 establish the need for the learning material;

 evaluate the existing materials;
 compare the existing materials with identified outcomes of learning reflected
 In the curriculum/programme/module;
 identify gaps between the two;
 understand quality principles for developing learning materials;
 ensure that a system for managing material development quality is in place;
 outline activities or project plan for developing learning materials (Gunnt
Chart);
 identify constraints; and
 consider the needs of the target group

Input Sources

Inputs are those aspects that the developer needs to bring together when
developing learning materials. The developer needs to:

 identify the learning events or outcomes of learning stated in the

 curriculum/programme/module;
 consider the background and needs of the potential learner;
 25

 consider different types of learning modes;

 link materials being developed to the learning process;
 identify the learning setting;
 identify the learning media;
 state the learning notional time in hours;
 state needed evidence that would show achievement.

Resource Mobilisation

The overall objective of resource mobilisation is to make material reach people it is

intended for Considerations should be made to:
 determine resources needed for the efficient implementation the
curriculum/programme/module(financial,human,infrastructure,technological
);
 develop the learning material;
 synthesise quality requirements;
 match learning with resources;
 emphasise on learner centred approaches;
 infuse Generic Skills;
 determine the layout of the material;
 sequence learning activities;
 infuse self assessment questions/tasks;
 determine the production cost and implications thereof;
 determine availability of storage facilities; and
 determine the printing method;

Piloting

Piloting is done to determine the strengths and weaknesses of the developed

material in order to take necessary remedial actions prior to its full
implementation. The developer is expected to:
 develop monitoring instruments for piloting;
 identify institutions and/or learners for piloting;
 use a variety of learning methods;
 encourage and receive feedback from the learners and trainers on structure
and content, approaches, duration and assessment strategies;
 provide frequent feedback to the learners and trainers; and
 use feedback for ongoing adjustments in the learning process.

Revision and Amendment (After Piloting)

Once the material has been piloted, the developer needs to:
 26

 amend it, as necessary, in accordance with feedback from those involved in

the trial run
 To meet the needs of learners, trainers and industry, based on data gathered
during the
 Pilot process; and
 prepare the ground, or market it, for full implementation.

Implementation

At this stage it is considered that the material can be used to deliver the
programme.However, care must be taken to ensure that the material would
continue to:
 support acquisition of relevant and appropriate knowledge, skills and
attributes;
 show linkage of learning activities and the world of work;
 address issues of content and application;
 provide formative and summative evaluation, as well as feedback; and
 determine assessment resources;

Evaluation

Revision and review of the material should be done regularly, and must, as much
as possible be linked to that of the relevant curriculum/programme/module. In
order to determine the value factor of the material, evaluation instruments must be
developed and implemented to:
 determine the correlation between the identified needs and the impact of the
material on learner’s performance
 establish support of learning material by learners, trainers and industry; and
 establish content and structural correctness.

2.3 Guidelines for Designing Effective English Teaching Materials

Teacher designed materials may range from one-off, single use items to extensive
programmes of work where the tasks and activities build on each other to create a
coherent progression of skills, concepts and language items. 11The guidelines that
follow may act as a useful framework for teachers as they navigate the range of
factors and variables to develop materials for their own teaching situations. The
guidelines are offered as just that – guidelines – not rules to be rigidly applied or
adhered to. While not all the guidelines will be relevant or applicable in all

11
Jocelyn Howard Christchurch College of Education
Jae Major Christchurch College of Education https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237476568
 27
materials design scenarios, overall they provide for coherent design and materials
which enhance the learning experience.
Guideline 1: English language teaching materials should be contextualised
Firstly, the materials should be contextualised to the curriculum they are intended
to address (Nunan, 1988, pp. 1–2). It is essential during the design stages that the
objectives of the curriculum, syllabus or scheme within the designer’s institution
are kept to the fore. This is not to suggest that materials design should be solely
determined by a list of course specifications or by large inventories of vocabulary
that need to be imparted, but these are certainly among the initial considerations.
Materials should also be contextualised to the experiences, realities and first
languages of the learners. An important part of this involves an awareness on the
part of the teacher-designer of the “socio-cultural appropriacy” (Jolly & Bolitho,
1998, p. 111) of things such as the designer’s own style of presenting material, of
arranging groups, and so on. It is essential the materials designer is informed about
the culture-specific learning processes of the intended learners, and for many
groups this may mean adjusting the intended balance of what teachers may regard
as more enjoyable activities and those of a more serious nature. Materials should
link explicitly to what the learners already know, to their first languages and
cultures, and very importantly, should alert learners to any areas of significant
cultural difference. In addition, materials should be contextualised to topics and
themes that provide meaningful, purposeful uses for the target language. Wherever
possible, these should be chosen on the basis of their relevance and
appropriateness for the intended learners, to ensure personal engagement and to
provide motivation for dipping further into the materials. For some ages and stages
the topics may well be ‘old faithfuls’, such as money, family and holidays. Part of
the mission for the materials designer is “to find new angles on those topics” (Bell
& Gower, 1998, p. 123) and having done that, to develop activities which will
ensure purposeful production of the target language or skills. When producing
materials for one-off use with smaller groups, additional student engagement can
be achieved by allowing students to ‘star’ in the passages and texts that have been
designed specifically for them.
Guideline 2: Materials should stimulate interaction and be generative in terms of
language Hall (1995) states that “most people who learn to communicate fluently
in a language which is not their L1 do so by spending a lot of time in situations
where they have to use the language for some real communicative purpose” (p. 9).
Ideally, language-teaching materials should provide situations that demand the
same; situations where learners need to interact with each other regularly in a
manner that reflects the type of interactions they will engage in outside of the
classroom. Hall outlines three conditions he believes are necessary to stimulate real
communication: these are the need to “have something we want to communicate”,
“someone to communicate with”, and, perhaps most importantly, “some interest in
the outcome of the communication” (p. 9). Nunan (1988) refers to this as the
“learning by doing philosophy” (p. 8), and suggests procedures such as
information gap and information transfer activities, which can be used to ensure
that interaction is necessary. Language learning will be maximally enhanced if
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materials designers are able to acknowledge the communication challenges
inherent in an interactive teaching approach and address the different norms of
interaction, such as preferred personal space, for example, directly within their
teaching materials.
Effective learning frequently involves learners in explorations of new linguistic
terrain, and interaction can often be the medium for providing the ‘stretch’ that is
necessary for ongoing language development. Materials designers should ensure
their materials allow sufficient scope for their learners to be ‘stretched’ at least
some of the time, to build on from what is provided to generate new language, and
to progress beyond surface fluency to proficiency and confidence.
Guideline 3: English language teaching materials should encourage learners to
develop learning skills and strategies It is impossible for teachers to teach their
learners all the language they need to know in the short time that they are in the
classroom. In addition to teaching valuable new language skills, it is essential that
language teaching materials also teach their target learners how to learn, and that
they help them to take advantage of language learning opportunities outside the
classroom. Hall (1995) stresses the importance of providing learners with the
confidence to persist in their attempts to find solutions when they have initial
difficulties in communicating. To this end, strategies such as rewording and using
facial expressions and body language effectively can be fine-tuned with well
designed materials. In addition, materials can provide valuable opportunities for
self-evaluation by providing the necessary metalanguage and incorporating
activities which encourage learners to assess their own learning and language
development. This can utilise the learners’ first language as well as English. Some
EFL course books, such as Ellis & Sinclair (1989), also build in exercises for
students to explore their own learning styles and strategies. Guideline 4: English
language teaching materials should allow for a focus on form as well as Function
Frequently, the initial motivation for designing materials stems from practitioners’
desires to make activities more communicative—often as “an antidote to the
profusion of skillsbased activities and artificial language use pervasive in the field
of ESL instruction” (Demetrion, 1997, p. 5). Sometimes, though, in the desire to
steer a wide berth around this more traditional approach, materials are developed
which allow absolutely no scope for a focus on language form. The aim of
Guideline 3 is to develop active, independent language learners. To help meet this
goal, materials also need to encourage learners to take an analytical approach to the
language in front of and around them, and to form and test their own hypotheses
about how language works (Nunan, 1988). Well-designed materials can help
considerably with this by alerting learners to underlying forms and by providing
opportunities for regulated practice in addition to independent and creative
expression.
Guideline 5: English language teaching materials should offer opportunities for
integrated language use
Language teaching materials can tend to focus on one particular skill in a
somewhat unnatural manner. Some courses have a major focus on productive
skills, and in these reading and listening become second-rate skills. With other
 29
materials, reading or writing may dominate. Bell & Gower (1998) point out that,
“at the very least we listen and speak together, and read and write together” (p.
125). Ideally, materials produced should give learners opportunities to integrate all
the language skills in an authentic manner and to become competent at integrating
extra-linguistic factors also. Guideline 6: English language teaching materials
should be authentic
Much space has been devoted in language teaching literature to debating the
desirability (and otherwise) of using authentic materials in language teaching
classrooms and, indeed, to defining exactly what constitutes genuine versus
simulated texts (e.g., Harmer, 1998; Hedge, 2000; Nunan, 1988, 1991). It is the
authors’ view that it is imperative for second language learners to be regularly
exposed in the classroom to real, unscripted language—to passages that have not
been produced specifically for language learning purposes. As Nunan points out,
“texts written specifically for the classroom generally distort the language in some
way” (1988, p. 6). When the aim for authenticity in terms of the texts presented to
learners is discussed, a common tendency is to immediately think of written
material such as newspapers and magazines. Materials designers should also aim
for authentic spoken and visual texts. Learners need to hear, see and read the way
native speakers communicate with each other naturally. Arguably more important
than the provision of authentic texts, is authenticity in terms of the tasks which
students are required to perform with them. Consideration of the types of real-
world tasks specific groups of learners commonly need to perform will allow
designers to generate materials where both the texts and the things learners are
required to do with them reflect the language and behaviors required of them in the
world outside the classroom.
Guideline 7: English language teaching materials should link to each other to
develop a progression of skills, understandings and language items One potential
pitfall for teacher-designed materials mentioned in the first part of this article
relates to the organisation within and between individual tasks. There is a very real
danger with self-designed and adapted materials that the result can be a hotchpotch
of unconnected activities. Clearly stated objectives at the outset of the design
process will help ensure that the resultant materials have coherence, and that they
clearly progress specific learning goals while also giving opportunities for
repetition and reinforcement of earlier learning.
Guideline 8: English language teaching materials should be attractive
Criteria for evaluating English language teaching materials and course books
frequently include reference to the ‘look’ and the ‘feel’ of the product (see, for
example, Harmer, 1998; Nunan, 1991). Some aspects of these criteria that are
particularly pertinent to materials designers are discussed below.
Physical appearance: Initial impressions can be as important in the language
classroom as they are in many other aspects of life. Put simply, language-teaching
materials should be good to look at! Factors to consider include the density of the
text on the page, the type size, and the cohesiveness and consistency of the layout.
User-friendliness: Materials should also be attractive in terms of their ‘usability’.
Some simple examples: if the activity is a gap-fill exercise, is there enough space
 30
for learners to handwrite their responses? If an oral response is required during a
tape or video exercise, is the silence long enough to allow for both thinking and
responding? Durabilty: If materials need to be used more than once, or if they are
to be used by many different students, consideration needs to be given to how they
can be made robust enough to last the required distance. Ability to be reproduced:
Language teaching institutions are not renowned for giving their staff unlimited
access to colour copying facilities, yet many do-it-yourself materials designers
continue to produce eye-catching multi-coloured originals, and suffer frustration
and disappointment when what emerges from the photocopier is a class-set of grey
blurs.
Guideline 9: English language teaching materials should have appropriate
instructions. This guideline applies as much to the instructions that are provided
for other teachers who may use the materials, as it does for the intended learners. It
seems to be stating the obvious to say that instructions should be clear, but, often,
excellent materials fail in their “pedagogical realisation” (Jolly & Bolitho, 1998, p.
93) because of a lack of clarity in their instructions. For instructions to be effective,
they should be written in language that is appropriate for the target learners, and
the use of the correct metalanguage can assist with making instructions more
concise and efficient.
Guideline 10: English language teaching materials should be flexible
This final guideline is directed primarily at longer series of materials rather than at
oneoff tasks, but has pertinence to both. Prabhu (cited in Cook, c. 1998) maintains
that much of a student’s language learning is “mediated by the materials and
course books the teacher uses in terms of both language content and teaching
technique” (p. 3). He proposes constructing materials that allow teachers and
students to make choices—at least some of the time.

CONCLUSION

Teacher-developed materials boost not only effective learning settings and

outcomes, but also teachers’ pedagogical practice/performance. On the one hand,
students’ self-confidence and self-worth will be enhanced as a result of learning at
their own pace, in their own styles, and in an enjoyable, non-threatening
atmosphere that will keep their motivation up. On the other hand, opportune
teachers’ decision-making will foster a harmonious and efficient development of
their classes and the accomplishment of students’ learning objectives. Effective
materials make learners feel comfortable and confident because both the content
and type of activities are perceived by them as significant and practical to their
lives. However, the teaching materials by themselves are not sufficient to create
effective teaching and learning settings since a lively EFL/ESL classroom depends
largely on good materials used in creative and resourceful ways. Therefore, in the
 31
materials designed, language teachers need to lead their students to have materials
interact appropriately with their needs and interests in order to facilitate learning.
There have been a number of movements which have attempted to develop
materials free approaches to the teaching of languages and but it is commonly
accepted that in most language classrooms throughout the world most lessons are
still based on materials. Richards , for example, observes that “instructional
materials generally serve as the basis of much of the language input that learners
receive and the language practice that occurs in the classroom”. It is also
commonly accepted that most language teachers use coursebooks and that no
coursebook can meet the needs and wants of every (or even any) class. This means
that “Every teacher is a materials developer” regardless of the depth of their
relections, participants in this study have come to understand that, as stated by
garton and graves, quoting edge and garton “the teacher’s purpose is not to teach
materials at all: the purpose is to teach the learners and the materials are there to
serve that purpose”. it is possible to say that the design of teaching materials in the
teacher education process is not a solution for all challenges that teacher educators
have, but it can certainly bring some inspiring contribution, as this study has
shown, because it grants (student) teachers opportunities to have an active role in
the planning, designing and redesigning of their own practice, considering situated
contexts. Behind this discussion of materials looms the larger issue of teacher
development and teacher responsibility; materials development is simply one more
element within the larger concept of teachers taking responsibility for what
happens in their classes. If we are to be reflective practitioners in the field of ELT,
we need to consider all aspects of our teaching. I believe that preparing our own
materials is one of these aspects.

RESYUME

Ushbu kurs ishi chet tillarini o’qitishda foydalaniladigan turli o’qitish

materiallari, ularning turlari va shu kabi materiallarni tayyorlashda talab
qilinadigan mezonlarga bag'ishlangan. Shuni aytib o’tish joizki, o’quv materiallari,
shu jumladan, darsliklar, jurnal va boshqa turdagi adabiyotlardan foydalanmasdan
darsni samarali tashkil qilish va olib borish mushkul ekanligini hisobga olib, har
bir o’qituvchi dars jarayonida o’zi foydalanadigan materiallar haqida aniq
tushunchaga ega bo’lishi shu bilan birga, o’zi ham material yarata olish ko’nikma
va bilimlariga ega bo’lishi talab qilinadi.
Ma’lumki, o’quv materiallarini loyihalash, ularni dars jarayonigacha saralab,
o’quvchilar ehtiyojiga moslashtirish darsni tashkil qilishning muhim
komponentlaridan biri hisoblanadi. Kurs ishi yaratilishida Brian Tomlinsonning
Materials Development kitobi hamda shunga asoslanib yaratilgan boshqa
materiallar tayanch manbalar hisoblanadi. Brian Tomlinson MATSDA(The
Materials Development Association) – xalqaro materiallar tayyorlash
assotsatsiyasiga 1993 yilda asos solgan. Bu assotsatsiya xorijiy va ikkinchi chet tili
 32
o’rganuvchilarga sifatli materiallarni ishlab chiqish va bu ishda hamkorlik uchun
o’qituvchilar, olimlar, yozuvchi va nashriyotchilarni jalb qilish maqsadida tashkil
etilgan.
O‘tilayotgan darsda talabalarga axborot yetkazish, ularni darsni puxta
o‘zlashtirishlari va faol qatnashishlarini ta‘minlashda tarqatma materiallarning
ahamiyati katta.
Darslarda tarqatma materiallardan foydalanish tobora keng qo‘llanilmoqda.
Tarqatiladigan materialning muhim ijobiy tomoni shundaki, u bevosita talabaning
qo‘lida bo‘lib, uzoqdan ko‘rsatiladigan ko‘rgazmali qurollarga xos
kamchiliklardan holi.
Material tayyorlash jarayoni ham o’z ichiga bir qancha bosqichlarni qamrab
oladi. Birinchi qismda nazariy ma’lumotlar keltirilgan bo’lsa, ikkinchi qism amaliy
hisoblanadi. Kurs ishi kirish, ikkita bo’lim, xulosa, rezyume va
foydlanalilgandabiyotlar ro’yxatini o’z ichiga oladi. Kurs ishida dars uchun
materiallar tayyorlash jarayoni, materiallar haqida ma’lumotlar shu kabi qator
ma’lumotlar keltirib o’tilgan.

THE LIST OF USED LITERATURE

1. Tomlinson, Brian Developing Materials for

Language Teaching Chapters from
the first edition© Brian Tomlinson
and Contributors, 2014
2. Freda Mishan and Ivor Materials Development for TESOL
Timmis Edinburgh University Press Ltd 2015
3. Mcgrath, Ian Materials Evaluation and Design for
Language Teaching (2nd
edition)2016
4. Dat Bao Creativity and innovations in ELT
material development
5. Peter R Fleming Guidelines for developing learning
material, BOTA, July 2005
6. Kumar, K.L. (1996). Educational Technology.
New Delhi: New Age International.
 33
7. CLAIR The Teaching Materials Collection,
© 2013, Council of Local Authorities
for International Relations
8. Cunningsworth.A (1984): Evaluating and Selecting
ELT Materials. Oxford: Heinemann.

THE LIST OF USES DICTIONARIES

1.Sweet H.A. New English Grammar and
Historical Oxford. – 1998.
2.Rosalind Comply, Macmillan English Dictionary.-
Elizabeth Potter. Malaysia 2012

3.Fowler H.W. A Dictionary of Modern English

Usage. – London 2000.
4.Merriam W Merriam-Webster Dictionary.
London 2004

THE LIST OF USED WEBSITES

1. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237476568

2. https://classroom.synonym.com/design-teaching-material-5762889.html

3. https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/projects-materials-design

4. https://bridge.edu/tefl/blog/creating-materials-efl-classroom/