NEED MAGMEMORIZE OR MA LEARN YUNG INFOS NA WITH NUMBERS

USUALLY YUN YUNG KULANG KA PA

Positive feedback

Negative feedback mechanism – Ex. Cold=shivering. When one increases– something has to compensate
and decrease to maintain homeostasis cold = shiver

Bad thing of Negative feedback mechanism:

Sometimes NFM could be harmful to us

Ex. Decreased testosterone = increased estrogen to balance

Positive feedback – intensifies condition

Ex: fever = shivering (harmful)

Ex: Lactation = increased prolactin (beneficial)

Rooting reflex

 A reflex that is seen in normal newborn babies, who automatically turn the face toward the
stimulus and make sucking (rooting) motions with the mouth when the cheek or lip is
touched.
 The rooting reflex helps to ensure successful breastfeeding.

Lactation –

Milk production, which is produced in response to the length of time the infant nurses at the
breast.

Albumin – The main protein in human blood that regulates the osmotic pressure of blood.

(keeps the blood inside the blood vessel)

--Chemically, albumin is soluble in water, precipitated by acid, and coagulated by heat

Kidney problem – excreting protein (protein urea) – lesser albumin – fluids shifts from blood vessels into
interstitial space (edema)
Osmolarity

The concentration of osmotically active particles in solution, which may be quantitatively expressed in
osmoles of solute per liter of solution.

Urea, nitrogen or creatinine – toxic waste that needs to be excreted through GIT & GUT, otherwise they
can cause toxicity to the body.

Vein

 There is no tissue perfusion in between joints

Steatorrhea – fats in stool

Pancreas – secretes insulin, glucagon

Acne/pimples – unknown cause

Unhygienic practices - risk factor (raises the odds)

TB – tubercle bacilli is the cause

MITRAL VALVE also called BICUSPID VALVE

PULMONIC VALVE also called PULMONARY VALVE

ATRIAL GALLOP = TOTALLY ABNORMAL

VENTRICULAR GALLOP – STRONG HEARTS USUALLY ATHLETES

Pump blood to the lungs – pulmonary circulation

Pump blood to the rest of the body – systemic circulation – provides blood to the system of the body

Pulmonary circulation - pump of blood to the lungs

Systemic circulation – pump of blood to the rest of the body.
 - provides blood to the system of the body
Atrium – An entry chamber. On both sides of the heart, the atrium is the chamber that leads to
the ventricle.
Ventricles, heart –
 Two lower chambers of the heart.
 The right ventricle receives blood from the right atrium and pumps it into the lungs
via the pulmonary artery
 The left ventricle receives blood from the left atrium and pumps it into the
circulation system via the aorta.more powerful and muscular
 More powerful and muscular
Greater vessels:

 PULMONARY TRUNK
 AORTA

Heart sounds murmurs:

 Systolic murmur
 Diastolic murmur

Nasal flaring – one sign of difficulty of breathing or respiratory distress

Normal Range of BP – 110/70 to 120/80

S/D S/D

Sympathomimetic

Ex. Shabu

Para-sympathomimetic

Ex. Marijuana

Epinephrine (fight-or-flight reaction)

 Also known as adrenaline. A substance produced by the medulla inside of the adrenal gland.
 Epinephrine is a sympathomimetic catecholamine.
  It causes quickening of the heart beat, strengthens the force of the heart's contraction, opens
up the airways (bronchioles) in the lungs, and has numerous other effects.

Ascending nerve tracts – Sensory nerves - posterior part of spinal cord (sense: pain, pleasure or neutral)

Descending nerve tracts – Motor nerves - anterior part of spinal cord

We have 24 cranial nerves. We have 12 pairs of cranial nerves

Brain - is the most complex organ we have.

Most active when asleep

Gyrus

 A convolution on the surface of a cerebral hemisphere caused by the infolding of the cerebral
cortex. The gyri are bounded by crevices in the cortex called sulci. (kulot kulot sa utak)
 It is hypothesized that the more gyri you have the more that you are intelligent

Cerebrum “brum”

 Motor function
 Sensory
 Divided into left and right hemispheres
 Left controls and sense the contralateral side(right side of the body) and vise versa

Tentorium

- divides the upper and lower parts of the brain

Supra-tentorial – cerebrum (upper)

Infra-tentorial – cerebellum (lower)

Cortex – lobes

4 lobes: Frontal, Parietal, Temporal, Occipital lobes

Aphasia – pepe
Parietal – tactile stimulation (sense of touch)

Grade 0 no sensation at all 1 impaired sensation (applied pressure) 2 (intact)

Tubercle bacilli

 Highly dependent in oxygen (aerobic)

TB

 low grade fever lang dahil yung infective organism nasa baga lang (37.6-37.9)

Pneumococcus (Streptococcus pneumoniae)

 microorganism can penetrate the brain, specifically it could go to hypothalamus,

causes high grade fever (39 or above)
 Can cause Pneumonia

Medulla Oblongata

 The base of the brain, which is formed by the enlarged top of the spinal cord.
 The medulla oblongata directly controls breathing, blood flow, and other essential
functions.

Respiratory arrest

 Too much of oxygen and absence of carbon dioxide can lead to respiratory arrest
 The medulla can signal the lungs to refrain from breathing leading to Respiratory
arrest (0 RR)
 We have to maintain a moderate carbon dioxide in our body to stimulate our hypoxic
drive.
 Hypoxic drive is the stimuli for our respiration

More than 20 RR – tachypnea

Less than 12 – Bradypnea

Pons – VP, characteristic (deepness/shallowness)

1 olfactory - Victoria

2 optics - karate eye poke

3 oculomotors – tricycle

7 part of it is sensation of tongue as well (anterior 2/3) taste perception to asses for bell’s
palsy

8 ticking clock or whisper

9 dulopharyngeal - posterior 1/3 , taste and movement (motor and sense)(swallowing, gag
reflex) (tongue depressor- popsicle)

10 vagal, villi’s – increase HCl, decrease HR, stimulation of valgus nerve can decrease HR

11 accessory/ spinal accessories –scalene, trapezius, sternocleidomastoid (accessory

muscles

No way to assess the scalene (underneath clavicle)

12 tongue movement- aphasia

Sclera – white

Choroid –brownish due to blood vessels (highly vascular)

Iris – comprised of soft tissue that helps pupil to construct and dilate

Pupil

Adaptive mechanism

Protective mechanism

Lens – adjusting like microscope, ours is just automatic

VH - jelly-like structure from within the eye, to maintain normal shape of the eye

Aqueous humor – liquid portion of the eyes to maintain the normal pressure of the eye
In front of the lens

Normal pressure 10-21mmHg (millimeter mercury)

Cones – gumagana pag increased illumination

Optic nerve – CN ll

Bones

Increased/ excessive calcium in blood (hypercalcemia) brittle bones

The more calcium we have in the bone the thicker/dense the bone is

Muscle contracts because of the pulling together of the thick and thin fibers

Contraction

Calcium – catalyst (starts/initiates pulling together if the actin /& myosin)

Hypercalcemic patients have weakness

Calcium in bone and muscle go to the blood

18 months fully closure of sutures – joints that will close the fontanels

Cervical nerve is until c8, di rumerekta sa utak yug vertebra

Coccyx
Originally 4 babies but fused together in adults

Baby 33 adult 30

Spinal columns are curved for spring effect to avoid trauma in every vertebral column

C1 – T5 – are articulating because they have discs (24)

Sacrum and coccyx are fused bones due to absence of iv disk

Column (articulating and fused) 26

All Segments 30

Hip dislocation – lumabas ang head of femur from acetabulum

Greater trochanter nakakapa pag inenternal at external rotate ang femur

Lesser trochanter- hindi nakakapa dahil natatabunan ng muscle at fats

Living marrow – red marrow

Dead marrow - yellow marrow produces RBC in response to erythropoietin (a hormone from
kidneys)

Hormone ay Humahalo sa blood papuntang bone marrow signaling it to produce rbc

Kidney disease can cause anemia due to less erythropoietin

RBC production – erythropoiesis

Yellow marrow – high in fats

Can cause fat embolism, pulmonary embolism of fat

Blood vessel is semi permeable

Joints

Functional unit – allow movements

Synovial fluid acts as a cushion just like the iv disk

Reduction of bone – pagdugtong ulit ng fx bones

3 osteoclasts – bone resorption (remodeling)

Chondrocytes - cells that form cartilage

Chondyloid – connects bone to cartilage

Bones come from bone marrow

MSC and so on

HSC (from red marrow) – osteoclast progenitor (OCL) - and so on

Ob and OC- both came from MSC and HSC

Endocrine system is all about balance

Too less or too much can cause problem

Hormones always goes to the blood

FHS and LH are both for sexual maturity (both occurs in Male and Female) RPG

ACTH – targets adrenal gland because adrenal glands produces ccc (cortisone, cortisol,
corticosterone)

Adrenal medulla - inner part of adrenal glands

Cortex - covering, outer part of ag (produces ccc which are natural anti-inflammatories)

Medulla – catecholamine (neurotransmitters) increases blood pressure responsible for fight or

flight mechanism

T4 tetra iodothyronine / thyroxine

T3 and t4 targets mitochondrion

Mitochondrion is the powerhouse of the cell

T3 and T4 targets metabolism. It dictates metabolism of an individual

T5 (calcitonin) – moves calcium inside the bone. From blood stream into the bone

Hypocalcemia – low calcium in blood. high in calcitonin (T5). Moves calcium into the bone

Increased bone density and thickness, disadvantage low calcium in blood.

Hypercalcemia - brittle bone, less bone density will subsequently cause osteoporosis

Parathyroid gland is the direct inverse of calcitonin (T5) – will move calcium out of the bone
Paralumabas ang calcium sa buto rekta sa blood. It can cause hypercalcemia

Oxytocin – present in females, it helps uterine contraction and lactation

ADH

Urinary retention – can cause brain edema (cerebral edema)

Ihi ng ihi na pwede makacause ng dehydration

TSH – thyroid stimulating hormone

- Targets thyroid gland (t3, t4, t5)

FSH & LH – RPG

Hormone of a women – estrogen

Mother – progesterone

Men – testosterone

ACTH – adeno corticotropic hormone - targets adrenal gland / suprarenal gland (adrenal
cortex)

GH

Male below 21

Female below 18

GIGANTISM – MASYADONG MATAS ANG GH NOONG BATA PA. problems with balance

High GH after 21 in male and 18 in female means that a person suffers from acromegaly
Acromegaly – masyadong kakapal o lalapad ang mga buto (tutubo palapad)

Prolactin – produces milk

Oxytocin – responsible for letdown reflex

Unang lalabas sa babae kulay dilaw. Ipainom sa anak. Cholostrum maraming vitamins at
Immunoglobulins.

Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)

Too high ADH – SIADH - syndrome of inappropriate ADH . di makaihi ng maayos

Too low ADH – Diabetes Insipidus (DI – dami ihi) – ihi ng ihi

DM 1 – pancreas doesn’t secrete insulin. JUVINILLE ONSET, IT IS GENETIC.

USUALLY PAYAT DAHIL DI NASUSUPPLYAN ANG CELLS

Cell – basic unit of life

When our cells suffer from hunger and thirst, they signal it to us through feelings of hunger

Insulin lets glucose pass through blood vessel into the cell

Lack of insulin can lead to overeating due to cell not receiving glucose from blood

Consequently, the glucose accumulates in the blood leading to high blood sugar.

Blood has a problem raveling leading into multiple organ failure due to lack of tissue
perfusion.

DM 2 – TOO MUCH GLUCOSE IN BLOOD DUE TO OVEREATING

USUALLY OVERWEIGHT PERSON WITH LOW METABOLISM HAS THIS. FAT CELLS
KEEPS DEMANDING GLUCOSE LEADING TO FREQUENT EATING. GLUCOSE GETS
ACCUMULTED INTO THE BLOOD DUE TO INSULIN NOT BEING ABLE TO PROCESS ALL
OF GLUCOSE INTO THE CELL.
LIFESTYLE

Saliva contains ptyalin

Ptyalin- is an enzyme secreted by salivary gland that digests protein (protein breakdown)

Chemical digestion – through enzymes

Mechanical digestion – through movement

power of hydrogen level (pH level) or acidity

Normal pH level – 7.35-7.45 pH (low)

HCl pH level – 1.5-3.5 pH

HCl (secreted from stomach)

Parietal cells - produce HCl. HCl Inhibits bacterial growth (not all). Helicobacter pylori is
bacteria that can withstand the acidity of stomach

Digests food

Intrinsic factor

It aids to the absorption of Vitamin b12

Low prod of parietal cells and intrinsic factor then it could lead to Vitamin b12 deficiency.

Too low can lead to anemia (pernicious)

Chief cells from the stomach produces pepsinogen

Pepsinogen mixed with HCl is called pepsin

Pepsin helps into protein digestion (chemical digestion)

Bile (from liver)

Aids in emulsification of fats.

Amylase (from pancreas)

Pancreatic juice that also aids in the digestion

Lipase (pancreatic juice)

Pancreatic juice that also aids in the digestion

Pancreatitis

Pancreas is unable to send amylase and lipase into the GIT due to inflammation

The tendency is it sends Amylase and lipase into bloodstream (high amylase and lipase in
blood)

Esophagus length in adult is about 10”

Jejunum

Maximum absorption of nutrients occurs happen

Nutrients can be absorbed from any part of the colon or alimentary tract (small or large)

Majority of absorption occurs at jejunum

Lower esophageal sphincter (LES)/ cardiac sphincter

Pyloric Sphincter
As epiglottis closes. LES opens

Food stays in stomach between 2-4 hours. breaks down of into much absorbable product

Chime

break down of food in stomach into much absorbable product. Food + HCl (2-4hours)

as epiglottis opens. LES closes to prevent reflux

GERD

Food reflux due to Incompetent LES

Pyloric Sphincter (with food)

Opens up between 2-4 hours. Chime enter into alimentary tract so that it can be absorbed.

How does bloating happen

Sometimes Bloating happens due to hyperacidity,

HCl creates gas formation or bubbling as you are digesting.

Frequent of belching or flatulence.

Antacin removes acidity, releases gas through belching and flatulence.

Layers of stomach
Mucosa – 1st layer, inner layer

Submucosa – contains veins and arteries, it is where circulation occurs

Ulcer - HCl permeates mucosa until submucosa, it will tend to bleed out, sometimes vomiting
of blood

Muscularis - muscular, responsible for churning and contraction, makes stomach elastic,

Adventitia – protective layer

Histamine and gastrin stimulates or aids the parietal cells to keep on producing more HCl.
(positive feedback)

Inhibition to either one of them can result to lower HCl production

H2 receptor antagonist (H2 blockers) antagonizes histamine. Decrease production of

histamine will decrease the production of HCl. One of drug of choice for ulcer

Somatostatin – balances the production of HCl. It could decrease or increase acidity or

alkalinity of stomach depending on the situation

CN 10 (vagus nerve) – stimulates parietal cells to produce HCl

Proton pumps

Present on top surface of mucosa linings. An exit route of HCl.

Omeprazole - proton pump inhibitor. Inhibiting proton pump from secreting HCl

Proton pump inhibitors are more effective than h2 receptor antagonist

Majority of fluid absorption occurs at large intestine

Pathology that prevents large intestine from absorbing fluids can lead to persistent diarrhea
and dehydration.
Ascending colon – liquid form

Transverse colon – semi-solid

Descending colon – solid fecal matter

Dead blood cells go to liver where liver expels it in form of bilirubin

Diverticula (outpouching) – fecal impaction

Diverticulum – singular

Diverticulae – plural

Diverticulitis – wounded diverticulum due to too much turbulent fecal matter movement and
fecal impaction. Age, less fiber in diet is a risk factor.

Fiber helps in movement

Large intestine

Mucosa

Submucosa – contains blood vessels

Muscularis propia – churning

Serosa

Tinae coli – muscular entity that helps with the segmentation. There are 3 tinae coli

Colon cancer risk factor – it only raises the odds

Polyps –

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD)

Ulcer – h pylori bacterial infection, helicobacter pylori, bacteria that can withstand 1.5-3.5
acidity of the stomach

Theory cause of cancer

Unused overused or misused

Naliparity - breast cancer

Hepatobiliary tree

Liver – stores blood, highly vascular

Portal circulation

Hepatic portal – liver circulation

Portal hypertension – high blood pressure in liver, liver is highly vascular

Kuppfer cells – filters blood, expels microorganism

It also plays part with regards to the immunity of a person

Produces albumin – maintain colloid oncotic pressure that will prevent shifting of the
fluids from the blood vessels into the interstitial spaces

Hypoalbuminemia – cannot produce albumin. Nothing maintains oncotic pressure. Blood and
fluids can go into interstitial spaces which could be the very cause of your edema.

Pag may sira ang liver may generalized edema, nagmamanas ang katawan. That is because
of the failure of the liver to produce albumin

Produces bile – bile is necessary for the emulsification of fat. Fat needs to be emulsified for
us to be able to absorb the fat soluble vitamins (ADEK). These vitamins can’t be absorbed if
the GIT didn’t emulsify the fats
Eating too much fats can cause fatty liver. Fatty liver doesn’t perform well, probable cause of
portal hypertension

Pancreas – both endocrine and exocrine gland

Endocrine- ductless gland. Exocrine – with ducts

“Chole” gal, “Cyst” bladder

Cholecystitis – inflammation of gallbladder

Cholelithiasis – formation of gallstone

Spleen – cemetery of blood

- It sends dead RBCs (orangey in color) into liver for the liver to convert it to
bilirubin

Liver cirrhosis – can be due to alcohol consumption, infections, or heart problems

Hepatitis – inflammation of the liver

Liver cirrhosis and hepatitis prevents the liver from secreting the bile and bilirubin to the GIT.
Bilirubin Is supposed to be excreted to GIT for color of stool. Normal color of school is brown

Resulting in;

colorless stools (gray) due to absence of bilirubin in stool,

Fat in the stool (steatorrhea) due to the un emulsified fats

Dark colored urine - due to bilirubin entering the bloodstream and exiting through the kidneys

Jaundice – yellowish of skin and sclera due to bilirubin present in bloodstream

Pruritus (itchiness) – due to bilirubin present in bloodstream

Pancreas - endocrine and exocrine gland

Islets of Langerhans – superficial tissue of pancreas

Composes of 3 types of cells:

Alpha cells, Beta cells Delta cells

Endocrine property of Pancreas– through bloodstream

Alpha cells – produces Glucagon mnemonic (Aglucagon)

Beta cells – produces Insulin mnemonic (Binsulin)

Delta Cells – produces Somatistatin, also produced by T- cells in the stomach (inner layer of
mucosa) Mnemonic DSomastatin

T- cells in stomach balance the pH in stomach

T- cells from Delta cells balance Glucagon and Insulin

Glucagon – a form of glucose produced when blood glucose level is low in blood
(Hypoglycemia).as a negative feedback mechanism

All pancreatic enzymes don’t exit through Pancreatic duct (ductless)t, but into the
bloodstream

DM 1 – lack of insulin in blood. Malapot ang dugo dahil sa excessive glucose in blood.

Lesser tissue perfusion in distal parts of extremities resulting unhealed wounds. Which could
cause further infection and ulceration of the skin due to lack of tissue perfusion. Tendency is
unhealed tissues in distal part is removed

Insulin - transports glucose from blood vessel into the cells for energy

Exocrine property of Pancreas– through GIT

Pancreas (inside) produces Amylase and Lipase

Amylase and Lipase aid digestion of food

Both referred to as pancreatic juices

Pancreatic juices in synergy with bile to help digest food

Pancreatitis – inflammation of pancreas

Pancreatic juices don’t go to GIT but rather it stays in pancreas and digest itself (auto-
digestion) leading to more inflammation

Pancreas also goes into blood resulting high serum Amylase and Lipase

high Amylase and Lipase in blood then is an indication that a person suffers from pancreatitis

Kidneys – create urine

Wastes

Creatinine - byproduct of protein wasting/ muscle wasting

Urea

Nitrogen

Wastes are byproduct of nutrients absorbed and metabolized by our cells, they are waste that
excreted to GIT and GUT for elimination

These three are being excreted through urine

Male urethra is longer compared to female

Renal circulation – flow of blood in kidneys for tissue perfusion

 - Renal artery and renal vein

Kidneys – bean shaped organ, bilateral

Right after the cell metabolizes nutrients it goes to GIT and GUT for waste elimination

Renal cortex – outer layer

Renal medulla – inner layer

Renal pyramid – cleans the kidney via functional unit of kidneys (nephrons)

Inside renal pyramids are Nephrons

Kidneys is lke a washin machine

- Heroic organ it can sacrifice itself just to maintain homeostasis (balance).

Kidney is one of organ than deals with imbalances (Ex. over hydration)
- Increase UO to maintain balance in fluid
- Electrolytes like calcium found in urine, also sodium
- Urination eliminates sodium
- If there is too much sodium, then kidneys will balance your body by excreting
sodium to maintain balance in sodium
- Too less sodium: kidney will reabsorb sodium
- Meds that is harmful that it could kill your kidneys (nephrotoxic drug)

Antibiotics abuse is harmful in your kidneys

Even if it harms itself kidneys will force to excrete from body even if it is
sacrificing itself. That’s why some suffers from Renal failure. It’s like before
person dies the kidneys tries its best to eliminate the toxins

Nephron:

Afferent arteriole – blood inward (dirty blood)

Efferent arteriole – outward (

Glomerulus – Cleans the blood ( 90cc or more/min.) (GFR – Glomerular Filtration Rate)

Less than 90cc per min for renal failure – depends on machine to clean
blood hemodialysis – removes creatinine in blood

GFR: One basis of the function of kidney

Bowman’s capsule – sucks in

Proximal convoluted tubule – passageway

Distal convoluted tubule – passageway

Descending loop – reabsorbs water back to the systemic circulation of needed (in event of
dehydration)

Loop of Henle –

Ascending loop– reabsorbs sodium back to systemic circulation if needed (in event of low
sodium) to maintain balance of sodium in blood to maintain homeostasis.

Collecting duct – Collects waste product and excretes it through UO

Creatinine clearance – creatinine that goes out of the urine

Serum Creatinine– creatinine that stays in the blood. 0.6 – 1.2 is normal range/value

Kung sobra ang tubig at sodium itatapon palabras

Kiung kulang naman irereabsorb sa ascending or descending loop

General normal urine output – 3-4 liters / day for a healthy consumption of liquid

Depends in lifestyle

Output of urine should be almost same with the amount of what you consume / drink

Ex.

Approximately 500-600 if you drink 600

Female are prone to acquiring UTI due to shorter length of urethra

Urethritis – inflammation of urethra

Ureteritis – inflammation of ureter(s)

Cystitis – inflammation of urinary bladder

Pyelonephritis – inflammation of renal pelvis

Immune System

Network – sequence used to see function of immune system:

Lymph nodes

Cells (like memory cells, effector cells)

Different between antibody and antigen

Our body contains normal flora in GIT

Normal flora in GIT – good bacteria sometimes it secretes alkine substances, sometimes it
aids with digestion

Normal flora in skin – to fight off infective microorganisms

Opportunistic

In the event that there is something wrong with immune system or we’re having weak
immune system then the normal flora could infect us

Chicken pox – isang beses lang pwede magkaroon ng chicken pox

Dengue – anim na beses lang pwede magkaroon ng dengue

Chikungunya virus, Oniyo niyong, Denv1 – 4

Virus – usually patatandaan ng immune system, it keeps a record

Bone marrow produces RBC, WBC, platelets

RBC –oxygen

WBC – fight infection

Platelet – prevents bleeding

Dengue virus makes blood vessels semi permeable, causing hemorrhage or internal
bleeding, decreases platelets

Petechial rash

Normal platelet count – 150,000 – 450,000

50,000 below is a candidate of spontaneous bleeding (stage 4)

Antigen – either virus or bacteria

Nonspecific immunity can’t kill specific bacteria only the specific/adaptive immunity

It’s comparable to a broad spectrum of antibiotic (ceftriaxone vs penicillin)

1st line of defense:

Skin (barrier)

HCl could act against microorganism present in food

2nd line of defense:

Inflammation response can hinder the microorganism from being able to furrow down into
your systemic circulation

3rd line of defense

Specific/adaptive immunity

b-
memory cell –

 antibody takes a piece of antigen and digests it and present or display its DNA
structure into surface of memory cell
 Secondary immune-system components that have an affinity
for a particular antigen. Like other B cells, memory B cells
originate from lymphocytes that develop and are activated in
the bone marrow.
 has letter Y (antibody). Doesn’t attack many but only few

not all antibody can kill invasive microorganism, sa dami ng antibodies sa Effector at memory
cells kailangan may magmatch sa DNA structure.

Once microorganism is recognized the effector cells will now spew antibodies

effector cells – contains antibodies inside spew antibodies to fight and kill off
antigen/microorganisms harmful to the body

after you get well, next time that you get exposed and infected to a virus, it won’t manifest
(fever), because antibodies kill them off in the blood and it won’t have any chance to
manifest.

B-CELLS - The type of cell that has both memory and effector cells. A type of white blood cell and,
A specifically, a type of lymphocyte.

EFFECTOR CELLS - Type of cells responsible for attacking antigens.

- contains antibodies inside spew antibodies to fight and kill off

antigen/microorganisms harmful to the body

INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE –

 Type of response that maximizes the size of cells and prevent invasion by hindering the
microorganism from being able to furrow down into your systemic circulation
 A fundamental type of response by the body to disease and injury,
 a response characterized by the classical signs of "dolor, calor, rubor, and tumor" -- pain, heat
(localized warmth), redness, and swelling.
  Paradoxically, the inflammatory process itself may cause tissue damage while it is engaged in
healing and repair.
 Thus, inflammation may play a role in such diverse disorders as Alzheimer disease, meningitis,
atherosclerosis, cystic fibrosis, asthma, cirrhosis of the liver, inflammatory bowel disease (IBD),
diabetes, osteoporosis, and psoriasis.

ERYTHROPOIETIN – is a substance produced by the kidney that leads to the formation of RBC in the bone
marrow

T cell

 A type of white blood cell that is the core of adaptive immunity

 the system that tailors the body's immune response to specific pathogens.
 The T cells are like soldiers who search out and destroy the targeted invaders.

T-HELPER CELLS - cell responsible for alarming the whole immune system from a bacterial invasion.

- HIV patients have low T-helper cells (CD4 cells).

Cytokine

 A small protein released by cells.

 The cytokines includes the interleukins, lymphokines and cell signal molecules, such as tumor
necrosis factor and the interferons, which trigger inflammation and respond to infections
 Cytokines kill infected cells. When cells get infected, it could only cause further infection
and damage in the other cells

How vaccine works

Microorganism is introduced in small amounts for the memory cell to be aware of them and
recognize them as antigen. So that immune system can now attack it with the help of T-
helper cells

In short bacteria is introduced to the body

BCG

Lymphatic System

Elevate extremity – raise extremities for fluid to go down into the lymph nodes by virtue of
gravity. The fluids will be sucked by the lymph nodes and bring them into jugular veins and
direct it to heart to kidneys and eliminate them as urine
Also plays a role for immune function: contains Lymphocyte within

WBC and Lymphocytes go into lymphatic system for elimination of microorganisms

Common Lymph nodes

 Cervical
 Supra-clavicular
 Axillary
 Inguinal
 Mediastinal
 Aortic

Serves as canal system for fluids from Edema (because of fluid shifting)

They contain Lymphocytes that attacks microorganisms present in blood

Menarche – beginning of menstruation

Menopause – menstrual periods permanently stop

Andropause – sperm cell production permanently stops