LESSON 2: INTELLECTUAL REVOLUTIONS

Introduction

It has been established that most, if not all, of the discoveries and inventions in
science and technology during each time period were due to human needs and
wants. Brilliant minds responded to the call of the times and created things that
could make life easier for the people.

There have been instances when advancements in science and technology change
people's perceptions and beliefs. Much of these events happened in the period
known as the Intellectual Revolutions.

Intellectual Revolution is the time period when advancements of science &

technology changed people's perceptions and beliefs.

Paradigm shift 

A paradigm shift is a transformation from one organizing theoretical perspective to

another. It is also called a revolutionary science. A Paradigm Shift is a change from
one way of thinking to another. It's a revolution, a transformation, a sort of
metamorphosis. It just does not happen, but rather it is driven by agents of
change.

In 1962, Thomas Kuhn wrote The Structure of Scientific Revolution, and furthered,
defined and popularized the concept of "paradigm shift”. Kuhn argues that
scientific advancement is not evolutionary, but rather is a "series of peaceful
interludes punctuated by intellectually violent revolutions", and in those revolutions
"one conceptual world view is replaced by another".

Agents of change helped create a paradigm-shift moving scientific theory from the
Ptolemaic system (the earth at the centre of the universe) to the Copernican
system (the sun at the centre of the universe), and moving from Newtonian
physics to Relativity and Quantum Physics. Both movements eventually changed
the world view. These transformations were gradual as old beliefs were replaced
by the new paradigms.

The printing press, the making of books and the use of vernacular language
inevitable changed the culture of a people and had a direct affect on the scientific
revolution. Johann Gutenberg's invention in the 1440's of movable type was an
agent of change. With the invention of the printing press, books became readily
available, smaller and easier to handle and cheap to purchase. Masses of people
acquired direct access to the scriptures. Attitudes began to change as people were
relieved from church domination.

Agents of change are driving a new paradigm shift today. The signs are all around
us. For example, the introduction of the personal computer and the internet have
impacted both personal and business environments, and is a catalyst for a
Paradigm Shift. We are shifting from a mechanistic, manufacturing, industrial
society to an organic, service based, information centred society, and increases in
technology will continue to impact globally.

‘With the birth of television and new technologies, mediating factors such as
church, family and school began to lose their traditional socializing role for many
people,”. It has therefore become increasingly difficult to ignore the media and
their increasing influence.

In conclusion, for millions of years we have been evolving and will continue to do
so. Change is difficult. Human Beings resist change; however, the process has
been set in motion long ago and we will continue to co-create our own experience.
Kuhn states that "awareness is prerequisite to all acceptable changes of theory. It
all begins in the mind of the person. What we perceive, whether normal
or metanormal, conscious or unconscious, are subject to the limitations and
distortions produced by our inherited and socially conditional nature. However, we
are not restricted by this for we can change. We are moving at an accelerated rate
of speed and our state of consciousness is transforming and transcending. Many
are awakening as our conscious awareness expands.

Intellectual revolutions that defined society

COPERNICAN • This caused the paradigm shift of how the earth and sun were
placed in the heavens/universe. It is the idea that rejected Ptolemaic model (earth
is the center of the solar system) and proved the heliocentric model (Sun is
the center of the solar system having the earth revolving around it.)

DARWINIAN • This has brought a great impact on how people approach Biology
forever. This revolution provided a different than the "theory of Creation". The
Darwinian revolution started when Charles Darwin published his book "The Origin
of Species" that emphasizes that humans are the result of an evolution.

FREUDIAN • This theory has started to revolutionize Psychiatry with Sigmund

Freud. This includes the "Freudian Theory of Personality" that involves the human
development contributes to his/her personality and also his "psychoanalysis" that is
the process for achieving proper functioning if a human does not complete his/her
developmental stage.

These three revolutionizing theories are just some of the many scientific ideas that
transformed and molded societies and beliefs. The changes they brought to the
perspectives and perceptions of the scientific community and the public are
evidence of science and technology link to humanity. Through scientific research
and experimentations, people will continue to deepen their understanding of the
world and the universe.
 THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION 

What is the Scientific Revolution?

It is the beginning of a great intellectual 

transformation that leads to the modern world

Concurrent with other major events

Copernicus is making discoveries at the time of 

the religious wars are breaking out in Europe

By the end of the Revolution Europe is about to 

embark on the Enlightenment, a cultural movement 
that largely rejected religion.

Scientific Revolution • The period of enlightenment

• The Scientific Revolution was a series of events that marked the emergence of
modern science during the early modern period, when developments in
mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology and chemistry transformed the views of
society about nature

Causes of the Scientific Revolution

Trade and Expansion of Trade navigational problems generated research study of

Plato, Aristotle, Ptolemy and Democritus were essential The Renaissance value of
mathematics.

Principles of SCIENTIFIC Revolution

Logic over faith religion no longer the only 

possible explanation for events Observe, experiment publish

Verifiable Use of mathematics to prove a point

Money Patronage

Questioning discrepancy between observation and 

expectations springboards into a search for truth
Main Scientists

Astronomers - Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo

Scientific Method - Bacon, Descartes

SCIENTIFIC METHOD

 Ask a Question

 Do Background Research

 Construct a Hypothesis

 Test Your Hypothesis by Doing an Experiment

 Analyze Your Data and Draw a Conclusion

Nicholas Copernicus (1473-1543)

Polish priest studied in Italy returns to Poland and works on Astronomy writes
De Revolutionibus Orbitum Coelestitum (On the Revolutions of Heavenly Spheres)
Earth is just another planet with a 24 hour rotation retains circular planetary
motion (perfection of the sphere).

Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)

Student of mathematics and astronomy studied with Tycho Brahe tested

hypothesis after hypothesis until he determined that planets move in ellipses

Three Laws of Planetary Motion planets move in ellipses with sun as one focus
velocity of a planet is not uniform equal area of the plane is covered in equal
time by the planets.

Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)

Astronomy used a telescope, proved the heavens are not 

perfect (craters on moon) supported Heliocentric system Laws of Motion Problems
with the church argues for separation of science and theology because we are
endowed with reason 1633 banned by Church and house arrest must recant
heliocentric system to save neck.

Isaac Newton (1642-1727)

math/physics/astronomy and author of Principia Mathematica in 1687 bringing

together Galileos discoveries about motion on Earth and Keplers discoveries in
the heavens explained heavenly motion that was tied to observed motion on Earth.
Provided a synthesis superior to Aristotle Newtons work led to a new branch of
mathematics called calculus

Three Laws of Motion

Francis Bacon (1561-1626)

Proposed INDUCTION make a lot of observations then generalize rules of nature -

this leads to scientific observation as a method.

Promoted the modern idea of progress because he wanted application of science

Rene Descartes (1596-1650)

Great mathematician - showed that any algebraic equation could be plotted on a

graph.In this manner he linked Greek with Hindu and Arabic knowledge

Also looked at DEDUCTION - go from a theory to the facts leads to proof of God.

Other Scientific Advances

 Medical firsts

 First accurate and detailed study of human anatomy

 First use of stitches

 First description of the circulatory system

 First microscope

Effects of Revolution

The Scientific Revolution led to the Age of Enlightenment and a growing belief in
human progress Social impact widens intellectual gap effect on navigation, map
making and artillery New way of observing the world.

During the Scientific Revolution, scholars applied logic, perfected the scientific

method, made new discoveries that shattered old ideas. This gave Enlightenment
philosopher a model to follow to make new theories about society. The most
important Enlightenment ideas were those that challenged rule by absolute
monarchs presented new theories about government.