Textile Research Journal Article

Geometrical Models for Cardigan Structures

Part I: Full Cardigan
Arif Kurbak1 and Tuba Alpyıldız
Abstract In this study a geometrical model for Textile Engineering Department, Engineering Faculty,
the full cardigan structure is given based on Kur- Dokuz Eylul University, Tinaztepe Campus 35160, Buca
bak’s plain-knitted loop model. In the model, Izmir, Turkey
loop and tuck heads were taken as ellipses in two
dimensions, where the loop heads lean towards
the thickness direction at an angle α1 and the tuck
heads are in a vertical direction. The rest of the
loops and tucks were taken as parabolic helices
wrapped on circular cylinders. The parameters of
the model were obtained by using a wash-relaxed
wool fabric at medium tightness. Computer draw-
ings of the model were created by using 3DSMax,
which gave similar loop shapes to those observed
in real fabrics. This full cardigan model will be
used to obtain a model for a the half-cardigan
structure in the following study as Part II.

Key words full cardigan, geometrical model,

Kurbak’s empirical equations, Kurbak’s plain-
knit model

The full cardigan pattern is used traditionally for manufac-
turing outerwear knitted garments and also for manufac-
turing sportswear. The full cardigan (pattern is given in
Figure 1(a)) is considered to be useful as a reinforcing
material within composites, which can resist impact forces,
since a zigzag is formed by the crossing of two yarns. Lately
studies have been carried out on the knittability and per-
formances of cardigan patterned-knitted fabrics manufac-
tured by using high performance fibers and which are used
as reinforcements in composites [1–3]. For an analysis of
these performances using engineering software (e.g. soft-
ware of finite element modeling), the geometric definition
of the reinforcement structures must be defined properly
to be considered as the initial state and this will be possible
by modeling the structures.
No studies of modeling for full cardigan could be found
in the literature. Therefore, our interest here is to present
a geometrical model for a full cardigan structure. There
are models of other weft-knitted fabrics, which can be
considered as a starting point for creating a full cardigan
model.1
For a plain-knitted fabric structure, Chamberlain [4],
Pierce [5], Leaf and Glaskin [6], Leaf [7], Munden [8], Pos-
tle [9], Demiröz and Dias [10, 11], Kurbak [12], and Sem-
nani et al. [13] proposed geometrical models. For a 1 × 1
rib structure, Smirfitt [14], Natkanski [15], Postle [9], Wol-
faardt and Knapton [16], Jeddi and Zareian [17], and Kur-
bak [18] suggested models. There are also geometrical
models available for fabric structures other than plain and
1 × 1 rib and among them Alpyıldız and Kurbak’s [19] sin-
gle pique (lacoste), Kurbak and Alpyıldız’s [20] double
lacoste, and Kurbak and Amreeva’s [21] milano rib models
can be counted. Examining the previous geometrical mod-
els, Kurbak’s [12] plain-knit model, Kurbak’s [18] 1 × 1 rib
model, Alpyıldız and Kurbak’s [19] single-pique (lacoste)
model, Kurbak and Alpyıldız’s [20] double-lacoste model,
and Kurbak and Amreeva’s [21] milano-rib model were
found to be suitable for our purpose and these models
1
Corresponding author: tel: 0 232 3882869; fax: 0 232 3887867;
e-mail: arif.kurbak@deu.edu.tr

Textile Research Journal Vol 79(14): 1281–1300 DOI: 10.1177/0040517508102258 © The Author(s), 2009. Reprints and permissions:
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TRJ 1282 Textile Research Journal 79(14)
were generated in this study to obtain the model of the full
cardigan pattern.
During the construction of the model, experimentally
obtained dimensional parameters were used. Therefore,
the previous experimental results are outlined in the fol-
lowing section. In addition to these experimental studies,,
some additional measurements were made on hand-knit-
ted samples in order to create the model.
Experimental
Doyle [22] started the attempts to obtain a relationship
between knitted fabric parameters by giving an empirical
equation for stitch density (S) dependent on loop length
(ℓ) as:
S = Ks/ℓ2
where Ks is a constant. After that, Munden [23] gave the
following equations in addition to Equation (1), which are
valid for the fabric in its relaxed condition:
cpc = Kc/ℓ
wpc = Kw/ℓ
Kr = Kc/Kw
where cpc is the number of courses per centimeter, wpc is
the number of wales per centimeter, and Kr, Kc, and Kw are
constants.
Equations (1), (2), (3), and (4) were discussed by the
following researchers and it was found that these equations
give the dimensional parameters with some errors, particu-
larly in the case of complex knitted structures. Therefore,
Nutting and Leaf [24] suggested the following equation:
c (or w) = A ℓ + B Tex
where c is the course-spacing, w is the wale-spacing, A and
B are constants.
However, it was stated [24] that since parameter B in
Equation (5) is from time to time a positive or a negative
value, Doyle’s [22] and Munden’s [23] simple equations
should continue to be used. Kurbak [25–27], however,
showed that the above intercepts could be calculated and
the following regression equations were obtained:
c = co + (ℓ – ℓco )/Kc
w = wo + (ℓ – ℓwo)/Kw
where co, wo, ℓco, and ℓwo are the equation parameters and
they give practically normal fabric dimensional parame-
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ters. It should be noted here that Amreeva and Kurbak
[28] also described the calculation of Equations (6) and
(7).
The dimensional properties of full cardigan structure
were studied experimentally by Dönmez [29] and published
by Dönmez and Kurbak [30]. In this large-scale work, three
types of knitting yarns were used, namely 28/2 Nm wool, 28/2
Nm acrylic, and 16/2 Ne cotton. Samples were knitted on a
10-gauge, V-bed knitting machine with five different cam set-
tings (cam settings affect the loop length and thus change the
tightness of the fabric) and under five different take-down
tensions.
Yarn tension was kept constant during the knitting proc-
ess. Three different relaxations were applied to the samples
for length (h) and width (b) measurements. These relaxa-
tions were:
• Dry relaxation: after knitting the samples, they were
(1) laid on a smooth surface for more than a week, and
dry-relaxed samples were obtained.
• Wet relaxation: dry-relaxed fabric samples were
soaked in water and wetting agent solution (initial
temperature was set at 50°C) without any agitation
for 24 hours. Next the samples were allowed to cool
(2) down to atmospheric conditions. The samples were
then laid to dry on a smooth surface for a week, and
(3)
wet-relaxed samples were obtained.
• Wash relaxation: wet-relaxed fabric samples were
(4)
washed in an AEG Lavamat washing machine using
the woolen program (30°C temperatures for 45 min-
utes). Next the samples were hydro-extracted briefly
and dried on a smooth surface for more than a week
to obtain a wash-relaxed fabric. During the washing
procedure, 2 g/l soap and 1 g/l hypochloride were
added to the washing water.
No felting occurred during the relaxation procedure on
the wool samples and no deformations were observed in
the acrylic samples during the relaxation procedures.
(5) Course length measurements were taken only after dry
relaxation because previous researchers, such as Smirfitt
[14] and Kurbak [31], showed that yarn shrinkages with wet
treatments do not exceed 3%, which can be ignored.
At the end of the study, Dönmez and Kurbak [30]
showed that Kurbak’s empirical equations [25–27] given in
Equations (6) and (7) are also valid for full cardigan struc-
ture. The parameters of the equations were co = 3.65d, ℓco =
15.24d, wo = 9.04d, and ℓwo = 18.33d, where d was the
effective yarn diameter (in mm) calculated by using Shinn’s
[32] formula as:
(6)
(7) d = 0.044 Tex (8)
It should be noted here that the course-spacing (c) and the
parameter co given here are for a unit cell of full cardigan
 Geometrical Models for Cardigan Structures Part I: Full Cardigan A. Kurbak and T. Alpyildiz
Table 1 Kc and Kw values of full cardigan structure [29].
K values Relaxation
Dry-relaxed
Kc Wet-relaxed
Wash-relaxed
Dry-relaxed
Kw Wet-relaxed
Wash-relaxed
and the unit cell is composed of one knitting row and one
tuck row on each surface of the fabric.
On the other hand, K values which were used in Kur-
bak’s empirical equations (6) and (7) were determined by
Dönmez [29] and these values are also given in Table 1.
Creation of the Model
Assumptions
A full cardigan is a more complex structure than other basic
weft-knitted fabrics, therefore, experimentally measured
dimensional parameters namely, course-spacing (c), wale-
spacing (w), and loop length (ℓ) are not enough to obtain its
geometrical model. Therefore other arrangements described
below are considered.
We have seen while obtaining other weft-knitted fabric
models [12, 18, 21] that wash-relaxed fabrics at commercial
tightnesses form jammed structures, especially in course-
wise directions due to yarn swelling. Two kinds of swelling
were modeled while obtaining the plain and 1 × 1 rib-knit-
ted fabric models; one is proportional yarn swelling (ηd)
and the other is the excessive yarn radius outside the curva-
ture when the yarn is bent in three dimensions [18]. Cardi-
gan structures are usually knitted with the same stitch
length as 1 × 1 rib structures, but while a jammed structure
of 1 × 1 rib fabric with effective yarn diameter is observed
at about the tightness value ℓ/d = 15.4, jammed cardigan
structures are obtained when ℓ/d = 11–13. Therefore, the
only proportional increase (ηd) in yarn diameter is assumed
to occur on cardigan structures. At this point, hand-knitted
samples of cardigan structures at the jammed fabric condi-
tion were prepared. The ratios of the distances in fabric
width and thickness directions of the hand-knitted samples
were used to estimate and obtain some unknown parame-
ters of the machine-knitted, wash-relaxed fabrics.
The measurements of the following parameters and
assumptions were made in accordance with Figure 1:
1. The yarn arms were considered to be wrapped on
circular cylinders with a diameter “a” as in Kurbak’s
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1283 TRJ
Wool samples Acrylic samples Cotton samples
3.31 4.22 2.33
2.66 4.29 3.25
2.97 4.72 3.70
2.73 2.91 6.45
1.59 2.15 2.62
2.17 2.07 2.12
[12] plain-knit model. (A summary of this model was
also given in Kurbak and Ekmen [33].) The parame-
ter a is measured as a = 3.25 mm on hand-knitted
samples. The other dimensional parameters are
given in terms of a.
2. The width of the unit cell was measured as given in
Figure 1, where w = 6.86a, xb = 1.43a, and xa = a/2
were obtained in course-wise directions.
3. These measurements showed that fabric thickness
value T is equal to the width of the unit cell as w = T.
The measurements in the thickness direction were
assumed to be ya = 1.71a and yb = 1.43a.
4. The observations on hand-knitted samples showed
that in a wale-wise direction half of the course-spac-
ing can be assumed to be the height of a tuck stitch
and thus zb = c/2 was used. The heads of the tuck
stitches were also observed to be in a vertical direc-
tion (in the X–Z plane in Figure 1).
On the other hand, a machine-knitted full cardigan sample
of 28/2 Nm wool yarn was chosen for comparison with the
hand-knitted samples. This sample was knitted on a 10-
gauge flat knitting machine at a cam setting value of 12
under medium take-down tension. Wash relaxation was
applied to the sample and the following fabric parameters
obtained: c = 5.27d, w = 11.56d, and Lp = 21.40d, where d
is the effective yarn diameter calculated using Shinn’s for-
mula [32].
When the hand-knitted and the machine-knitted fabric
parameters were compared, a = 1.69d was obtained as a
comparison parameter. It was assumed here that the
parameters measured on the hand-knitted fabrics are also
valid for the machine-knitted samples by considering this
comparison parameter as a = 1.69d.
As can be seen in Figure 1, there are two sets of curves
which give the unit cell of the cardigan structure. In fact
these sets are similar as they are composed of a tuck and a
knit stitch and modeling only one curve set will be suffi-
cient to model the whole unit cell of full cardigan. The
curve set, namely “curve set 1”, was chosen to be studied.
The length of yarn in each curve set was ℓp = 12.70a and
the course-spacing of the machine-knitted fabric was c =
TRJ 1284 Textile Research Journal 79(14)

Figure 1 (a) The knitting pattern of

the full cardigan. Structural view of
the full cardigan pattern: (b) front
view, (c) left view, (d) top view.

3.12a. The parameter a is dependent on yarn diameter “d”

and was used to define the ratio of increase in yarn diame-
ter for the machine-knitted fabrics. So the present model
was applied, first of all, to fully relaxed fabrics with swella-
ble yarns.

Constructing the Model

Since the model is based on Kurbak’s [12] model of plain-
knitted fabric, the loop heads and tuck stitch heads were
considered as two-dimensional elliptical curves and the
arms of the loops, the tuck stitch arms and the rib-crossing
parts were taken as general helical curves wrapped on cir-
cular cylinders. These curves were assumed to be parabolic
curves as given below:

z = aI(S1)2 + bIS1 + cI (9)

where z is the length of the path taken on the cylinder, S1 is

the peripheral length taken on the cross-section of the cyl- Figure 2 Elliptical shapes and helices followed by the
inder, aI, bI, and cI are constants. yarn forming curve set 1 in the unit knit (front, left and top
The general outline of the model is given in Figure 2. views).
Curve set 1 in Figure 2 is composed of two symmetrical

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 Geometrical Models for Cardigan Structures Part I: Full Cardigan A. Kurbak and T. Alpyildiz 1285 TRJ

parts, therefore, modeling the curve between points A and
I is sufficient to obtain the whole model. The curve between
these points was separated into parts and modeled as fol-
lows.
Loop Head (Between Points A and B in Figure 2)
The loop head was modeled as in Kurbak’s [12] plain-knit
model having a two-dimensional elliptical curve inclined in
the y–z plane at an angle α1 as seen in Figure 3. Equations
for the loop head can be given as:
x = Aasinθ
y = Bacosα1cosθ
Loop Arm (Between Points B, C, and D in
Figure 2)
The loop arm central axis was obtained by considering the
loop arm wrapped on to a vertically placed circular cylin-
der with diameter a. The yarn was assumed to be wrapped
around this cylinder in the form of a curve, which can be
defined by two parabolic equations, one of which is given
in Equation (9). Application of such a curve requires some
known parameters beforehand and here these are the
height of the cylinder (h1), the maximum wrapping angle of
the helices on the cylinder (ρmax1), and the helix angles at
both ends of cylinder 1 (αB = α1 at point B and αD = α 1′ at
point D in Figure A1). These parameters were calculated
as follows:

z = Basinα1cosθ • The radius of curvature at point B of the upper ellipse

in Figure 3 is as:
where Aa and Ba are the minor and major radii of the 2
ellipse. For the parameter Aa ρB = Ba ⁄ A a (12)

The radius of curvature calculated from the yarn arm

Aa = 2r + a/2 (10)
helix at the same point is as:
can be taken from Figure 2, here r = a/2. The parameter Ba ι 2
is a control parameter and obtained by equalizing the theo- ρ B = ( a ⁄ 2 ) ⁄ cos αB
(13)
retical loop length (Lh) to the measured loop length (Lp). θ ρB = ρB
ι

is the angle measured from the direction OA and is

between 0° and 90°. α1 is the inclination angle of the ellipti- From the curvature equality of the yarn arm at point
cal BIAB plane in reference to the horizontal X–Y plane in B, αB can be obtained as:
Figure 3. This angle also defines the exact position of point
B at which the helical yarn arm curve starts wrapping –1
around the cylinder 1 (Figure 2). Therefore, α1 is consid- α B = α 1 = cos ( aA a ) ⁄ ( 2B a ) (14)
ered to be equal to αB, which is defined for the loop arms.
The yarn length for the loop head is calculated as: The tangent of this angle is defined as:

u B = tan α B (15)
π⁄2  2
B
1 –  1 – -----a2- sin ϕ dϕ
∫
2
L1 = Aa   (11) and used from time to time instead of αB in the fol-
ϕ=0  A a
lowing calculations.
• On the other hand, from Figure 4:

–1
β a = tan [ ( a ⁄ 2 ) ⁄ y a ] (16)

and the maximum wrapping angle of the arm curve:

δ max1 = π – β a (17)

are obtained. Cylinder 2 extends from point D to

point F (in Figure 4) where the position of point F is
defined as a/2 away from the middle of the front loop
in the fabric width direction (in the X direction).
• Cylinder 1 and cylinder 2 cross each other at point D
making a right angle and their radii are the same.
Figure 3 Set of axes for the AB region.
Therefore:

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TRJ 1286 Textile Research Journal 79(14)

Figure 4 Set of axes for the DF

region: (a) front view, (b) top view.

ι
αD = π ⁄ 4 (18) the model. Calculations of the length of yarn used (L2)
between points B and D are also given in Appendix A.

and
Rib-crossing Part (DEF in Figure 2)
αD = π ⁄ 4 (19) The rib-crossing part was assumed to be wrapped on cylin-
der 2 in Figure 2, which is laid in the horizontal X–Y plane
between points D and F. The helix angle, α D at point D has
are obtained from the curvature equalities, where
ι already been calculated in Equation (19). The height of
α D is the helix angle of the arm curve at point D and
this cylinder can be given as:
α D is the helix angle of the curve on cylinder 2 at the
same point D.
2 2
The tangents of the above angles are: h2 = xa + ya (23)

ι
ι
u D = tan α D
ι
(20) In order to find the helix angle α F at point F and the maxi-
mum wrapping angle δ max2 on cylinder 2, the following
analysis was carried out. Vector equation of the axis line of
u D = tan α D (21) cylinder 2 is as:
ι → → →
and u D , u D values will be used in the following R a = – x a i + ya j (24)
ι
equations instead of α D and α D .
• The length of cylinder 1, which is denoted as “h1”, is and the vector equation of the axis line of cylinder 3 can be
given as the course-spacing (c) as described in the given as:
assumptions, thus:
→ → →  a →
h1 = 3.12a (22) R b = ( x b + a )i + y b j +  z b + η --- k (25)
 2

was taken in this study. The angle φ in Figure 5 can be found by the vector equa-
tion given below:
For drawing the loop arm curve, two more parameters
were also needed; the helix angle at point C ( α C or uC = → →
tan α C ) and the exact place defined by ϕ 11 of point C. –1 Ra ⋅ Rb
φ = cos ----------------------
→ →- (26)
The angle ϕ 11 is so defined that the angular difference Ra ⋅ Rb
between points B and C in Figure 2 is δ max1 ⁄ 2 −+ ϕ 11 . If uB is
ι
greater than u D , then the sign is “minus” in the given → → → 2 2
ι
expression. If uB is smaller than u D , then the sign is “posi-
where R a ⋅ R b = – x a ( x b + a ) + y a y b, Ra = xa + ya ,
2
tive” in the given expression. However, the calculations of
→  a
the parameters uC and ϕ 11 are given in Appendix A since Rb = ( xb + a ) +
2 2
yb +  z b + η --- , xa = a/2, ya = (cDF) =
this analysis will be needed during further calculations of  2

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 Geometrical Models for Cardigan Structures Part I: Full Cardigan A. Kurbak and T. Alpyildiz 1287 TRJ

Figure 5 Vector representations of points D, F, and I.

a, xb = 1.43a, yb = 1.71a, zb = c = 3.12a where η is the con-

trol parameter defined for the calculation of the touching
condition of the tuck loop head and the rib-crossing part of
the previous row. The calculation and control of this
parameter are given at the end of this paper.
The helix angle at point F is then as:
Figure 6 Set of axes for the tuck stitch arm.
ι
αF = (π – φ) ⁄ 2 (27)

and thus ι ι
αF = α F or uF = u F (30)
ι ι
u F = tan ( α F ) (28) is applied.
The maximum wrapping angle on cylinder 3 is calcu-
is obtained. lated as:
On the other hand, the maximum yarn wrapping angle
( δ max2 ) on cylinder 2 can be given as: δ max3= π/2 + β
(2)
(31)

(1) (2 )
δ max2 = π/2 + β (29) The parameter β is calculated in Appendix B, together
(1)
(1)
with the angle β of cylinder 2.
The calculations of β are very lengthy, therefore the The length of cylinder 3 is as:
related calculations are given in Appendix B.
ι
Knowing the parameters δ max2 , h2, uD and u F for the 2
yarn path on cylinder 2, the parameters uE, ϕ 12, and L3 2 2  a
h3 = ( x b + a ) + y b +  z b + η --- (32)
can be calculated using the similar analysis given in  2
Appendix A.
and the angles βb and γb in Figure 6 are defined as:
Tuck Stitch Arm (FGI in Figure 2)
2
The tuck stitch arm was modeled by wrapping the yarn on 
–1 2 a
cylinder 3 in Figure 2. The central axis of this cylinder is β b = tan ( xb + a ) ⁄ yb +  z b + η --- (33)
 2
laid in an Xι – Yι plane; which makes an angle γb with the
horizontal X–Y plane and these two planes intersect with
each other at the line Xι, which is parallel to the X direc-
tion, as can be seen in Figure 6 and also Figure B1 in –1  a
Appendix B. The central axis of cylinder 3 also makes an γ b = tan  z b + η --- ⁄ y b (34)
 2
angle βb with the Yι axis within the Xι – Yι plane.
The helix entering angle (αF) at point F to cylinder 3
ι
must be equal to the helix angle α F on cylinder 2 at the When we define the tangent angles of the 3D curve
same point F due to the curvature equality. Therefore applied to cylinder 3 at point I as ( dZ ⁄ dX ) IH = tan β

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TRJ 1288 Textile Research Journal 79(14)

Figure 8 Set of axes for the IH region.

–1
Figure 7 Set of axes for the FI region. ϕ IH = cos sin β ⁄ ( 1 ⁄ cos β b + 1 ) ( cos β ⁄ cos α IH ) (38)

A b = ( a ⁄ 2 ) ( 1 + 1 ⁄ cos β b ) ⁄ cos ϕ IH (39)

and ( dZ ⁄ dX ) IH = tan φ 1H = ∞ , the equations below are B b = A b tan β ⁄ tan ϕ IH (40)

obtained:
The length of yarn at the tuck stitch head is given by:
ι tan γ
u IH = --------------b (35)
cos β b ϕ IH
 2
B
∫ 1 –  1 – -----b2- sin ϕ dϕ
2
L5 = Ab (41)
and  
ϕ=0  A b

–1
β = tan [ 1 ⁄ ( sin γ b tan β b ) ]
The analysis for obtaining Equations (35) and (36) is given
in Appendix C.
ι ι
Knowing δ max3, h 3, α F and α IH , the unknown parame-
ters uG, ϕ13 and L4 are found by using the similar analysis
given in Appendix A.
It should be noted here that since the Xι – Yι plane is
inclined with the horizontal plane X–Y, cylinder 3 on the
ι
Xι – Yι plane is laid between points F and I instead of
between points F and I in Figure 7. Therefore, for the
length of cylinder 3
ι a
h 3 = h 3 – --- tan β b
2
is written instead of the length of FI (h3).
Tuck Stitch Head (Elliptical Curve between H
and I in Figure 2)
As in the loop head, the tuck stitch head was modeled as a
two-dimensional elliptical curve with an ellipse angle ϕ IH
(Figure 8) and assumed to be in a vertical plane (X–Z
plane). As a result of an analysis given in Appendix D, the
parameters of the tuck stitch head can be written as:
(36)
Calculations of Control Parameters “η” and “Ba”
The control parameter η in Equation (25) is defined for
calculating the touching condition of the tuck stitch head
with the crossing part of the previous row. The touching
condition of η is calculated by the analysis given in Appen-
dix E as η* and the control parameter η in the written com-
puter program is changed until the equation
f1 = η – η* = 0 (42)
is satisfied.
The control parameter Ba, which is the minor radius of
the loop head ellipse, is changed until the following equa-
tion is satisfied:
(37)
f2 = Lh – Lp = 0 (43)
where Lp is the measured length of yarn for the unit cell
and Lh is the calculated length of yarn for the unit cell, and
Lp can be given as:
Lh = L1 + L2 + L3 + L4 + L5 (44)
where the Li values are calculated at the related sections.
The flow chart of the program is shown in Figure 9.

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 Geometrical Models for Cardigan Structures Part I: Full Cardigan A. Kurbak and T. Alpyildiz 1289 TRJ

Figure 9 The flow chart of the program.

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TRJ 1290 Textile Research Journal 79(14)
Figure 10 Front, back and side views of full cardigan
knitted fabric as in the present model.
Results
The full cardigan model was drawn to scale using the 3DS
MAX graphical program and shown in Figure 10.
The structure obtained by the model can be compared
with the photographs of real fabric structures shown in Fig-
ures 11 and 12 for machine-knitted fabrics and hand-knit-
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ted fabrics, respectively. The similarity in the shapes of the
model and the actual fabrics is very clear in Figures 10–12.
The obtained model parameters of the full cardigan
structure are given in Table 2.
Discussion
It can be suggested by this model that the full cardigan
structure is the best among the weft-knitted fabrics for
observing maximum yarn swellings including the inter-
locking regions. Full cardigan structure is slacker than
other basic weft-knitted structures. In our opinion, the struc-
ture retains its shape by the jammings at points A, F and H
in Figure 2, therefore the yarns of the outer loops swell as
much as possible. Considering this argument the present
model was created by assuming the yarn diameter in the fab-
ric to be a = 1.69d, where d is the effective yarn diameter
(the yarn diameter before swelling).
With the studies of Kurbak’s plain-knit model [12], Kur-
bak’s 1 × 1 rib model [18], and Kurbak and Amreeva’s
milano-rib model [21], it was shown that after wet treat-
ments the yarn diameter of 28/2 Nm wool yarn increased
to 1.5–1.7 times (on average) the effective yarn diameter.
However, it was considered that for these fabrics the
increase in yarn diameter occurred on the outside of the
curvatures and apart from the loop interlocking points. In
the present model of full cardigan structure, however, the
yarn diameter increase was assumed to occur proportion-
ally in every region of the yarn because the structure is
slacker.
The result of the above discussion is that the present
model of full cardigan is suitable for fully relaxed swellable
yarns and also suitable for unswellable yarns with diameter
a. The other applications can be generated using the
method given here by, for example, altering the parameters
“xa”, “xb”, “ya”, “yb”, and “zb”.
As mentioned in the introduction the aim of these geo-
metrical models is to benefit from them in engineering
software. Since the present model for full cardigan is for
wash-relaxed fabrics, it can be used directly in software
related to thermal comfort as applied by Cimilli et al. [34]
for a plain-knitted structure. For composite applications,
Figure 11 Photographs of the full
cardigan, machine-knitted fabric
(front and back views are the same).
 Geometrical Models for Cardigan Structures Part I: Full Cardigan A. Kurbak and T. Alpyildiz 1291 TRJ

Table 2 The model parameters obtained for a full cardigan structure.

Aa = 1.5 αB = 58.97° αD = 45° αF = 50.95°
Ba = 1.8 h1 = 3.13 h2 = 1.79 h3 = 3.35
Ab = 1.5 δmax1 = 163.74° δmax2 = 123.58° δmax3 = 140.41°
Bb = 1.28 αCι = 45° αFι = 50.95° αIH = 51.77°
ϕIH = 54.74° αC = 72.16° αE = 65.64° αG = 73.42°
β = 50.43° ϕ11 = –15.27° ϕ12 = 6.59° ϕ13 = –0.61°
r = 0.5 γb = 51.77° φ = 78.09° h3ι = 2.82°
(1) (2)
t1 = 1 ϕ = 0°
*
β = 33.58° β = 50.41°
α1 = 58.97° η = 0.52 βa = 16.26° βb = 46.45°
Note that linear dimensions are given in terms of the parameter a and the angles are given in degrees.

dimensions. The loop heads are taken to lean towards the

Figure 12 Photographs of the full cardigan, hand-knitted
fabric (front and back views are the same).
direction of fabric thickness at an angle α1, while the tuck
heads are taken in vertical directions (α1 = π/2). The rest of
the loops and tucks were considered as parabolic helices
wrapped on circular cylinders. The parameters of the model
were obtained by using a wash-relaxed wool fabric at medium
tightness. Some hand-knitted, full cardigan fabric samples
were also provided to obtain additional parameters neces-
sary to model such a complex structure. Computer drawings
of the model were created by using the 3DS MAX graphical
program, which gave loop shapes similar to those observed
in real fabrics. These similarities are also shown in the pho-
tograph of real full cardigan fabric samples.
It can be suggested from this model that the full cardigan
structure is the best of the weft-knitted fabrics for obtaining
maximum yarn swellings even at the interlocking regions.

Appendix A
for example, Wisetex [35–37], the dry-relaxed state of the
fabrics must be considered and then the models must be Application of the Parabolic Curve on the
generated. Thus for composite applications, the present Cylinder
model should be considered as a basic study. It has been
The application of the curve
observed previously [3] that fabric spirality occurs when
twisted glass filament yarns are used to manufacture full ι 2 ι ι
cardigan structures. To solve this problem the authors used z = a S1 + b S1 + c (A1)
a full cardigan derivative instead of a full cardigan itself [3].
In this case the derivative of full cardigan must be modeled on a circular cylinder given in Figure A1 is carried out as
first and some modifications should be made to obtain the follows: z is the length on the cylinder axis, S1 is the periph-
model for the dry-relaxed fabric of glass yarns. eral length of the cross-section (for a circular cylinder S1 =
ι ι ι
rϕ), a , b and c are constants.
Differentiation of Equation (A1) is as:

Conclusion dz- = 2a ι S + b ι = u
-------- 1 (A2)
dS 1
A geometrical model for full cardigan structures was pre-
sented based on Kurbak’s [12] plain loop model. In the where u = tanα and the differentiation of Equation (A2)
model, the loop and tuck heads are taken as ellipses in two in turn gives:

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TRJ 1292 Textile Research Journal 79(14)

At point C, ϕ = δ max ⁄ 2 – ϕ 1 is taken in the same Equa-

tion (A2), thus

ι
2a r ( δ max ⁄ 2 – ϕ 1 ) + u 1 = u 2 (A9)

is obtained.
When we start from point D
Figure A1 Wrapping method of the loop arm on the cylin-
der. ιι ι
b = u1 (A10)

and
du ι ι
dS 1 = -------ι (A3) 2a r ( δ max ⁄ 2 + ϕ 1 ) + u 1 = u 2 (A11)
2a
are obtained. Since the same constant aι is used in Equa-
Therefore, from Equations (A2) and (A3)
tions (A9) and (A11), the equation
du ι
dz = u -------ι (A4) u2 – u1 u2 – u1
2a --------------------------------------
- = ---------------------------------------
- (A12)
2r ( δ max ⁄ 2 – ϕ1 ) 2r ( δ max ⁄ 2 + ϕ 1 )
is obtained and integrating Equation (A4) gives is obtained.
From Equations (A7), (A9), and (A12), the following
2 u2 2 2
u u2 – u1 equations are obtained:
z 1 = -------ι = ----------------
ι
(A5)
4a u1 4a ι
4h u1 + u1
A = -------------------------------------
ι
- – ----------------
-
ι
(A13)
between points B and C. Also starting from point D 2rδ max ( u 1 – u 1 ) u 1 – u 1

2
–A−
(1 ) 2
u2 – u1
2
+ A +1
ϕ 1 = δ max ---------------------------------- (A14)
z 2 = ---------------------
ι
- (A6) 2
4a
ι δ max
is obtained between points C and D using the similar ( u 1 – u 1 ) --------- - + ( u 1 + u ι1 )ϕ 1
method given in Equations (A2) to (A5). 2
u 2 = ------------------------------------------------------------------- (A15)
Let us say that the total length of cylinder is h, then h = 2ϕ 1
2
2 2 2 (1) u2 – u1
u2 – u1 u2 – u1 ι
a = --------------------------------------
- (A16)
z1 + z2, hence h = ---------------- - and thus
+ ---------------------
ι ι 2r ( δ max ⁄ 2 – ϕ 1 )
4a 4a
2 2 ι2 ι If the parameter “A” is smaller than zero (A ≤ 0), the
2u 2 – u 1 – u 1 = 4a h (A7)
minus sign should be used in Equation (A14).
ι ι
is obtained. If the parameters u 1 ( u B ), u 1 ( u D ), h ( h 1 ) and δ max ( δ max1 )
If the total wrapping angle is defined by δ max , we can ι
are known, u 2 ( u c ), ϕ 1 ( ϕ 11 ) and a can be obtained from
define the angular difference between points B and C as Equations (A13) to (A16).
δ c = δ max ⁄ 2 – ϕ 1. For the drawing of the curves, the equation below
It should be noted here that u1 is taken, which is greater should be used:
ι ι
than u 1. If u1 is smaller than u 1, then δ c = δ max ⁄ 2 – ϕ 1
should be used.  u2 – u1
If we say that the angle ϕ starts from point B, in that  --------------------------------------
- r 2 ϕ 2 + u 1 rϕ;
case at point B, ϕ = 0 can be written in S1 = rϕ and taking  2r ( δ max ⁄ 2 – ϕ 1 )

S1 = 0 in Equation (A2)  0 ≤ ϕ ≤ ( δ max ⁄ 2 – ϕ 1 )
z =  (A17)
u2 – u1
 -------------------------------------- 2 2− ι
ι  2r ( δ ⁄ 2 – ϕ ) - r ( δ max – ϕ ) + u 1 r ( δ max – ϕ ) + h;
b = u1 (A8)  max 1
 ( δ max ⁄ 2 – ϕ 1 ) ≤ ϕ ≤ δ max
is obtained. 

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 Geometrical Models for Cardigan Structures Part I: Full Cardigan A. Kurbak and T. Alpyildiz 1293 TRJ

Yarn Length Appendix B

2 2
The yarn length can be found by dS = dz + dS 1 =
Maximum Wrapping Angles (δmax2 and δmax3)
2
 dz  Calculation of the Unit Normal Vector of the
 --------- + 1 dS 1 .
 dS 1 Cylinder Surface on the DF Axis
dz- = u can be given according to Equation (A2) and →
-------- Vector equation of DF in Figure B1 is written as:
dS 1
ι
dS 1 = du ⁄ 2a is given according to Equation (A3), there- → → →
fore R1 = –xa i + ya j (B1)

2 du and the unit vector on this DF axis is as:

dS = u + 1 -------ι (A18)
2a
→ → →
→ R1 –xa i + ya j → →
→ - = ----------------------- = – sin β a i + cos β a j
is obtained. Integrating Equation (A18) from u1 to u2 gives u 1 = -------- (B2)
R1 2 2
xa + y a
2
1 2 2 u2 + 1 + u2
S = -------ι u 2 1 + u 2 – u 1 1 + u 1 + ln ------------------------------ (A19) If we define a cylinder on the DF axis with diameter a, the
4a u1 + 1 + u1
2
equation for this cylinder can be given in connection with
ι
Figures B1 and B2 as:
Since the parameter a is given in Equation (A16)
a
(1) 2r ( δ max ⁄ 2 – ϕ 1 ) x = --- sin ϕ
L = --------------------------------------
- 2
4 ( u2 – u1 ) y = c1
(A20) a
2 2 u2 + 1 + u2
2
z = – --- cos ϕ
× u 2 1 + u 2 – u 1 1 + u 1 + ln ------------------------------ 2
2
u1 + 1 + u1 X 1 = x cos β a – y sin β a (B3)
Y 1 = x sin β a – y cos β a
is obtained for the yarn length of BC in Figure A1.
ι Z1 = z
The parameter a takes the same value for the second
→ → → →
part as well, thus R C1 = X 1 i + Y 1 j + Z 1 k

ι →
ι u2 – u1 The unit vector v 1 on this cylinder can be calculated by the
a = ---------------------------------------
- (A21)
2r ( δ max ⁄ 2 + ϕ 1 ) expression:

can also be written for the second part (for part CD in Fig-
ure A1). Therefore, in a similar method as in Equations
(A19) and (A20), the yarn length of CD in Figure A1 can
be written as

(2) 2r ( δ max ⁄ 2 + ϕ 1 )
L = ---------------------------------------
ι
-
4 ( u2 – u1 )
(A22)
2
2 ι ι 2 u2 + 1 + u2
× u2 1 + u2 – u1 1 + ( u1 ) + ln -------------------------------------
-
ι ι 2
u1 + 1 + ( u1 )

As a result of the above analysis, the total yarn length of

BD in Figure A1 is as:

(1) (2) Figure B1 Set of axes for points D, F, and I.

L ( L2 ) = L +L (A23)

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TRJ 1294 Textile Research Journal 79(14)

By putting the equalities

xb + a
- = tan β b
---------------------------------------- (B10)
2
2  a
y b +  z b + h ---
 2

a
z b + η ---
2
------------------ = tan γ b (B11)
yb
→
into Equation (B9), the unit tangent vector u 2 on FI can be
Figure B2 Set of axes for the DF region.
given by:

→ → → →
u 2 = sin β b i + cos β b cos γ b j + cos β b sin γ b k (B12)
→ →
dR C1 dR C1 dϕ
v→1 = ------------ = ------------ ------- (B4) On the other hand, if we define a cylinder on FI with diam-
dS dϕ dS eter a, the equations for this cylinder can be given as below
→
(in connection with Figures B1 and B3):
From Equation B4, v 1 is obtained as:

(1) a (1)
→ → → → x = – --- sin ϕ
v1 = sin ϕ cos β a i + sin ϕ sin β a j – cos ϕk (B5) 2
(1)
y = c2
→
The unit normal vector n1 is obtained by the vector prod-
= –a
(1) (1)
uct as: z --- cos ϕ
2
(1) (1)
→ → → X2 = x cos β b + y sin β b (B13)
n1 = u1 ∧ v1 (B6)
(1) (1) (1)
Y2 = –x sin β b cos γ b + y cos β b cos γ b – z sin γ b
→ (1) (1) (1)
From the above vector product, the unit normal vector n1 Z2 = –x sin β b sin γ b + y cos β b sin γ b + z cos γ b
of the cylinder on the DF axis can be calculated as: → → → →
R C2 = X 2 i + Y 2 j + Z 2 k

→ → → →
n 1 = – cos ϕ cos β a i – cos ϕ sin βa j – sin ϕk (B7)
→
The unit vector v 2 on the cylinder in Figure B3 can be
given by the expression:
Calculation of Unit Normal Vector on the Cylinder
Surface on the FI Axis
The vector equation of FI in Figure B1 can be written as:

→ → →  a →
R 2 = ( x b + a )i + y b j +  z b + η --- k (B8)
 2

→
The unit tangent vector u 2 on FI is written as:

→ →  a →
( x b + a )i + y b j +  z b + h --- k
→  2
u 2 = -------------------------------------------------------------------- (B9)
2
2 2  a
( xb + a ) + yb +  z b + h --- Figure B3 Set of axes for the FI region.
 2

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 Geometrical Models for Cardigan Structures Part I: Full Cardigan A. Kurbak and T. Alpyildiz 1295 TRJ

→ → where A = sin β a + ( cos β a ⁄ cos β b ) sin β b cos γ b .

→ dR C2 dR C2 dϕ ( 1 ) (2)
v2 = ------------ = ------------ ------------ (B14) The parameter β of cylinder 3 on FI can be found
dS ( 1 ) dS
dϕ from Equation (B23) as:
→
From Equation (B14), v 2 is obtained as:
(2) cos β
→ β = sin
–1
--------------a sin β ( 1 ) (B26)
→
v2 = – cos ϕ
(1)
cos β b i cos β b
(1) (1) →
+ ( cos ϕ sin β b cos γ b – sin ϕ sin γ b )j (B15) The maximum wrapping angles are then obtained as:
(1) (1) →
+ ( cos ϕ sin β b sin γ b + sin ϕ cos γ b )k (1 )
δ max2= π/2 + β (B27)
→
To obtain the normal vector n2
to the surface of the cylin-
(2 )
der defined on the FI axis, the following vector product can δ max3= π/2 + β (B28)
be used:
The below given equation (B29) and (B30) can also be
→ → →
n2 = –u2 ∧ v2 (B16) used instead of the equations (B25) and (B26).
→
From the vector equation (B16), the unit normal vector n 2 (1) sin γ b
to the surface of the cylinder on FI can be calculated as: β = tan –1 ----------------------------------------------------------------
- (B29)
sin β a cos γ b + cos β a tan β b
→ (1) →
n2 = – sin ϕ cos β b i (2) sin γ b
β = tan –1 ----------------------------------------------------------------
- (B30)
(1) (1) → sin β b cos γ b + cos β b tan β a
+ ( sin ϕ sin β b cos γ b + cos ϕ sin γ b )j (B17)
(1) (1) →
+ ( sin ϕ sin β b sin γ b – cos ϕ cos γ b )k

For the intersection of cylinder surfaces at point F, n 1 must

→ Appendix C
→ → →
be equal to n 2. Therefore, n 1 = n 2 and thus
Calculations of the Angles αιIH and β of the
(1)
– cos ϕ cos β a = – sin ϕ cos β b (B18) Tuck Stitch Arm
(1) (1) The equations for drawing the rib-crossing part DF and the
– cos ϕ sin β a = sin ϕ sin β b cos γ b + cos ϕ sin γ b (B19)
tuck stitch arm FI in Figure 2 can be obtained by replacing
(1) (1)
z, which is given in Equation (A17) of Appendix A, with
– sin ϕ = sin ϕ sin β b sin γ b – cos ϕ cos γ b (B20) the constant c1 (or c2) in Equations (B3) or (B12) of
Appendix B. The equations for the applied curve for the
are obtained. second part (GI) of FI1 are:
When we change the variables:
(1 ) a
ϕ = π⁄2+β
(1)
(B21) x = – --- sin ϕ
2
(1) (2) ι 2 2
ϕ = 2π – β (B22)  u G – u IH   
y
(1 ) ι
-a
= h 3 –  ---------------------------------------- --- δ max3 – ϕ – β ( 2 )
 
in Equations (B18) and (B19), we obtain  a ( δ max3 ⁄ 2 + ϕ 13 )  2

cos β ι  a
+ u IH  ---  δ max – ϕ – β  ;
(2) (1) (2)
sin β = --------------a sin β (B23)
cos β b  2  

(1) (2) (2) δ ⁄ 2 – ϕ 13 – β  ≤ ϕ ≤  δ max3 – β 

(2 ) (2)
sin β sin β a = – sin β sin β b cos γ b + cos β sin γ b (B24)  max3   
(1 ) a
By putting Equation (B23) into Equation (B24), β
(1)
is z = – --- cos ϕ
2
obtained as follows:
(1) (1 )
X2 = x cos β b + y sin β b
  2
cos βa
sin γ b ⁄ A – sin γb  1 – ---------------
(1) (1) (1 ) (1)
β = tan
–1 2 2
- (B25) Y2 = –x sin β b cos γ b + y cos β b cos γ b – z sin γ b (C1)
 2 
 cos βb (1) (1) (1)
Z2 = –x sin β b sin γ b + y cos β b sin γ b + z cos γ b

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TRJ 1296 Textile Research Journal 79(14)

(2) ι a If we define ( dZ 2 ⁄ dX 2 ) IH by tanβ as:

where δ max3 = π ⁄ 2 + β and h 3 = h 3 – --- tan β b (see Fig-
2
ι
ure 7 for parameter h 3 ).
ι
Differentiations of X2, Y2 and Z2 can be given by:  dZ  u IH cos β b sin γ b + cos γ b
tan β =  ---------2 = --------------------------------------------------------
ι
- (C5)
 dX 2 IH u IH sin β b
(1) (1)
dx dy
dX 2 =  ----------- cos β b + ----------- sin β b dϕ
 dϕ dϕ 
and if we write the equalities ( dZ2 ⁄ dY 2 ) IH = ∞ or
(1) (1)
– dx dy
dY 2 =  -------------- sin β b cos γ b + ----------- cos β b cos γ b ( dY 2 ⁄ dZ 2 ) IH = 0 as:
 dϕ dϕ
(1 )
dz
– ----------- sin γ b  dϕ (C2) ι
u IH cos β b cos γ b – sin γ b
dϕ 
- = 0
--------------------------------------------------------
ι
(C6)
– dx
(1)
dy
(1) u IH cos β b sin γ b + cos γ b
dZ 2 =  -------------- sin β b sin γ b + ----------- cos β b sin γ b
 dϕ dϕ
(1 ) according to assumption number 4 in the main text, the
dz
– ----------- cos γ b  dϕ equations below are obtained:
dϕ 

where ι tan γ
u IH = --------------b (C7)
cos β b
(1 )
----------- = – a
dx --- cos ϕ
dϕ 2 1
tan β = ---------------------------
- (C8)
ι
 a sin γ b tan β b
(1 ) ( uG – u IH ) a
dy -  ---  δ max3 – ϕ – β ( 2 ) + u ιIH ---
----------- = -------------------------------------
dϕ ( δ max3 ⁄ 2 + ϕ 13 )  2   2
ι ι
(1 )
Knowing that u IH = tan α IH , Equations (C7) and (C8)
dz a
----------- = --- sin ϕ become
dϕ 2
(2) ι –1
and δ max3 = π ⁄ 2 + β . α IH = tan [ tan γ b ⁄ ( cos β b ) ] (C9)
At point I, ϕ = π/2 is written, therefore:
and
 dx ( 1 )
 ----------- = 0 –1
 dϕ  IH β = tan [ 1 ⁄ ( sin γ b tan β b ) ] (C10)

 dy ( 1 ) ι a
 ----------- = u IH --- (C3)
 dϕ  IH 2
Appendix D
 dz ( 1 ) a
 ----------- = ---
 dϕ  IH 2 Calculations of the Parameters of Tuck Stitch
Head
and thus
As mentioned in the paper, the tuck stitch head is assumed
to be in a vertical plane and it is modeled as an elliptical
 a ι curve (Figure D1).
dX 2 =  --- u I sin β b dϕ
IH
2  Equations of such an ellipse can be given by:

a ι a 
dY 2 =  --- u I cos β b cos γ b – --- sin γ b dϕ (C4) X = A b sin ϕ
IH
 2 2  (D1)
Z = B b cos ϕ
a ι a 
dZ 2 =  --- u I cos β b sin γ b – --- cos γ b dϕ
IH
 2 2  where the parameter ϕ changes between – ϕ IH and +ϕ IH.
Calculations of the parameters Ab, Bb, and ϕ IH are as
are obtained. follows.

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 Geometrical Models for Cardigan Structures Part I: Full Cardigan A. Kurbak and T. Alpyildiz 1297 TRJ

3⁄2

A
2  2
B
-----b- 1 –  1 – -----b- sin ϕ IH a⁄2 -
= ------------------ (D4)
Bb  2 2 ι
 A b cos αIH

From Equations (D2)to (D4), the parameters of the

tuck stitch head can be calculated as:

–1 sin β cos β
ϕ IH = cos --------------------------------- ----------------- (D5)
( 1 ⁄ cos β ) + 1 cos α ιIH

a
A b = --- ( 1 + 1 ⁄ cos β ) ⁄ sin ϕ IH (D6)
Figure D1 Set of axes for the IH region. 2

B b = A b tan β ⁄ tan ϕ IH (D7)

• Tangent to the ellipse at point I is calculated as:
ι
where the parameters β and α IH are already calculated as
B given in Appendix C.
-----b- tan ϕ IH = tan β (D2)
Ab

• Horizontal distance between points II and H in Fig-

ure D1 is given by: Appendix E
 a
A b sin ϕ IH = a
--- +  --- ⁄ cos β b (D3) Calculation of the Control Parameter “η*”
2  2
Let us assume that the intersection of the crossing part of
• Radius of curvature calculated from the tuck stitch the previous course is lying in the fabric thickness direction
head must be equal to the radius of curvature calcu- and its intersection point with the tuck stitch head is repre-
lated from the tuck stitch arm at point I in Figure D1. sented by “N” in Figure E1. The coordinates of points T
From this argument the equation below can be written: and N in Figure E1 can be written as:

Figure E1 Set of axes for points T

and N.

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TRJ 1298 Textile Research Journal 79(14)

Figure E2 Flow chart of the Newton–Raphson method for obtaining the roots of Equation (E10) (here instead of θ1* and ϕ1*, θ
and ϕ are used, respectively).

It is known that the inclination of the tangent line

a *a and the normal line at any point gives the following
N --- ;– η ---
2 2 equation:

T A b cos ϕ 1 ; B b  sin ϕ 1 – sin ϕ IH

* *
  m1 ⋅ m2 = –1 (E2)

It is also arranged so that point N is on the normal line of where m2 is the inclination of the normal line at point T in
the ellipse at point T, therefore the following equations can Figure E1.
be written. Therefore, the inclination m2 of the normal line at point
The inclination of tangent line of the ellipse at point T T of ellipse becomes:
is as:
Ab
B m 2 = --------------------
- (E3)
m 1 = dZ
*
------- = – -----b- tan ϕ 1 (E1) B b tan ϕ 1
*
dX Ab

where X = A b sin ϕ and Z = B b cos ϕ – B b cos ϕ IH are If the equation of the normal line which passes through
taken as the equations for the ellipse. points T and N in Figure E1 is written as:

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 Geometrical Models for Cardigan Structures Part I: Full Cardigan A. Kurbak and T. Alpyildiz 1299 TRJ

Ab
z = --------------------
-* x + n (E4) Literature Cited
B b tan ϕ 1
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