Carbohydrates are polyhydroxyaldehyde or
Reactions of the Hexoses
polyhydroxyketone or substance that yield these compounds
on hydrolysis. They are called "polyhydroxy" because they
contains several alcohol group and "aldehyde" or "ketone"
because they contains a carbonyl group or C=O.
Example: Glucose is an example of a carbohydrate containing
an aldehyde. A carbohydrate containing aldehyde is called
aldose.
Example:Fructose is an example of a carbohydrate containing
a ketone, A carbohydrate containing ketone is called ketose,
Sources of carbohydrates:
 Plant foods such as fruits, vegetables, peas and beans
 Milk and milk products are the only foods derived from
animals that contain a significant amount of
carbohydrates.
Biological Importance:
 Body fuel glucose is the major fuel for all of the body's
cells and the only source of energy for the brain and red
blood cells.
 Go for unrefined foods, beware of refined ones. Refined
foods offer far if any, of the vitamins and minerals that
are important to the health. In addition, if eaten in
excess, especially over a period of many years, the large
amounts of simple carbohydrates can lead to a number
of disorders, including diabetes and hypoglycemia.
Refined foods provide unwanted calories. Large
amounts of sugar do not require much digestion
thereby passing directly to bloodstream, giving rise to a
rapid increase in blood sugar level.
 Carbohydrate helps athletes to reach optimal
performance. Carbohydrates take less oxygen to burn
than proteins or fat.
 Carbohydrates: 55-65 percent of energy
 Proteins:10-15 percent of energy
 Low fat:25-30 percent of energy
 They are vital source of energy needed for normal brain
functioning, maintenance of glycogen stores, and
sparing of muscles breakdown for energy. An increase in
carbohydrates, 600grams per day, can raise the
glycogen content of the muscle. Sports scientists agree
that increased glycogen stores in the muscle can
increase sports performance by sustaining high-intensity
endurance exercise.
Classification of Carbohydrates:
I. According to complexity
1.) Monosaccharides carbohydrates which are simplest and
can not be hydrolyzed into simpler ones.
Example: glucose
2.) Oligosaccharides - carbohydrates which can be
hydrolyzed into 2-10 monosaccharide units.
Example: disaccharides - sucrose, lactose
trisaccharides - raffinose
3.) Polysaccharides - carbohydrates that can be hydrolyzed
into more than 10 monosaccharide units.
Example: starch, cellulose
II. According to type of carbonyl group
1.) aldoses- carbohydrates containing aldehyde group
2.) ketoses- carbohydrates containing ketone group
III. According to number of carbon atoms
1.) trioses- carbohydrates containing three carbon atoms.
Example:
glyceraldehyde, dihydroacetone
2.) tetroses- carbohydrates containing four carbons. Example:
erythrose, erythrulose
3.) pentoses- carbohydrates containing five carbons. Example:
xylose,ribose
4.) hexoses -carbohydrates containing six carbons. Example:
glucose,galactose
Reactions of the Carbohydrates:
I.
A. Reducing property (basis for the test for sugar in the
urine and in the blood)
 the reducing property of hexoses is due to free
aldehyde or ketone group (e.g. fructose)
 the alkaline metals are reduced and the hexose is
transformed into organic acids
B. Oxidation
 If aldehyde end of molecule is oxidized, the acid is
named by changing the ending of the hexoses "ose" to
"onic", and attached the word acid.
 If alcohol part found opposite side of the aldehyde is
oxidized, the acid is named by changing the ending of
the hexoses "oses" to "uronic" and attached the word
acid.
 If both the aldehyde and and alcohol part of the
molecules are oxidized, the acid is called saccharic acid.
The acid is named by changing the ending of the
hexoses "ose" to "aric" and attached the word acid.
C. Reduction
 aldohexoses can be reduced to alcohols
 the accumulation of sorbitol in the eyes is a major factor
in the formation of cataracts because of diabetes
D. Fermentation
 Glucose ferments in the presence of yeast, forming
ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide. The reaction will not
readily occur in the absence of yeast. Yeast contains
certain enzymes that catalyze this particular reaction.
 invertase is an enzyme used got hydrolysis of sucrose
(sugar), forming glucose and fructose
 galactose will not readily ferment
 pentoses do not ferment in the presence of yeast
II. Reactions of the Disaccharides
A. Reducing power
 the reducing power of disaccharide is due to a free
hemi-acetal OH which form back to C=O.
 Haworth projection of maltose-maltose is a
disaccharide composed of two glucose units.
 Haworth projection of lactose- lactose is a disaccharide
composed of a galactose and a glucose.
 Haworth projection of sucrose- sucrose is a
disaccharide composed of a fructose and a glucose.
 Haworth projection of raffinose- raffinose is a
trisaccharide composed of a galactose, a glucose and a
fructose.
B. Fermentation
 yeast contains sucrase and maltase but it does not
contain lactase.
Therefore, Fermentation of disaccharide using yeast can not
be used to differentiate specific disaccharide such as sucrose,
maltose and lactose.
Barfoed's Test:
 It is used to distinguish monosaccharide from
disaccharide.
 Solution employed is cupric acetate in weak acetic acid
 The monosaccharide will reduce Cu² to Cu' forming a
brick red precipitate of cuprous oxide
Results with Barfoed's reagent:
Monosaccharide = (+) positive test
→ Disaccharide = (-) negative test
THE MONOSACCHARIDES
A. The Hexoses - most common of all the carbohydrates.
Glucose, galactose and fructose are the most important as far
as the human body is concerned.
1.) GLUCOSE
 The d-isomer of glucose is the biologically active isomer.
 Commonly known as DEXTROSE, or grape sugar.
 It is a white crystalline solid that is soluble in water and
insoluble in most organic liquids.
 It is found in many fruit juices, along with fructose.
 It can be prepared by the hydrolysis of sucrose, or by
the hydrolysis of starch.
 It is the most important monosaccharide, normally
found in the bloodstream and in the tissue fluids.
 Glucose can be given intravenously to patients who are
unable to take food by mouth (for the fact that it
requires no digestion)
 When glucose is found in the urine of patients suffering
from DIABETES mellitus and is an indication of the
disease; presence of glucose in the urine is called
GLYCOSURIA. This is because the renal threshold
(kidney) is exceeded.
The Hormones involved in Regulating Blood Sugar:
The liver plays a vital function in controlling the normal
blood sugar level by removing sugar from and adding sugar
to the blood through these three hormones.
1.) INSULIN
 It is produced by the beta cells of the islets of
langerhans in the pancreas.
 It transformed glucose to glycogen (GLYCOGENESIS) in
the muscles and in the liver.
 It has the principal function of removing glucose from
the bloodstream and a consequent lowering of the
blood sugar level.
2.) EPINEPHRINE
 It is secreted by the medulla of the adrenal glands.
 It converts glycogen to glucose (GLYCO GENOLYSIS) in
the liver
3.) GLUCAGON
 It is produced by the alpha cells of the pancreas.
 It is raises blood sugar levels by stimulating the activity
of the enzyme phosphorylase in the liver, which
changes liver glycogen to glucose.
Diabetes Mellitus- When the amount of insulin is decreased
or eliminated, either because of decreased activity of the
islets of langerhans, or by the degeneration of these cells,
the blood sugar level will increased thereby causing diabetes
mellitus.
Note: Other effect of the lack of insulin in diabetes
leads to an increased oxidation of fatty acids.
This is done by the accumulation of acetoacetic acid,
betahydroxybutyric acid and acetone (known as ketone
bodies). Ketone bodies are used by the skeletal and heart
muscles to produce ATP. Accumulation of ketone bodies in
the bloods, higher than the normal concentration in the
blood is known as KETOSIS. It affects blood pH by lowering it
leading to a condition known as ACIDOSIS. Acidosis reduces
the ability of hemoglobin to carry oxygen and if prolonged
causes NAUSEA, then depression of the central nervous
system, severe dehydration, deep coma (known as diabetic
coma), and finally death.
Thus, there should be prompt injection of insulin. Insulin is a
protein, so it is administered by injection, not orally because
it would be digested, as are all proteins.
HYPOGLYCEMIA- When blood sugar level is below normal
causing the brain to starve for glucose. Symptoms of mild
hypoglycemia are irritability, dizziness, Tethargy, grogginess,
fainting while for severe hypoglycemia are convulsion,
shock, coma. Severe hypoglycemia happens due to
overproduction or over injection of insulin, a condition called
hyperinsulinism. Hyperinsulinism is due to the blood sugar
level drops to extremely rapidly, causing the person to
go into convulsion and coma called insulin shock.
DIABETES INSIPIDUS
It is characterized by an extremely high urine flow due to lack
of anti diuretics that regulate urine flow. Anti-diuretics such
as VASOPRESSIN, an anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) produced
by the pituitary gland located just under the brain. It also
enable the kidney to reabsorb water from the urine.
Symptoms:
 intense thirst
 frequent urination
This is due to water loss that may lead to dehydration. But
diabetes insipidus is treatable by replacing vasopressin
through nasal spray.
Note: Diabetes means to pass through, while mellitus means
sweet and insipidus means without taste.
2.) GALACTOSE
 It is not found naturally as a free monosaccharide but it
can be found from the hydrolysis of larger
carbohydrates.
 It is part of lactose, the sugar in milk, thus, it is part of
our diets from birth.
 It is also found in glycolipids, fat-like substances that are
components of the brain and nervous system.
 It is converted to glucose in the liver by a specific
enzyme called an epimerase.
Galactosemia - a severe inherited disease which results in
the inability of infants to metabolize galactose, causing an
increased galactose concentration in the blood and urine
(GALACTOSURIA). The deficiency of either the enzyme
galactose 1-phosphate uridyl transferase or the enzyme
galactokinase. The galactose 1-phosphate uridyl transferase
catalyzes the formation if glucose from galactose; increased
concentration of galactose in blood may
lead to its being reduced to galacticol in the eye which causes
cataract. If galactose continues to accumulate, liver failure
and mental retardation will occur.
3.) FRUCTOSE
 It is ketohexose, often called levulose, or fruit sugar
 It occurs naturally in fruit juices and honey
 It can be prepared from the hydrolysis of sucrose
 It is most soluble and also the sweetest of all sugars
Fructosemia is fructose intolerance, it is inherited disease
due to a deficiency of the enzyme fructose 1-phosphate
aldolase; an infant suffering from this disease experiences
hypoglycemia, vomiting, and severe malnutrition; treated by
placing the infant on a low-fructose diet.
THE DISACCHARIDES
General Characteristics of disaccharides:
 They are white, crystalline, sweet solids
 Sucrose, maltose, and lactose are the common
disaccharides
 Sucrose is very soluble in water, maltose is fairly soluble,
and lactose is only slightly soluble, they are too large to
pass through cell membranes.
 Formed by the combination of 2 monosaccharides
1.) SUCROSE
 It is used ordinarily in the home, known as cane sugar,
produced commercially from sugar cane and sugar
beets, also found in sorghum, pineapple, and carrot
roots.
 When hydrolyzed produces a mixture of glucose and
fructose; this 50:50 mixture is called invert sugar
because it reverses rotation of polarized light.
 Honey contains high percentage of invert sugar.
2.) MALTOSE
 It is produced from the incomplete hydrolysis of starch,
glycogen or dextrin.
 It is produced from grains germinated under controlled
condition, thus called MALT sugar, which is used in the
manufacture of beer.
3.) LACTOSE
 It is present in milk, thus called milk sugar.
 It has animal origin (mammary glands of mammals)
 The action of certain bacteria causes it to ferment lactic
acid.
 It is used in high calcium diets and in infant foods.
 It is also found in urine of pregnant women, and since it
is a reducing sugar, it gives a positive test with Cu
complex ion (e.g. Benedict's reagent)
Lactose Intolerance:
 It is caused by the lack of the enzyme lactose that is
required hydrolyze lactose resulting to the
accumulation of lactose in the intestinal tract and pulls
water out of the tissues by osmosis causing diarrhea,
abdominal cramps, and distention.
 As an individual ages or gets old, the levels of lactose
decrease resulting to lactose intolerance.
 People who suffer from lactose intolerance are still able
to eat cheese. yogurt, and other cooked foods that
contain milk (which contains lactose) simple because
the lactose found in these foods are hydrolyzed when
these foods are fermented or cooked.
 An individual suffering from lactose intolerance may
take LACTAID orally to supply the missing enzyme.
THE POLYSACCHARIDES
General Characteristics of polysaccharides:
 They are polymers of monosaccharides
 Complete hydrolysis of polysaccharides produces many
molecules of monosaccharides
Types of Polysaccharides
A.) Pentosans- polysaccharides formed from pentoses
B.) Hexosans/Glucosans
 polysaccharides formed from hexoses
 they are the most important in terms of physiology
 have a general formula of (CHO), where x is some large
number
 Examples are starch, cellulose, glycogen and dextrin.
These are some common hexoses, which are all made
up of only glucose molecules.
B1. STARCH
 It is a stored energy in plants
 A mixture of amylopectin and amylose
 Amylopectin is a branched polysaccharide while
amylose is a non branched polysaccharide.
 Insoluble in water
 With boiling water, it raptures to form a paste that gels
on cooling, when small amount is added to a large
amount of boiling water, a colloidal dispersion will form.
 It gives a characteristic deep blue color with iodine,
which changes to colorless upon heating.
I2 test: a conclusive test for starch
iodo-starch complex (blue) colorless
Note: The colorless is due to the iodine-starch bonds are weak
that the increase in temperature, the iodine is being ejected
out.
Hydrolysis of starch
Starch dextrins maltose glucose
Note: Dextrin, which could be amylodextrin (purple) or
erythrodextrin (red), or achrodextrin. The different
characteristic colors are due to the addition of iodine.
Maltose and glucose are both colorless.
B2. CELLULOSE
 Like starch, it is composed of many glucose units
 It can not be digested in the human system due to the
absence of the appropriate enzyme, but serves a
purpose when eaten with other foods because it gives
bulk to the feces and prevents constipation.
 Cellulose is the supporting and structural substance of
plants
 It does not dissolve in water, or in most ordinary
solvents
 It gives no color with iodine and gives negative test with
Cu²+ complex ion
The Case of Dietary Fibers:
 The high-fiber carbohydrates are digested more slowly
so that blood sugar level does not rise as quickly. Thus,
incidence of diabetes mellitus is reduced.
 Dietary fibers include cellulose, lignin, pectins, gums,
and pentosans which can not be digested by the
enzymes in the digestive tract. It is referred to in the
past as "rouphage", they move through the
gastrointestinal tract and ends up in the stool.
Important Health Benefits:
 retain water, resulting in softer and bulkier stools that
prevent constipation and hemorrhoids
 reduces the risk of colon cancer, perhaps by speeding
the rate at which stool passes through the intestine and
by keeping the digestive tract clean.
 Binds with certain substances that would normally
result in the production of cholesterol, eliminating these
substances from the body, helps lower blood
cholesterol levels, thus reducing the risk of heart
disease.
Kinds of Fibers:
a.) Soluble- in wide variety of food such as apples, oats,
green vegetables
b.) Insoluble - bran in grains, pulp of fruits, skin of vegetables
Note: Cotton is pure cellulose
B3. GLYCOGEN
 It is an animal carbohydrate, present in the body and is
stored in the liver and muscles, where it serves as a
reserve supply of glucose.
 It has a similar structure with amylopectin but more
highly branched
 Forms a colloidal dispersion in water and gives a red
color with iodine.
 In the body cells;
B4. DEXTRIN
 It is produced during the hydrolysis of starch, an
intermediate between starch and maltose.
 It forms a sticky colloidal suspensions with water used in
the preparation of adhesives
 It is used when digestion of starch might be a problem,
as with infants and elderly persons.