Skid resistance of road

pavement surfaces
Yves BROSSEAUD
Laboratoire Central des Ponts et Chaussées

Valéry LE TURDU
Laboratoire régional des Ponts et Chaussées d’Angers

71

PRESENTATION OF THE CARAT MEASUREMENT

AND DATABASE FILE

Knowledge of the skid resistance characteristics of road surfacing materials and their evolution over
time when submitted to traffic loads constitutes one key information component for guiding infra-
structure technicians and managers in the choice of site-specific techniques. For road-building con-
tractors, determining performance ranges by type of technique serves to position the performance of
the new products they introduce.

Within the scope of improving road safety conditions, the skid resistance of surfacing is directly
involved. A complete understanding and establishment of performance evolution laws under traffic
loads entails strong knowledge of field conditions, along with an analysis of reliable and pertinent
measurements.

Since 1986 and in collaboration with the LCPC laboratory, the Angers regional Ponts et Chaussées
(LRPC) facility has compiled a computerized database, called "CARAT" (French acronym for "Skid
resistance and Texture Characteristics of Surfacing materials"); this database contains both longitu-
dinal friction coefficient (BFC) measurements and texture measurements, in addition to information
on site localization, type of surfacing mix constituents and cumulative truck traffic loads.

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 The three LRPC measurement sources (Lille, Bordeaux and Lyon) have conducted tests using the
ADHERA 2 trailer in compliance with Standard NF P 98-220-2. Test speeds lie between 40 and
120 km/hr. The wetting condition has been set at a 1-mm water height*.

The CARAT data file is expanded every year by hundreds of additional measurements; it now com-
prises over 8,000 data records. All types of pavement surfacing are included therein, i.e. the various
asphalt mixes, whether standardized or not (85% of the database), such as ultra-thin asphalt con-
cretes (UTAC), microsurfacing (MAC for micro asphalt concrete) or surface dressing (SD) (7% of the
database) and cement concretes (CC) (3%).

Figure 1 provides the distribution of surfacing materials contained within the CARAT database, for
measurements taken with both the "90 tire" (1986-2003 period) and the new "98 tire" (from 2000 to
present day)**.

7,563 data records for the 1990 tire (between 1986 and 2003)

Cold-AC 1% Other 2%
SD 5%
Cement SCAC 11%
UTAC 5% concrete 3%
TAC 7%

RecyAC 3%

72
PA 20%

MAC 5% VTAC 37%

CAC 1%

516 data records for the 1998 tire (between 2000 and 2003)

Cement concrete 1%
SD 8% SCAC 4%
Other TAC 4%
PA 12% 2%

MAC 3%

VTAC 66%

legend:
‡ Figure 1 SCAC: Semi Coarse Asphalt concrete
Distribution of data held in the CARAT database, by type of road surfacing, CAC: Chipped Asphalt concrete
for the two measurement tires (tires 90 and 98) PA: Porous Asphalt

* See article by Michel Gothié in this special issue.

** See Appendix of this article.

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The various surfacing materials have been combined as follows:
¾ by surfacing material family: UTAC, SD, MS, cement concrete, etc.;
¾ by particle size range* or maximum aggregate size: 6, 8 (occasionally), 10 or 14 mm;
¾ by standardized composition:
– very thin asphalt concretes (VTAC) of either category 1 (standard) or 2 ("open like porous
asphalt"),
– thin asphalt concretes (TAC) according to categories a, b or c, depending on whether the particle
size distribution curve is heavily, slightly or not at all discontinuous;
¾ the nature of the binder or admixture, depending on the product.
With respect to changes in process technologies, special emphasis has been paid to new surfacing
materials produced during the 1980's and 1990's, such as porous asphalt (PA), VTAC and, more
recently, UTAC, MS and fine-grain 0/6 macadam overlays or mixes made of recycled materials.
A global analysis of the database does not yield an overall view of the network, but does allow objec-
tively comparing the surfacing families. The database ascribes more weight to those techniques capa-
ble of offering a greater level of skid resistance at high speeds (especially in the motorway sector).
As an illustration using the CARAT database, Figure 2 shows the distribution in surfacing techniques
on both the national road network (source: SETRA, 2000) and among the toll motorways [1].

Motorways a

Other
3%
PA 14%
VTAC 39%

73

SCAC 36%
TAC 8%

National highways b

Other UTAC
8% 1%
VTAC 14%

SD 17%

MAC 2%

PA 5%

TAC 23%

SCAC 30%

‡ Figure 2
Distribution of the surfacing materials on:
a - 9,500 km of concessionary motorways,
b - 28,000 km of national highways

* Dimension of the coarsest aggregates.

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 The evolution in properties of wear-induced skid resistance is incorporated via the five categories of
cumulative truck traffic (CTT) (with rolling loads above 50 kN). The various CTT categories have
been defined in Table I.

TABLE I
Traffic categories and estimated correspondence with daily traffic and pavement age

State of
Estimated duration depending upon daily traffic
surfacing

Category Cumulative traffic 50 trucks 150 trucks 300 trucks 750 trucks 2 000 trucks

C1 < 20,000 1 year 4 months 2 months 1 month 10 days New

C2 < 200,000 10 years 3 1/2 years 2 years 9 months 3 months Recent
C3 < 1,000,000 18 years 9 years 3 1/2 years 1 year Medium age
C4 < 5,000,000 18 years 7 years Old
C5 > 5,000,000 10 years Very old

INTERPRETATION OF THE CARAT DATABASE FILE

The BFC variation curves vs. speed are generated over a reference range*, which combines all types
of surfacing materials and which has been established from thousands of measurements conducted
on an array of French road surfacing materials [2].
The BFC friction measurements enable both characterizing surfacing on-site and evaluating perfor-
mance in comparison with "averages" obtained (over a range spanning from the 1 st through
74 9th deciles) for comparable sites and a given traffic category.
It would be useful at this point to recall that these measurements correspond to a friction condition
under total sliding, without any contribution from the tire in draining the water film [3]. More spe-
cifically, these measurements translate a braking condition for vehicles not equipped with an
antilock system in a mode of emergency reaction with locked wheels**.

Recall of quantitative data

This study will focus on heavy traffic categories (C3 through C5), in order to highlight the impact of
surfacing on the level of actual road skid resistance, particularly over the medium and long term in
service. The C1 or C2 traffic categories pertain to the state of new or recent surfacing and thereby
make it possible to monitor early-age behavior. The findings however, notably in category C1, are
rather dispersed due to the relatively quick stripping of binder film on the aggregate, the high levels
of traffic encountered, and the works execution schedule.
The results provided below contain average values for traffic categories C3 through C5, i.e. the pri-
mary families of mixes used both for new road-building (typically thick or thin SCAC or TAC) and
for maintenance work on surface layers (PA, VTAC, UTAC, recycled AC). They have been arranged
by increasing particle size (or maximum dimension).
These average values may only be considered significant once the test series has reached at least fif-
teen data elements; moreover, they merely yield a general trend over the range between five and fif-
teen units. Such a trend naturally needs to be confirmed by means of a new series of measurements.
Tables II through XI, which have been laid out by increasing grain size and level of traffic, list the
measurement populations and average values in terms of BFC at different speed (40, 80, 120 km/h):
BFC 40, BFC 80 and BFC 120 by type of surfacing [4].

* Established in 1980.
** See article by Yves Delanne in this issue.

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C3 TRAFFIC CATEGORY (TABLES II THROUGH V)

TABLE II
Surfacing materials with fine grain size 0/6 or 0/8

Surfacing Sample size BFC 40 BFC 80 BFC 120

0/8 VTAC (class 1) 8 56.8 41.3 36.1
0/6 VTAC (class 1) 69 55.3 43.9 40.1
0/6 PA 17 55.7 45.7 42.4
0/6 UTAC 27 54.8 42.4 38.2
0/6 MAC 5 49.4 38.6 35.0

TABLE III
Surfacing materials with grain size 0/10

Surfacing Sample size BFC 40 BFC 80 BFC 120

0/10 continuous SCAC 62 47.8 28.3 21.8
0/10 TACb 5 50.3 39.4 35.7
0/10 TACa 33 51.5 37.2 32.4
0/10 PA 165 52.0 43.3 40.5
0/10 VTAC (class 1) 306 51.7 38.3 33.8
0/10 UTAC 86 52.1 41.9 38.5
75
0/10 MAC 23 51.4 37.3 32.5

TABLE IV
Surfacing materials of type 1 VTAC with pure bitumen and modified binder

Surfacing Sample size BFC 40 BFC 80 BFC 120

0/10 pure VTAC (class 1) 158 50.0 39.0 33.0

0/10 PMB VTAC (class 1) 119 53.0 39.0 34.0

TABLE V
Surfacing materials with grain size 0/14

Surfacing Sample size BFC 40 BFC 80 BFC 120

0/14 continuous SCAC 60 50.5 32.3 26.3
0/14 discontinuous SCAC 5 52.0 36.2 30.9
0/14 RecyAC 33 51.1 33.0 27.0
0/14 TACb 15 47.5 29.3 23.2
0/14 TACa 12 46.0 33.0 28.7
0/14 PA* 107 50.6 41.9 39.0
0/14 VTAC (class 1)* 141 48.1 34.5 30.0
* Techniques abandoned through standardization, for operational reasons (greater ravelling sensitivity, noise nuisances, without
significant improvement in either the skid resistance or durability of the surfacing).

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 C4 TRAFFIC CATEGORY (TABLES VI THROUGH IX)
TABLE VI
Surfacing materials with fine grain size 0/6

Surfacing Sample size BFC 40 BFC 80 BFC 120

0/6 RecyAC 4 49.3 36.0 31.6
0/6 PA 5 49.9 42.1 39.4
0/6 VTAC (class 1) 26 57.6 45.9 42.1
0/6 UTAC 8 51.1 40.4 36.9
0/6 MAC 6 51.8 36.6 31.5
* RecyAC: Recycled asphalt concrete (new thick asphalt concrete included old asphalt mix).

TABLE VII
Surfacing materials with grain size 0/10

Surfacing Sample size BFC 40 BFC 80 BFC 120

0/10 continuous SCAC 44 43.0 24.8 18.7

0/10 RecyAC 17 48.1 33.0 28.0
0/10 TACa 4 48.3 31.6 26.1
0/10 PA 161 48.1 40.3 37.7
0/10 VTAC (class 1) 294 48.3 36.3 32.3
76 0/10 UTAC 38 46.6 38.0 35.2
0/10 MAC 17 54.0 37.0 31.3

TABLE VIII
Surfacing materials of type 1 VTAC with pure bitumen and modified binder

Surfacing Sample size BFC 40 BFC 80 BFC 120

0/10 pure VTAC (1) 108 48.0 36.0 29.0
0/10 PMB VTAC (1) 137 49.0 38.0 33.0

TABLE IX
Surfacing materials with grain size 0/14

Surfacing Sample size BFC 40 BFC 80 BFC 120

0/14 continuous SCAC 56 44.5 27.8 22.0
0/14 discontinuous SCAC 5 46.3 33.8 29.7
0/14 RecyAC 19 46.2 29.8 24.3
0/14 TACb 20 41.7 24.7 19.1
0/14 TACa 17 43.5 30.1 25.6
0/14 PA* 170 45.5 38.6 36.2
0/14 VTAC (class 1)* 173 44.7 30.7 26.1
* Techniques abandoned through standardization, for operational reasons (greater ravelling sensitivity, noise nuisances, without
significant improvement in either the skid resistance or durability of the surfacing).

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C5 TRAFFIC CATEGORY (TABLES X AND XI)

TABLE X
Surfacing materials with grain size 0/10

Surfacing Sample size BFC 40 BFC 80 BFC 120

0/10 continuous SCAC 6 42.5 26 20.6

0/10 RecyAC 20 45.1 30.3 25.3
0/10 PA 36 43.7 37.3 35.1
0/10 VTAC (class 1) 32 45.3 31.8 27.3

TABLE XI
Surfacing materials with grain size 0/14

Surfacing Sample size BFC 40 BFC 80 BFC 120

0/14 continuous SCAC 48 39.6 23.2 17.7

0/14 PA* 52 42.5 35.5 33.1
0/14 VTAC (class 1)* 4 46.6 33.8 29.5
* Techniques abandoned through standardization, for operational reasons (greater ravelling sensitivity, noise nuisances, without
significant improvement in either the skid resistance or durability of the surfacing).

77
A large portion of these results will be interpreted in the remainder of the article.
As accompanying commentary on these results, mention should be made of:
● the need to generate complementary data on a certain number of families:
¾ categories C3, C4, C5: 0/6 MAC, 0/8 VTAC, 0/10 TACb and 0/10 TACa,
¾ categories C4: 0/6 UTAC and 0/6 PA,
¾ categories C5: 0/10 SCAC (wearing course used most extensively over the national network);
● verification of the classification among TACa, b and c according to the update of Standard NFP 98-
132 (June 2000): change in designation and composition with respect to the previous version of the
standard: (a) highly-discontinuous, b) slightly-discontinuous, c) continuous);
● the need for a more refined classification for recycled mixes, in specifying the rate of recycled
material (old asphalt mix), the families associated with both the origin and destination mixes;
● the dispersion in results, not indicated in Tables II through XI, which proves to be rather constant
for all families, with openings between the 1st and 9th deciles on the order of 15 to 18 points, albeit
with deviations often greater at BFC 40 than at BFC 120.
In an initial analysis, these average results serve to derive performance estimations and trends
regarding the skid resistance of surfacing materials:
¾ the reclaimed asphalt pavement seem to display skid resistance levels close to those of new mixes;
¾ thick mixes with a gap graded exhibit a behavior much more similar to that of TAC than SCAC
(continuous gradding curve formulation);
¾ 0/8 VTAC would be highly equivalent to 0/6 VTAC;
¾ 0/6 VTAC and 0/6 PA present the greatest skid resistance levels for category C4, with an even
more advantageous level for VTAC (+3 to 5 points); it is necessary to pursue monitoring efforts over
a longer period in order to confirm this performance result;
¾ 0/10 PA perform as well and show as much durability as 0/14 PA; it would be worthwhile to eval-
uate the durability of 0/6 PA;
¾ 0/10 VTAC and 0/10 PA display the following for the heaviest traffic category (over 5 million
trucks):

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 – equivalent BFC 40 values (0.45), i.e. a value that remains extremely high;
– rather sizable deviations in BFC 80 and BFC 120, respectively:
• 0.32 and 0.37 (i.e. +5 points for PA),
• 0.27 and 0.35 (i.e. +8 points for PA);
¾ PA offers a very considerable and durable level of skid resistance, in particular at high speeds.

Reference range
Reference points are necessary either for evaluating the result of a given measurement from a newly-
completed road surfacing (at the time of acceptance or service startup) or for assessing the behavior
of a family of surfacing materials. In 1980, a sample from the French road network had enabled estab-
lishing a so-called "1980 national" reference range (based on measurements from 1978 using the
PIARC tire), corresponding to the 1st and 9th deciles of this range of reference developed for all sur-
facing materials. This range however is no longer representative of the state of current levels (see
Fig. 3, the BFC 40, 80 and 120 km/hr limit values for this reference range).
The database file is now extensive enough to construct ranges per individual material family and
wearing state, as expressed by traffic category (CTT). Nonetheless, some data sets still need to be
completed by new and better-focused measurements, not only as regards "conventional" techniques
(0/10 SCAC, 0/6 and 0/10 MAC) and "new" techniques (SD with a large percentage of fine aggre-
gates), but also for techniques based on recycled materials (by family type); this would apply to the
high CTT categories (C4 or C5). Such a complementary set of data would allow constituting longer-
term references (search for surfacing offering an extended service life cycle, over the most heavily-
traveled segments) for the main surfacing materials in use.
At present, nearly 90 reference ranges have been defined by virtue of the envelope corresponding to
the 1st and 9th deciles of results, depending on material family, type of binder and traffic category.
For purposes of illustration, Figures 3 and 4 provide, for traffic category C4, a comparison between
the "1980 national" range and the ranges of SCAC families, particle sizes 10 and 14 mm, as well as
with category 1 VTAC, 10 mm maximum particle size for both pure and modified bitumen (PMB).

78

Continuous 0/10 and 0/14 SCAC (1990 tire) 0/10 Type 1 VTAC depending on type of binder (1990 tire)
Cumulative Traffic Category Cumulative Traffic Category
Trucks = C4 (1,000,000 to 5,000,000) Trucks = C4 (1,000,000 to 5,000,000)
BFC
0.9 BFC
0.9
0.8
0.8
0.7 0.70
9th decile 0.7
0.6 0.6
0.5 0.5
0.44
0.4 0.36 0.4
0.3 0.3
0.2 0.36 0.2
0.1
0.1 1st decile 0.17
0.10 0
0
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 Speed (km/hr)
Speed (km/hr)

0/10 VTAC(1) pure binder

0/10 SCAC (1990 tire) 0/10 VTAC(1) PMB binder
0/14 SCAC (1990 tire) BFC 1980 national reference range

BFC 1980 national reference range

‡ Figure 4
‡ Figure 3
Reference range for the 0/10 VTAC family, traffic category C1,
Reference range for the 0/10 and 0/14 SCAC family, traffic
with pure bitumen and polymer-modified bitumen (PMB),
category C4: Comparison with the "1980 national" range
category C4: Comparison with the "1980 national" range

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The key comments to be drawn from Figures 3 and 4 are the following:
¾ 0/10 and 0/14-mm SCAC do not exhibit any significant differences with respect to either range
opening or position. The 1st SCAC decile is at the same place like the lower curve of the "1980
national" range; the performance of these surfacing materials is quite average in terms of skid resis-
tance quality;
¾ 0/10 VTAC with pure bitumen and modified binder are similar in terms of both range opening
and position at BFC 40; a tightening however can be observed in the range, along with a first decile
6 points higher for the VTAC with modified bitumen, and the 9th-decile curves lie near one another
and above the upper curve (9th decile of the "1980 national" range) at BFC 120.
These VTAC are subsequent to the creation of the "1980 national" range. Such modern types of sur-
facing thus show better skid resistance performance than former references.

Data interpretation
Comparison of wearing course surfacing
Wearing course surfacing materials feature, by virtue of their highly-diverse texture that lies in direct
correlation with their composition (and adapted to implementation thickness), an extremely-varied
skid resistance level [4]. The choice of facility managers depends not only on the performances eval-
uated and recognized in terms of roughness and resistance to deformations, but also on the level and
evolution of skid resistance. Figure 5 shows the average skid resistance corresponding to the main
families of hot-applied asphalt mixes (arranged by thickness) and cold-micro surfacing (MAC). The
comparison concerns the 0/10 designs, which are the most heavily used, subsequent to a high cumu-
lative traffic level C4, i.e. 1 to 5 million trucks (or an average service life of between five and ten years
of highway traffic). It may be observed that:
¾ should the low-speed longitudinal friction coefficient be identical for all surfacing materials
(except SCAC), this coefficient at 120 km/hr is distributed on the basis of the percentage of coarse
gravel, hence on the basis of surfacing macrotexture, i.e.:
SCAC << TAC < UTAC = VTAC = MAC < PA 79

¾ the porous asphalt PA exhibits the flattest trend line vs. speed; the curves of the very or ultra thin
mixes (VTAC and UTAC) are also quite flat. This finding is explained not only by a strong texture

Comparison of averages among 0/10 overlays

Cumulative Traffic Category - Trucks = C4 (1,000,000 to 5,000,000)

BFC
0.9 SCAC (44)
TAC (4)
0.8 VTAC (294)
UTAC (38)
0.7 MAC (17)
PA (161)
0.6 BFC 1980 national reference range ‡ Figure 5
Comparison of surfacing materials with a
0.5 10 mm grain size, for traffic category C4
0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
30 50 70 90 110 130
Speed (km/hr)

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 running counter to these materials, displaying a sharp discontinuity and a low percentage of sand,
but also by the compaction technique using smooth cylinders that incite aggregate flattening;
¾ the surfacing materials most heavily influenced by the speed effect are either thick or thin
mixes (SCAC, TAC). Furthermore, they feature the lowest skid resistance among all of the hot
asphalt mixes and for all speeds. These averages however remain considerably greater than the
lower limit of the "1980 national" range, they lead to acceptable levels after a relatively extended ser-
vice life;
¾ MAC products display an intermediate behavior: very high skid resistance levels at low speed, a
distinct influence from speed (like the thick mixes), yet still retain a strong level at high speed (com-
parable with VTACs) as a result of their initial values.
These results serve to fully corroborate those obtained for the RN 148 highway experimental site in
Fontenay-le-Comte, where on surfacing materials with 0/10 sizes the classification is strictly identi-
cal after 6 years of traffic (or 2 million trucks, C4):
SCAC << VTAC (class 1) or continuous << PA or VTAC (class 2)
The deviations between extreme values amount to 5 and 22 points for the BFC 40 and BFC 120,
respectively.

Evolution of skid resistance properties over time

The MAC and VTAC surfacing materials both exhibit the weakest evolution in traffic levels, with the
average decrease merely representing 5 and 2 points for speeds of 40 and 120 km/hr, respectively.
In contrast, SCAC and particularly TAC display a sharper evolution. The other materials UTAC and
PA tend to show an intermediate behavior, which nonetheless remains quite close to that of VTAC,
especially if the aggregates used happens to possess a high stone polishing value (PSV).
Table XII, which lists the average skid resistance deviations between a 0/10 VTAC and SCAC, indi-
cates that these gaps increase as a function of age for medium to high speeds, as a result of the good
level of VTAC macrotexture conservation when submitted to traffic loads.
80

TABLE XII
Evolution in skid resistance deviations between VTAC (with PMB) and 0/10 SCAC for categories C2 through C5

Traffic category C2 C3 C4 C5

BFC 40 8 8 6 6
BFC 80 10 11 13 13
BFC 120 10 12 14 14

Figures 6 and 7 illustrate the influence of traffic wear for the thick 0/14 SCAC and 0/10 VTAC mixes
of category 1 with modified binders. The choice then focused on surfacing materials featuring suffi-
cient statistical data for all five traffic categories and those most heavily-traveled over the entire pri-
mary network.

Influence of mix composition on skid resistance properties

Sand proportion
In considering that the sand percentages of SCAC, TAC, VTAC, UTAC and PA were respectively 33,
30, 25, 20 and 12%, its effect can then be evaluated via the average skid resistance at speeds of 40, 80
and 120 km/hr. Figure 5 allows analyzing this effect in its entirety; it is not possible to isolate a single
parameter within the database (insufficient data).
It should be highlighted that the magnitude of influence depends upon speed: sand percentage is
only slight or insignificant at 40 km/hr; in contrast, skid resistance increases considerably with a
reduction in sand percentage at high speeds (comparable trends for both 80 and 120 km/hr).

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 Comparison: 0/14 SCAC averages
BFC Influence of traffic category from C1 to C5
0.9
SCAC C1 (15)
0.8 SCAC C2 (48)
SCAC C3 (60)
0.7 SCAC C4 (56)
SCAC C5 (48)
0.6 BFC 1980 national reference range
‡ Figure 6
0.5 Influence of pavement age (evolution
under traffic C1 to C5) on 0/14 SCAC
0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
30 50 70 90 110 130
Speed (km/hr)

Comparison: 0/10 PMB VTAC averages

BFC Influence of traffic category from C1 to C5
0.9
VTAC C1 (169)
0.8 VTAC C2 (67)
VTAC C3 (119)
0.7 VTAC C4 (137)
VTAC C5 (17)
0.6 BFC 1980 national reference range 81
‡ Figure 7
0.5 Influence of pavement age (evolution
under traffic C1 to C5) on 0/10 VTAC
0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
30 50 70 90 110 130
Speed (km/hr)

Mix particle sizes

Figure 8 depicts, for the VTAC with polymer-modified bitumen, the influence of the 6-, 10- and 14-mm
size on surfacing skid resistance at an average age corresponding to traffic level C4.
Regardless of speed, the longitudinal friction coefficient rises as size decreases; this finding contra-
dicts the notion that surfacing shows greater adherence when its state is rougher (i.e. higher level of
macrotexture). This performance would be explained by: the increase in the number of tire-surfacing
contact points with the 0/6 material, maintenance of the texture, and very likely by a partial "regen-
eration" of the contact zones. Data relative to the 0/8-mm sizes are insufficient for drawing any con-
clusion on the benefit of developing this size range, which turns out to be highly appreciated in Ger-
manic countries (this would be the optimal particle size for surface properties).
This observation of the influence of particle size has also been drawn for PA and UTAC, and to a
lesser degree for MAC. For both SCAC (see Fig. 4) and TAC (whose sample size has remained too
small) however, little difference has been recorded between 0/10 and 0/14.

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 Comparison of averages among 6 - 10 - 14 mm VTAC
Cumulative Traffic Category - Trucks = C4 (1,000,000 to 5,000,000)
BFC
0.9

0.8 0/6 VTAC C1 (26)

0/10 VTAC C2 (294)
0/14 VTAC C3 (173)
0.7
BFC 1980 national reference range

‡ Figure 8 0.6
Influence of the particle size of VTAC 0.5
mixes of category 1, for traffic category C4
0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
30 50 70 90 110 130
Speed (km/hr)

Effect of binder type

Modified binders are highly advised and used for thin wearing courses (4 cm and less), on roads with
an aggressive level of traffic (in terms of speed and rolling weight), in the aim of improving cohesion
of the asphalt mix and for the purpose of reducing the risk of surface texture evolution when exposed
82 to traffic loads. This finding is indicated, e.g. for the 0/10 VTAC with PMB, by a lower drop in skid
resistance when submitted to heavy traffic loads [5].
An analysis of the evolution in BFC 40, 80 and 120 km/hr vs. age (C2 through C5), for the 0/
10 VTAC with pure bitumen and those materials with modified binders, reveals a systematic devia-
tion in favor of the modified binders. This difference increases with wear; it becomes sizable and very
significant for traffic categories C4 and especially C5; this finding is even more notable for friction
coefficients at high speeds (i.e. BFC 80 and 120 km/hr). The respective deviation thus comes to 10
and 15 points in favor of the modified binders (yet the sample sizes have been limited to just 17 spec-
imens in category C5). This result can be explained by the maintenance of texture, beyond a rough-
ness of above 1.2 mm in sand patch test (or mean texture depth (MTD)). These average results only
constitute however a general trend, since the level of dispersion associated with them remains quite
substantial (see Fig. 4), which is accentuated by the fact of using pure bitumen. It should be pointed
out that results from the 9th decile are identical for the two binder types (i.e. category C4).

Influence of the polishing stone value (PSV) associated with the aggregate
A certain number of experimental worksites conducted by the Roads Administration have effectively
highlighted the importance of resistance to wear caused by aggregate polishing on skid resistance as
well as its durability [6].
Below are listed a few examples of results:
¾ RN 148 highway at Niort, measurement after eight years (or 2.5 million trucks), between an PSV
of 0.50 and 0.59; constant deviation has been recorded for speeds of 40 to 90 km/hr, 12 points for 0/
10 VTAC and 10 points for 0/10 PA;
¾ RN 137 highway at Saint-Fulgent, measurement after seven years (or 1.3 million trucks), between
weak PSV value 0.47 and strong PSV value 0.58; on a continuous 0/10 VTAC, a 13-point deviation
has been recorded in BFC 40 and one of 6 points in BFC 90;
¾ A63 motorway at Belin, measurement after eight years (5 million trucks), between an SPV of 0.44
and 0.54; deviations of 14 and 10 points have been recorded in BFC 40 and 7 and 3 points in BFC 120
for 0/6 PA and 0/10 PA, respectively.

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 Evolution of BFC40 vs. APC
between SCAC and 0/10 VTAC
BFC (x 100)
70
y = 0.6762x + 12.24
60 R2 = 0.3862

50
‡ Figure 9
40 Influence of PSV on the BFC 40 for both
y = 0.3864x + 25.057
R2 = 0.0832 0/10 SCAC and VTAC
30

20 BFC40 / 0-10 VTAC

BFC40 / 0-10 SCAC
10 (BFC40 / 0-10 VTAC) linear regression
(BFC40 / 0-10 SCAC) linear regression
0
42 47 52 57 62
APC

Figure 9 examines the impact of PSV on a given 0/10 size, for the C4 traffic category, which corre-
sponds with the typically-expected service life, between the two surfacing materials displaying
extreme behavior and characteristics, i.e.: SCAC and VTAC. This set-up thus allows making obser-
vations under optimal conditions.
Sampling remains limited in both quantitative terms (few data records in which PSV is explicitly
mentioned and moreover with infrequent verifications) and qualitative terms (generation of asphalt
mixes whose aggregates comply with the standard, often accompanied by acceptance of the compen-
sation rule; type of quarries available, PSV values generally lying between 0.47 and 0.55). Only a lim-
ited level of confidence should therefore be ascribed to the statistical interpretation of these results, 83
as attested by the very low value of the correlation coefficient. It can thus be concluded that no cor-
relation exists, but merely general trend lines.
Interpretation of the database has confirmed, via general trends, the results from experimental sites
by means of indicating the magnitude of PSV on maintaining skid resistance, especially at low
speeds.
The "open" VTAC, PA mix designs are more sensitive to aggregate quality than "closed" designs, in
particular for low speeds; they are still dependent however, albeit to a lesser degree, at high speeds.
The PSV for SCAC would appear to exert no influence at high speed, which only seems logical given
the material's weak macrotexture.
A very strong resistance to aggregate polishing (i.e. PSV near or above 0.50) is specifically expected
for surfacing materials featuring open texture (PA, VTAC, UTAC). This leads to a higher level of skid
resistance, or even to a greater longevity of surfacing for a given skid resistance threshold.

INCREASING SKID RESISTANCE POTENTIAL

High-skid resistance surfacing materials

Given the set of BFC measurement conditions, it is very difficult to characterize skid resistance over
unique zones, such as: curves with small radius of curvature, very sinuous road alignments, traffic
circles, and short deceleration sections. Furthermore, over these zones, transverse skid resistance
quickly dominates. The CARAT database in fact only provides relatively few results on surfacing
materials specifically adapted to such situations. These high-skid resistance materials are thus more
often characterized either by SFC measurements or by an efficiency analysis based on accident
reduction [7].

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 This group of materials, which displays high skid resistance performance, is primarily composed of
special surface overlays; these are characterized by the use of a bitumen-epoxy based binder covered
by artificial gravel 3 to 4 mm in size. This technique has now been practiced for a good number of
years. It has been modernized through industrial application of the resin by means of a special unit
that provides for mixing and spreading over the entire lane width. The processes are generally
designed via a "grip" extension.
Other processes also exist, such as high-skid resistance mixes in very thin layers with sizes of 6 or
10 mm, based on a binder heavily modified by polymers and artificial aggregates.
The bitumen-epoxy mix leads, after polymerization, to a binder that exhibits considerable resistance
to both tangential and shear failure forces as well as to climatic effects. The artificial gravel, used in
order to render the state of micro-roughness durable (given its very strong resistance to wear), is typ-
ically obtained by means of calcination at 1,600°C of an aluminum deposit: bauxite. The 1/3-mm
grain size represents the most common one found.
The BFC measurements on overlays with high skid resistance comprise twenty data records within
the CARAT database file. Speeds are limited, with respect to their domain, to 40 km/hr. Table XIII
lists the results obtained; it underscores the following:
¾ an outstanding low-speed level of skid resistance coefficient, on the order of 0.70;
¾ considerable regularity in the skid resistance value; and
¾ the absence of any trend related to either surfacing aging or traffic effects.
Only two results are contained in the database on motorway conditions capable of evaluating speed
effects; both of these are strictly identical and lead to a very low sensitivity of skid resistance to speed:
BFC 40: 0.73 BFC 80: 0.66 BFC 120: 0.61
These materials lie at the origin of the BFC 40 threshold of the 9th decile of the "1980 national" range.
For cost reasons, their application remains limited to just those sections requiring special treatment.
They display tremendous longevity; some sections processed over the past fifteen or even twenty
years are still supporting traffic loads, while maintaining a high level of service. The SFC 0.95 result
(SCRIM measurement taken at 60 km/hr), combined with the 1-mm HSc texture result (measured
84 using the "Rugolaser" equipment) after five years of service life on a motorway pavement, attest to
strong performance levels and corroborate the excellent BFC results.

TABLE XIII
BFC 40 km/hr, on high-skid resistance overlays, according to traffic category

Traffic category C1 C2 C3 C4 C5

BFC 40 (average) 73 80 61 69 69
Range 63 - 79 77 - 83 60 - 61 65 - 71 68 - 70
Number of values 8 2 3 5 2

Skid resistance at a very early age and the benefit of micro-encrustation

Hot-applied wearing courses made of bituminous materials entail a thick superficial mastic film (an
association of bitumen and fines) that covers all aggregates. This technique generates a very medio-
cre level of skid resistance for these bituminous surfacing materials at a very early age. A low-speed
BFC (40 km/hr) of just 0.32 to 0.40 can be observed on a number of drainage mixes or VTAC upon
service startup, as a result of the lack of microtexture. Those mixes with an open, negative texture,
such as drainage asphalt concretes (PA), very thin asphalt concretes (VTAC) and ultra-thin asphalt
concretes (UTAC), are even more sensitive to this effect. Their compaction technique leads to flatten-
ing the aggregates; the binder used tends to be a polymer-modified bitumen, which gives rise to a
longer period devoted to scraping this overlay binder film. The length of this period varies from sev-
eral months to one year, depending on traffic level and mix composition.
The micro-encrustation technique is aimed at eliminating this flaw by means of contributing at the
surface, and upon implementation, those micro-elements corresponding to the microtexture that will
offer aggregates after scraping by the traffic. The principle was conceived and described by LRPC-
Angers in 1991, within the framework of studies carried out on the "aggregates-skid resistance" topic.

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It consists of encrusting, within this bituminous mastic film at the mix surface, very fine elements that
provide tires with the microtexture that mixes (notably PA and VTAC) are lacking during the first
few months under traffic. The spreading of fine elements (of a dimension between 0.1 and 0.3 mm)
at the still-hot mix surface, followed by tamping using the compactor, serves to ensure encrustation
within the surface mastic. The sand concentration lies on the order of 300 g per square meter.
The technical means for applying this process stem from individual company initiative. A test was
successfully conducted in 1994 on a PA sample (see Fig. 10). A special piece of equipment, which
adapts onto a finisher for the purpose of performing micro-encrustation on VTAC or PA for roads
with 2 × 2 lanes of traffic (i.e. roads where these high-skid resistance techniques are most commonly
used), has been designed and refined. The equipment developed for spreading sand at very weak
concentrations relies upon a new concept of a turning-sole device adapted to the assembly on any
type of finisher. This equipment has been tested on two experimental sections during application of
PA and VTAC to modified binders on national highways.
The outstanding skid resistance, texture and permeability results for PA, obtained at a very early age
and throughout the first year of service, serve to show that surface performances are reached as of
the end of implementation (see SFC measurements on VTAC (Fig. 11), BFC at various
speeds (Fig. 12) on PA, both with and without micro-encrustation) [8,9].
The micro-encrustation technique has thus been refined and now fulfills the safety objectives of sur-
facing materials at an early age. This equipment set-up has received certification from the innovation
charter, which recognizes its aptitude to adapt to the skid resistance improvements of new macadam
mixes and, more specifically, to those of VTAC and PA. The estimated cost of this micro-encrustation
process is quite small: approximately € 0.55/m2 (year 2001 estimation), in comparison with the
increase obtained in skid resistance. As such, upon service startup, the skid resistance corresponds
to that attained after scraping by the traffic.

85

‡ Figure 10
Implementation of a 0/10 PA on a 2 × 2-lane
highway (RN 12, Ille-et-Vilaine department,
Western France)

‡ Figure 11
BFC skid resistance (SCRIM, speed:
60 km/hr), after two weeks in service, on a
0/10 VTAC, both with and without
micro-encrustation

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 Longitudinal breacking friction coefficient (BFC)
0.9
Effect of micro-encrustation performed on a 0/10 PA on skid
0.8 resistance: measurement after 5 days on the RN12 highway
0.7
0.6
‡ Figure 12 Micro-encrustation
BFC skid resistance, upon service startup, 0.5
on a 0/10 PA, both with and without 0.4 Test reference
micro-encrustation
0.3
1980 national
0.2 reference range
0.1
0
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
Measurement speed (km/hr)

The micro-encrustation process effectively overcomes the potentially-sizable lack of skid resistance
recorded on all overlays at an early age, without altering the other surface characteristics. The out-
standing question then concerns the extension of micro-encrustation to new mixes other than VTAC
and PA.

CURRENT TRENDS IN CHOOSING ROAD

SURFACING AND FUTURE OUTLOOK

86
Current trends
Low-noise skid resistance and surfacing combinations
Noise is one of the primary nuisances experienced by the population. Confronted with the spread of
urbanization and the development of urban road infrastructure, highway engineers have been con-
ducting research for nearly fifteen years in order to reduce tire-pavement rolling noise, which con-
stitutes the primary source of noise once speeds exceed 50 km/hr. The compilation of a database con-
taining noise measurement results has enabled, like for skid resistance performance, drawing a
hierarchical relationship among surfacing materials by major family [10,11].
This research has led to generating two families of surfacing materials for limiting rolling noise:
¾ drainage asphalt concrete (PA);
¾ very thin asphalt concrete with fine grain sizes (VTAC, category 2 in particular).
These materials also display excellent skid resistance properties.
Materials with a high level of internal communicating porosity however, such as drainage mixes,
exhibit lower acoustic performance when submitted to fast-acting clogging effects by pollution and
traffic. Such 0/10 PA, or even 0/6 PA, materials (less noisy and no more sensitive to clogging) are
thus primarily employed on remote country roads or at suburban sites on motorway segments.
Low-noise mixes particularly well-adapted to urban conditions (i.e. relatively thin, easy and quick to
apply, homogeneous) have gradually been developed [12]. The standard profile of such "acoustic"
mixes can be described as follows:
¾ a reduced particle size: 10, 8 or even better 6 mm, in order to limit noise emissions;
¾ significant porosity, in order to enhance noise absorption, as obtained by a distinctly-discontinu-
ous mix design, containing a low sand percentage (between 15% and 25%, more generally near 20%);
¾ a limited thickness, in order to minimize the clogging effect, i.e. thickness values tending to be very
small (less than 3 cm);

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¾ a fully-stable material with only slight sensitivity to mechanical loadings, in order to ensure a good
level of durability; in most instances, this is obtained by using polymer-modified bitumen that dis-
plays attractive elongation properties and less heat sensitivity, thereby authorizing high concentra-
tions (between 5.0 and 5.8% for the 0/6 VTAC designs).
These mixes may be combined, for the most part, under category 2 VTAC of Standard XP P 98-137.
The most commonly-encountered particle size within urban settings both for reducing noise and
stopping distances and for improving homogeneity is unquestionably 6 mm.
Some products specially developed by road-building companies for soundproofing applications,
which are patent-protected, contain specific additives incorporated into the mixes or substituted for
aggregates. Such is the case with artificial gravels featuring a vacuolar texture, originating from the
steel industry, as a replacement for natural gravels. Similarly, crushed rubber particles stemming
from the removal of worn tires may be incorporated as a replacement for 1-4% of gravel; various
admixtures, in the form of fibrous particles, are also used. The roughness and skid resistance of these
mixes are especially high and durable.

Adaptation of wearing courses to sites and to skid resistance-related needs

Within urban settings, strong development in MAC techniques (primarily for surface streets and
thoroughfares) has been observed. This material application exhibits a good compromise for surface
characteristics by means of combining high skid resistance (even more so at low speeds) with a low
noise level and ease of application, without any major nuisances for the motorist. The specific spread-
ing machines and varied mix designs (single layer, double layer, 6, 8 and 10-mm sizes, both with and
without discontinuity, modified binders and additives) provide for many adaptations of this tech-
nique, which is now very well-mastered by road-building companies. Road surfaces have undergone
a very sizable evolution over the past five years, expanding from just a few million square meters of
surface to nearly 27 million in 2004.
Similarly, heavy use of VTAC with fine 0/6 grain sizes or asphalt mixes with low acoustics has been
observed on urban thoroughfares and particularly on express lanes of metropolitan ring-roads,
thereby making it possible to reduce rolling noise and improve skid resistance. The Nantes (Western
France) ring-road (2 × 2 lanes over a 32-km distance) provides an apt illustration of this situation; a 87
large portion of this roadway has been covered by a 0/6 VTAC, in a maintenance objective of cover-
ing the entire segment using this technique.
The ideal surfacing type for maintaining motorway pavements is, and has been for more than twenty
years now, 0/10 VTAC category 1; this material offers great durability of properties for very thin sur-
faces. This capacity has been made feasible by virtue of the choice of extended life-cycle structures
and by adopting the concept of pavement layer differentiation, in which the surface layer provides
only for rolling functions. As such, mechanical strength aspects and, in particular, aspects related to
rutting and shear are resolved by underlying layers [13].
Whenever the context warrants, the application of asphalt mixes that improve visibility during rainy
weather is frequent; such use patterns comprise either conventional 4-cm drainage porous asphalt
(often 0/10, but also 0/6 in order to raise skid resistance levels (e.g. case of the A84 motorway in Nor-
mandy over more than 100 km)) or VTAC category 2 (which displays compositions quite similar to
those of PA, to be applied with a 2-cm thickness).
In remote rural areas on roads carrying sizable traffic volumes, 0/6 MAC and 0/6 UTAC ensure a
good level of surface layer renewal by means of optimizing rolling comfort and safety. Annual cam-
paigns are organized by some of France's Departmental Councils for the purpose of maintaining
pavements according to these two techniques, as a replacement of SD maintenance campaigns.
On the secondary road network however, the surface dressing (SD) technique remains the most
heavily used, since it enables eliminating permeability, while offering excellent drainage capacity
and good skid resistance at minimal cost. Designs have become even more widely-diversified to bet-
ter adapt to the particular context; overlays with fine grains, such as 4/6 single layer or 6/10-2/4 double
layers, have been successfully developed, notably on roads crossing villages.

Outlook
The inventory of surfacing techniques would appear to be broad enough to allow choosing the best-
suited materials. Specific points that prove hard to treat still remain however, such as traffic circles
and sinuous, accident-prone, hazardous segments; conventional surfacing materials are not

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 adequately effective nor durable in these instances. The use of high-skid resistance materials, like
those described above, would be necessary in order to avoid overly-frequent renewal programs.
Appropriate techniques exist and some have already proven efficient. A new set of developments
and applications are expected over the next few years.
Along the same lines, improvements in the early-age skid resistance of new surfacing materials may
be resolved by the micro-encrustation process, even to the point of including mechanically stripping
of the binder film (shot-blasting or hydro-stripping). It seems that these techniques, especially that of
micro-encrustation (easier to implement), are not yet well enough known to infrastructure managers,
in light of their current lack of use. The micro-encrustation technique is now refined and ready for
application, particularly as regards so-called high-skid resistance techniques (VTAC, PA), and makes
it possible to restore, as of the return to service, the same level of performance. It may be considered
that over the short term, a more frequent, even systematic, use will be made of this technique over
high-speed segments, rather than limiting speeds during the initial months following surface layer
renewal work.
From one year to the next, road traffic has continuously risen. Saturation is often reached on the
major axes of the international network or on the peripheral networks of metropolitan areas. It has
become increasingly difficult to interrupt traffic flows in order to proceed with network mainte-
nance. Scientists and technicians have been working within the scope of an international
project (NR2C) on designing pavements with very long service life cycles (i.e. fifty years). Their
efforts to date would suggest that surface layers must be found which display little sensitivity to the
effects of friction-induced mechanical wear. New materials, which rely upon artificial components
embedded in a special mortar, are currently under study. The anticipated objective would be to only
regenerate these new surface layers within a setting whose life cycle resembles that of the infrastruc-
ture. It could be considered that these techniques, which prove very costly at the time of construction,
could permit maintaining those arterials vital to our economic well-being in service, while offering
all the necessary safety guarantees, especially in terms of skid resistance. It must be recalled that
maintaining road pavements within industrialized countries nowadays concerns primarily the
renewal of skid resistance characteristics.

88
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