INTERNSHIP REPORT

National Transmission & Dispatch Company Limited

220/132/11 KV GRID STATION RAVI LAHORE

SUBMITTED BY
GHULAM MOHI UDDIN
Internee Reg. #: B01-ELE-061

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

1
 ABSTRACT
A Substation receives electrical power from generating station via incoming
transmission line and delivers electrical power through feeders and this is used
for controlling the power on different routes. Substations are integral part of a
power system and form important part of transmission and distribution network
of electrical power system.

Their main functions are to receive energy transmitted at high voltage from
the generating stations, reduce the voltage to a value appropriate for local
distribution and provide facilities for switching some sub-stations or simply
switching stations, different connections between various transmission lines are
made, others are converting sub-stations which either convert AC into DC or
vice-versa or convert frequency from higher to lower or vice-versa.

The various circuits are joined together through these components to a bus-bar at
substation. Basically, Sub-station consists of power transformers, circuit
breakers, relays, isolators, earth switches, current transformers, voltage
transformers, synchronous condensers/Capacitor banks etc.

2
 Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1.............................................................................................................................................. 6
INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................................... 6
1.1 Substation.................................................................................................................................. 6
1.2 Construction of Substation........................................................................................................ 6
CHAPTER 2.............................................................................................................................................. 8
CLASSIFICATION OF SUBSTATIONS ................................................................................................ 8
2.1 According to Service Requirement ............................................................................................ 8
2.2 According to Constructional Features ....................................................................................... 8
CHAPTER 3............................................................................................................................................ 10
SINGLE LINE DIAGRAM (SLD) ......................................................................................................... 10
4.1 Incoming Feeder...................................................................................................................... 10
4.2 Transformer............................................................................................................................. 10
4.3 Outgoing Feeder ...................................................................................................................... 11
3.4 Auxiliary Supply ....................................................................................................................... 11
CHAPTER 4............................................................................................................................................ 12
INSTRUMENT IN SUBSTATION ........................................................................................................ 12
4.1 Lightening Arrestors ................................................................................................................ 12
4.2 Earthing ................................................................................................................................... 13
4.3 Capacitor Voltage Transformer ............................................................................................... 14
4.4 Wave Trap ............................................................................................................................... 15
4.5 Isolator with Earth Switches .................................................................................................... 16
4.6 Insulators ................................................................................................................................. 17
4.7 Instrument Transformer.......................................................................................................... 17
4.8 Circuit Breakers ....................................................................................................................... 19
4.9 Bus Bar..................................................................................................................................... 21
4.10 Transformer............................................................................................................................. 21
4.11 Capacitor Bank ........................................................................................................................ 23
CHAPTER 5 ............................................................................................................................................... 24
TYPES OF CONTROL ................................................................................................................................. 24
5.1 Control Room .......................................................................................................................... 24
5.2 Control panel ........................................................................................................................... 24
3
 5.3 Relays ...................................................................................................................................... 24
CHAPTER 6 ............................................................................................................................................... 27
EFFECT IN TRANSMISSION LINE............................................................................................................... 27
6.1 Corona Effect ........................................................................................................................... 27
6.2 Proximity Effect ....................................................................................................................... 27
6.3 Ferranti Effect.......................................................................................................................... 28
CHAPTER 8............................................................................................................................................ 29
CONCLUSION ....................................................................................................................................... 29

List of abbreviations
EHV-Extra High Voltage

SLD-Single Line Diagram

PT-Potential Transformer

CT-Current Transformer

HVCT-High Voltage CT

LVCT-High Voltage CT

CVT-Capacitor Voltage Transformer

LA-Lightening Arrestor

EA-Earth Switch

CB-Circuit Breaker

HV Side-High Voltage Side

LV Side-Low Voltage Side

PLCC-Power Line Communication control

OLTC-On Load Tap Changer

4
OTI-Oil Temperature Indicator

WTI-Winding Temperature Indicator

List of Symbols
X0 – Zero sequence reactance
X1- Positive sequence reactance
R0- Zero sequence resistance
Ip – Primary current
Np – Primary Winding Turns
Is – Secondary Current
Ns – Secondary Winding Turns
Vp – Primary voltage
Vs – Secondary voltage
Zs – Impedance attached at the secondary side coil

5
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 Substation

The present-day electrical power system is A.C. i.e. electric power

is generated, transmitted and distributed in the form of alternating
current. The electric power is produced at the power stations which are
located at favorable places, generally quite away from the consumers. It
is delivered to the consumers through a large network of transmission
and distribution. At many places in the line of the power system, it may
be desirable and necessary to change some characteristic (e.g. voltage,
A.C. to D.C., frequency, Power factor etc.) of electric supply.

This is accomplished by suitable apparatus called sub-station. For

example, generation voltage (11KV or 6.6KV) at the power station is
stepped up to high voltage (say 220KV or 132KV) for transmission of
electric power. The assembly of apparatus (e.g. transformer etc.) used for
this purpose is the sub-station. Similarly, near the consumer‟s localities,
the voltage may have to be stepped down to utilization level. This job is
again accomplished by a suitable apparatus called „substation.
1.2 Construction of Substation
At the time of constructing a substation, we have to consider some
factors which affect the substation efficiency like selection of site.

6
SELECTION OF SITE:

Main points to be considered while selecting the site for EHV Sub-
Station are as follows:
i) The site chosen should be as near to the load center as possible.
ii) It should be easily approachable by road or rail for transportation of
equipment.
iii) Land should be fairly leveled to minimize development cost.
iv) The source of water should be as near to the site as possible. This is

because water is required for various construction activities;

(Especially civil works,), earthing and for drinking purposes etc.
v) The sub-station site should be as near to the town / city but should be

clear of public places, aerodromes, and Military / police installations.

vi) The land should be have sufficient ground area to accommodate

substation equipment, buildings, staff quarters, space for storage of

material, such as store yards and store sheds etc. with roads and space for
future expansion.
vii) The land should not have water logging problem.
viii) The site should permit easy and safe approach to outlets for EHV
lines.

7
 CHAPTER 2

CLASSIFICATION OF SUBSTATIONS
There are many ways of classifying substations. But their classification done
according to (1) Service requirement and (2) Constructional features.

2.1 According to Service Requirement

According to service requirement, substations may be classified into:

(i) Transformer Substation

Those substations which change the level of electricity are called transformer
substations. These substations receive power at some voltage level and deliver
power at some other voltage level.

(ii) Switching Substations

These substations do not change the voltage level but just perform the
switching operation in the transmission line.
(iii) Power Factor Correction Substation
These substations use synchronous condensers to improve power factor of
transmission line. These are connected at the end of transmission line.
(iv) Frequency Changer Substation
Those substations which change the frequency level of supply particularly
for industrial purposes are called frequency changer substation.
(v) Converting Substation
These type of substation covert the AC power to the DC power.

2.2 According to Constructional Features

According to constructional features the substations may be divided into:

(i) Indoor Substation

For voltages up to 11KV, the equipment of the sub- station is installed

indoor because of economic considerations. However, when the
atmosphere is contaminated with impurities, these sub-stations can be
erected for voltages up to 66 KV.
8
(ii) Outdoor Substation
For voltages beyond 132KV, equipment is invariably installed out-door.
It is because for such voltages, the clearances between conductors and the
space required for switches, circuit breakers and other equipment becomes
so great that it is not economical to install the equipment indoor.

(iii) Underground Substation

In thickly populated areas, the space available for equipment and building
is limited and the cost of land is high. Under such situations, the sub-
station is created underground.

(iv) Pole Mounted Substation

This is an outdoor sub-station with equipment installed over-head on H-
pole or 4-pole structure. It is the cheapest form of sub- station for voltages
not exceeding 11KV. Electric power is almost distributed in localities
through such sub-station

Construction of Substation

9
 CHAPTER 3

SINGLE LINE DIAGRAM (SLD)

A single line diagram of power system is a drawing which includes three
phase supply, all the equipment connection wise from the point of entrance of
power to the end scope of concerned electrical system through a single line is
called the single line diagram. As in case of 220/132 KV substation the SLD
shall show lightening arrestors, C.T/P.T unit, isolators, circuit breakers,
protection and metering C.T/P.T, again isolator and breakers, main transformer
and all the protective devices as per design criteria. There are several feeders
enter into substation and carrying out power.

4.1 Incoming Feeder

1. Lightening arrestors
2. Corona ring
3. CVT
4. Wave trap
5. Isolators with earth switch
6. Current transformer
7. Circuit breaker
8. Feeder Bus isolator
9. BUS
10.Potential transformer in the bus with a bus isolator
4.2 Transformer
In 220KV Ravi grid an auto transformer of 220/132 KV is installed with
following equipments.
HV side:
1. Transformer bus Isolator
2. Circuit breaker
3. Current transformer
4. Lightning Arrestors
5. Auto Transformer 250MVA (220/132KV)
6. 220 KV , 700Amp

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 LV side:
1. Lightening arrestors
2. Current transformer
3. Circuit breaker
4. Bus Isolator.
5. Bus
6. Potential transformer with a bus isolator
7. A capacitor bank attached to the bus
In 220/132 KV Ravi grid the capacitor bank is not functional.

4.3 Outgoing Feeder

The outgoing feeder includes the 132KV bus bar attached with the secondary
side of 220/132 KV transformer. There are 12 outgoing feeder of 132 KV supply
in Ravi grid. Further two transformers of 132/11 KV are installed in Ravi grid.
The outgoing feeder of 11KV is connected through a bus bar.
3.4 Auxiliary Supply
Battery Supply
To control and protect the substation equipment the 220 volts DC battery system
is necessary. These batteries are used to run the controlling devices like control
panels and protective relays. In 220kv Ravi grid Lahore there are 110 cells
installed in battery room with each cell having capacity of 2V.300AH. Maximum
charging current of battery room is 40Amps. In case batteries are not functional
an alternative system is also available through generating AC power then
converting to DC with rectifiers to run the protective devices in substation.

SINGLE LINE DIAGRAM OF 220/132 KV GRID STATION RAVI LAHORE

11
 CHAPTER 4

INSTRUMENT IN SUBSTATION
4.1 Lightening Arrestors

Lightening arrestors are the instruments that are used in the incoming feeders so
that to prevent the high voltage entering the main station. This high voltage is
very dangerous to the instruments used in the substation. Even the instruments
are very costly, so to prevent any damage lightening arrestors are used. The
lightening arrestors do not let the lightening to fall on the station. If some
lightening occurs the arrestors pull the lightening and ground it to the earth. In
any substation the main important is of protection which is firstly done by these
lightening arrestors. The lightening arrestors are grounded to the earth so that it
can pull the lightening to the ground.

 These are located at the entrance of the transmission line in to the

substation and as near as possible to the transformer terminals.
 LA will be provided on the support insulators to facilitate leakage current
measurement and to count the no of surges discharged through the LA.
 LA bottom flange will be earthed via leakage ammeter and surge counter.
 Their resistance is maximum under normal condition , but there is a surge
or lightening its resistance breakdowns and surge is discharged to the
ground.

Lightening Arrestor
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4.2 Earthing
The earthing practice adopted at generating stations, sub-stations and lines
should be in such a manner as to provide:
a) Safety to personnel
b) Minimum damage to equipment as a result of flow of heavy fault currents
c) Improve reliability of power supply

The primary requirements are:

The impedance to ground (Resistance of the earthing system) should be as low as

possible and should not exceed:
a) Large sub-stations -1 ohm
b) Small sub-stations -2 ohms Power stations -0.5 ohms
c) Distribution transformer stations- 5 ohms
The earth conductor of the mat could be buried under earth to economical depth
of burial of the mat 0.5 meters.

In all sub-stations there shall be provision for earthing the following:

1. The neutral point of earth separate system should have an independent

earth, which in turn should be interconnected with the station grounding
mat
2. Equipment frame work and other non-current carrying parts (two
connections)
3. All extraneous metallic frame work not associated with equipment (two
connections)
4. Lightning arrestors should have independent earths which should in turn
be connected to the station grounding grid.
5. Overhead lightning screen shall also be connected to the main ground mat.

Types
Following types of earthing is done in substations.

 Plate earthing
 Pipe earthing
 Mat earthing
 Rod earthing

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4.3 Capacitor Voltage Transformer
A capacitor voltage transformer (CVT) is a transformer used in power systems to
step-down extra high voltage signals and provide low voltage signals either for
measurement or to operate a protective relay.
These are high pass Filters (carrier frequency 50KHZ to 500 KHZ) pass carrier
frequency to carrier panels and power frequency parameters to switch yard. In its
most basic form the device consists of three parts: two capacitors across which
the voltage signal is split, an inductive element used to tune the device and a
transformer used to isolate and further step-down the voltage.

The device has at least four terminals, a high-voltage terminal for connection to
the high voltage signal, a ground terminal and at least one set of secondary
terminals for connection to the instrumentation or protective relay. CVTs are
typically single-phase devices used for measuring voltages in excess of one
hundred KV where the use of voltage transformers would be uneconomical. In
practice the first capacitor, C1, is often replaced by a stack of capacitors
connected in series. This results in a large voltage drop across the stack of
capacitors, that replaced the first capacitor and a comparatively small voltage
drop across the second capacitor, C2, and hence the secondary terminals.

Capacitor Voltage Transformer

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4.4 Wave Trap

Wave trap is an instrument using for trapping of the wave. The function of this
wave trap is that it traps the unwanted waves. Its shape is like a drum. It is
connected to the main incoming feeder so that it can trap the waves which may
be dangerous to the instruments in the substation. Generally it is used to exclude
unwanted frequency components, such as noise or other interference, of a wave.

Note: Traps are usually unable to permit selection of unwanted

or interfering signals.

Line trap also is known as Wave trap. What it does is trapping the high
frequency communication signals sent on the line from the remote substation and
diverting them to the telecom/tele protection panel in the substation control room
through coupling capacitor.

The Line trap offers high impedance to the high frequency communication
signals thus obstructs the flow of these signals in to the substation bus bars. If
these are not present in the substation, then signal loss is more and
communication will be ineffective/probably impossible

Wave Traps

15
4.5 Isolator with Earth Switches

Isolators are the no load switches and used to isolate the equipment. (Either line
equipment, power transformer equipment or power transformer). With the
isolators, we are able to see the isolation of the equipment with our naked eye.
The line isolators are used to isolate the high voltage from flow through the line
into the bus. This isolator prevents the instruments to get damaged. It also allows
the only needed voltage and rest is earthed by itself.

Isolator is a type of switching device. It has non control devices. Isolator is

operated after the circuit breaker is opened. While closing the circuit, first close
the isolator and after the circuit breaker is closed. Strictly speaking Isolators are
operated under no current condition. In the following cases it is permissible to
use isolator for making and breaking of the circuits.

Isolator

Air break isolators or disconnecting switches are not intended to break load
though these are meant for transfer of load from one bus to another and also to
isolate equipment for maintenance. These are available mainly in two types
vertical break type and horizontal break type. The later type requires larger
width. However the space requirement can be reduced in the horizontal break
isolators by having double break with a center rotating pillar.

16
4.6 Insulators
The insulator serves two purposes. They support the conductor and confine the
current to the conductor. The most commonly used material for the insulator is
porcelain. There are several types of insulators.
Pin type
Suspension type
Strain type
Ball and socket type
Their use in the substation will depend upon the service requirement. The one
insulator of porcelain has capacity of bearing up to 11KV, beyond 11KV its
resistance breakdown and it‟s become conductor

4.7 Instrument Transformer

“Instrument Transformers are defined as the instruments in which the secondary
current or voltage is substantially proportional to the primary current or voltage
and differs in phase from it by an angle which is approximately zero for an
appropriate direction of connection”.
Basic Function of Instrument Transformers:
 Direct measurement of current or voltage in high voltage system is not
possible because of high values and insulation problems of measuring
instruments they cannot be directly used for protection purposes.
 Therefore an instrument transformer serves the purpose and performs the
following function:
 Converts the higher line voltages or line currents into proportionally
reduced values by means of electromagnetic circuit and thus these values
can be measured easily.
 Protects measuring instruments and distribution systems by sensing the
abnormalities and signals to the protective relay to isolate the faulty
system.
Types of Instrument Transformers:
Instrument transformers are of two types:
Current Transformers
Current transformer is a current measuring device used to measure the currents in
high voltage lines directly by stepping down the currents to measurable values by
means of electromagnetic circuit.
 The primary ampere turns and secondary ampere turns are equal
 Ampere turns play very important role in designing current transformer.
 Number of primary turns is less and numbers of secondary turns are
greater than primary.
 Current transformer is always connected in series with the circuit.
17
 Current Transformer

Potential Transformer

An instrument transformer in which the secondary voltage, in normal conditions

of use, is substantially proportional to the primary voltage and differs in phase
from it by an angle which is approximately zero for an appropriate direction of
the connections.

Basic Functions of Voltage Transformers are:

To reduce the line voltage to a value which is suitable for standard measuring
instruments relays etc.
To isolate the measuring instruments, meters, relays etc. from high voltage side
an installation.
To sense abnormalities in voltage and give signals to protective relays to isolate
the defective system.
It is a voltage step down transformer
It is current step up transformer
Number of turns in primary is greater than secondary

Potential Transformer

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4.8 Circuit Breakers
The circuit breakers are used to break the circuit if any fault occurs in any of the
instrument. These circuit breaker breaks for a fault which can damage other
instrument in the station. For any unwanted fault over the station we need to
break the line current. This is only done automatically by the circuit breaker.
These are load switches. It is able to make or break the normal load current as
well as the fault currents.

The basic construction of any circuit breaker requires the separation of contacts
in an insulating fluid, which serves two functions. It extinguishes the arc drawn
between contacts when the CB opens and it provides adequate insulation
between the contacts and from each contact to earth.
For successful operation of the circuit breaker, two functions are to be
performed.
a) Operating mechanism function
b) Arc quenching function
Operating mechanisms:
Spring charge mechanism, Pneumatic mechanism, Hydraulic Mechanism
Arc quenching medium:
 Bulk oil (called bulk oil circuit breakers-BOCB)
 Minimum oil (called minimum oil circuit breakers-MOCB)
 Natural air (called air circuit breakers-ACB) (415v)
 Forced air (called air blast circuit breaker-ABCB)
 Vacuum (called vacuum circuit breaker-VCB)
 SF6 gas (called Sulphur Hexafluoride-SF6 gas CB)

The present trend is up to 11KV, VCBs are preferred and beyond 11KV, SF6 gas
circuit breakers are preferred

Circuit Breaker
19
SF6 Gas Circuit Breaker
Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) is an inert, heavy gas having good dielectric and arc
extinguishing properties. The dielectric strength of the gas increases with
pressure and is more than the dielectric strength of oil at 3 kg/cm2. SF6 is now
being widely used in electrical equipment like high voltage metal enclosed
cables; high voltage metal clad switchgear, capacitors, circuit breakers, current
transformers, bushings, etc. The gas is liquefied at certain low temperature,
liquidification temperature increases with the pressure.

The use of SF6 circuit breaker is mainly in the substations which are having high
input KV, say above 220KV and more. The gas is put inside the circuit breaker
by force i.e. under high pressure (6.2 bar).
There is a meter connected to the breaker so that it can be manually seen if the
gas goes low. The circuit breaker uses the SF6 gas to reduce the torque produce
in it due to any fault in the line. The circuit breaker has a direct link with the
instruments in the station, when any fault occur alarm bell rings.
Some of the properties of SF6 are
 Very high dielectric strength
 High thermal and chemical inertia
 Superior arc extinguishing capability
 Low decomposition by arcing

SF6 Circuit Breaker

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4.9 Bus Bar

The bus is a line in which the incoming feeders come into and get into the
instruments for further step up or step down. The first bus is used for putting the
incoming feeders in la single line. There may be double line in the bus so that if
any fault occurs in the one the other can still have the current and the supply will
not stop. The two lines in the bus are separated by a little distance by a conductor
having a connector between them. This is so that one can work at a time and the
other works only if the first is having any fault.
The bus bar has eight schemes. Following are the most common used
schemes.

 One & half breaker scheme

 Double main & transfer bus scheme
 Main &transfer bus scheme
 Single bus system with Bus Sectionalized
In 220/132 KV Ravi grid main and transfer bus scheme is used.

4.10 Transformer

Transformers come in a range of sizes from a thumbnail-sized coupling

transformer hidden inside a stage microphone to huge units weighing hundreds
of tons used to interconnect portions of national power grids. All operate with the
same basic principles, although the range of designs is wide. While new
technologies have eliminated the need for transformers in some electronic
circuits, transformers are still found in nearly all electronic devices designed for
household ("mains") voltage. Transformers are essential for high voltage power
transmission, which makes long distance transmission economically practical.

Basic Principle

The transformer is based on two principles: firstly, that an electric current can
produce a magnetic field (electromagnetism) and secondly that a changing
magnetic field within a coil of wire induces a voltage across the ends of the coil
(electromagnetic induction).
Changing the current in the primary coil changes the magnetic flux that is
developed. The changing magnetic flux induces a voltage in the secondary coil.

21
220/132/11 KV Transformer at Ravi Grid Lahore

In 220/132Kv Ravi gird station, there is installed three transformer of 220/132

kV, 250MVA. These transformers are auto transformers with on load tap
changer. The HV side is supplied through gas insulated system. The LV side is
supplied to a feeder bus of 132 KV. The voltage and current on the HV side of
autotransformer is 220kv and 760A respectively. The voltage and current on the
LV side of auto transformer is 132 KV and 1100A respectively.
There are two transformers of 132 /11KV. These transformer are power
transformer with on load tap changer.

Transformer Accessories

Following are the equipements connected with auto transformer to make it

functional.
 Core and winding
 Transformer Oil
 Conservator
 Breather
 Diverter tank
 Radiator
 Oil Temperature Indicator
 Winding Temperature Indicator
 Bushing
 Buchholz relay
 Explosion Vent
 Tap changer

22
4.11 Capacitor Bank

The capacitor banks are used across the bus so that the voltage does not get down
till at the require place. A capacitor bank is used in the outgoing bus so that it can
maintain the voltage level same in the outgoing feeder.

Capacitor Bank Attached to Substation

Capacitor Control is usually done to achieve the following goals:

 Reduce losses due to reactive load current;

 Reduce KVA demand,
 Decrease customer energy consumption,
 Improve voltage profile, and increase revenue.
 Indirectly capacitor control also results in longer equipment lifetimes
because of reduced equipment stresses.
 Improve power factor of outgoing feeder (11 KV)

23
 CHAPTER 5

TYPES OF CONTROL

A substation automation system is a collection of hardware and software

components that are used to monitor and control an electrical system, both locally
and remotely. The substation control panel is designed to form automated control
systems of the traction substations, using digital protection and programmable
logic controllers.
All the equipment and devices in a substation protected and controlled through
control panels and relays through a proper communication system.

5.1 Control Room

The various supervision, control and protection functions are performed in the
substation control room. The relays, protection and control panels are installed in
the controlled room. The Substation Control and Monitoring System (SCMS) is a
smart, electrically and toughened system premeditated for operation within a
substation environment, the SCMS provides a modern solution that provides a
secure, reliably, safe and cost effective control, protection and metering functions
and operations.
The control room consists of control panels, relays, auxiliary supply to run
controlling devices etc.
5.2 Control panel
In its simplest terms, an electrical control panel is a combination of electrical
devices which use electrical power to control the various mechanical functions of
industrial equipment or machinery. An electrical control panel includes two main
categories, panel structure and electrical components.
A control panel consist of digital programmable devices and control the
mechanical functions of substation equipment like isolators, breakers etc.
In 220/132 KV Ravi grid Lahore, there are different panels installed for each
incoming and outgoing feeder and also for equipment like breakers, isolator etc.
Theses control panels shows the current, voltage reading and different parameter as
per required. They also detect the fault and operate the substation equipment.
5.3 Relays
A protective relay is a device that detects the fault and initiates the operation of the
C.B. is to isolate the defective element from the rest of the system”. The relay
detects the abnormal condition in the electrical circuit by constantly measuring the
electrical quantities, which are different under normal and fault condition. The

24
electrical quantities which may change under fault condition are voltage, current,
frequency and phase angle. Having detected the fault, the relay operates to close
the trip circuit of C.B. There are two principle reasons for this; Firstly, if the fault
is not cleared quickly, it may cause unnecessary interruption of service to the
customer. Secondly, rapid disconnection of faulty apparatus limits the amount of
damage to it & a prevents the effects from speeding into the system.

A protective relay is a device that detects the fault & initiates the operation of
circuit breaker to isolate the defective element from the rest of the system.
Most of the relays operate on the principle of electromagnetic attraction or
electromagnetic induction. The following important types of relays are generally
used in electrical distribution & transmission line:
1. Induction Type Over Current Relay

This type of relay operates on the principle of electromagnetic induction initiates

corrective measures when current in the circuit exceeds a predetermined value. The
actuating source is a current in the circuit supplied to the relay by a current
transformer. These relays are used on ac circuits only and can operate for fault
flow in either direction.
Under normal condition the resulting torque is greater than the driving torque
produced by the relay coil current. Hence the Aluminum disc remains stationary;
by during fault current in the protective circuit exceeds the preset value. The
driving torque becomes greater than the starting torque & the disc starts to rotate,
hence moving contact bridges are fixed contact when the disc rotates to a preset
value. Trip circuit operates the circuit breaker, which isolates the faulty section.
2. Induction Type Over Voltage Relay

This type of relay operates on the principle of electromagnetic induction & initiates
corrective measures when current in the circuit exceeds a predetermined value.
Under normal condition the aluminum disc remains stationary. However if the
voltage increases at any cost the disc starts to rotate, hence moving contact bridges
to the fixed contact when the disc rotates through a preset angle. Trip circuit
operates the circuit breaker, which isolates the faulty section.
3. Distance Relay/ Impedance Relay
Under normal operating condition, the pull is due to the voltage element. Therefore
the relay contacts remains open. However when a fault occurs in the protected
zone the applied voltage to the relay decreases where the current increases. The
ratio of voltage to current faults is below the predetermined value. Therefore, the
pull of the current element will exceed that due to voltage element & this causes
the beam to tilt in direction to close the trip circuit.
25
 4. Differential Relay
It compensates the phase difference between the power transformer‟s primary &
secondary. The C.T.s on the two sides are connected by pilot wires at both ends are
same & no current flows through the relays. If a ground or phase-to-phase fault
occurs, the currents in the
C.T.s no longer will be the same & the differential current flowing through the
relay circuit will clear the breaker on both sides of transformers. The protected
zone is limited to the C.T.s on the low voltage side & C.T.s on the high voltage
side of the transformer.

This scheme also provides protection for short circuits between turns of the same
phase winding. During a short circuit, the turn ratio of power transformer is altered
& cause unbalance in the system which cause the relay to operate. However, such
sorts are better taken care by Buchholz relay.

5. Earth Fault Relay

This scheme provides no protection against phase to phase faults unless & until
they develop into earth faults. A relay is connected across transformer secondary.
The protections against earth faults are limited to the region between the neutral &
line current transformer.
Under normal operating condition, no differential current flows through the relay.
When earth fault occurs in the protected zone, the differential current flows
through the operating coil of the relay. The relay then closes its contacts to
disconnect the equipment from the system.

6. Under Frequency Relay

Under Frequency Protection is used to protect the transformer/generator/alternator
when the frequency drops below the operating frequency. It is a backup protection
for over fluxing (V/F) protection. Under frequency occurs due to turbine low
speed, AVR failure, diode failure, grid frequency fluctuation etc.
The generator can tolerate moderate under frequency operation provided voltage is
within an acceptable limit. Under frequency causes over fluxing in the
generator/transformer, speed drops in the motors, output voltage dropping etc. The
abnormal under frequency on the machine may be due to improper speed control
adjustment or disoperation of the speed controller.
The generator under frequency protection consists of two stage tripping. Stage 1
trip command is given to grid circuit breaker and stage 2 trip commands are given
to generator circuit breaker.

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 CHAPTER 6

EFFECT IN TRANSMISSION LINE

6.1 Corona Effect
Corona Discharge (also known as the Corona Effect) is an electrical discharge
caused by the ionization of a fluid such as air surrounding a conductor that is
electrically charged. The corona effect will occur in high voltage systems.
Corona discharge can cause an audible hissing or cracking noise as it ionizes the
air around the conductors. This is common in high voltage electric power
transmission lines. The corona effect can also produce a violet glow, production of
ozone gas around the conductor, radio interference, and electrical power loss.
6.2 Proximity Effect
When the conductors carry the high alternating voltage then the currents are non-
uniformly distributed on the cross-section area of the conductor. This effect is
called proximity effect. The proximity effect results in the increment of the
apparent resistance of the conductor due to the presence of the other conductors
carrying current in its vicinity. When two or more conductors are placed near to
each other, then their electromagnetic fields interact with each other. Due to this
interaction, the current in each of them is redistributed such that the greater current
density is concentrated in that part of the strand most remote from the interfering
conductor.

If the conductors carry the current in the same direction, then the magnetic field of
the halves of the conductors which are close to each other is cancelling each other
and hence no current flow through that halves portion of the conductor. The
current is crowded in the remote half portion of the conductor.

When the conductors carry the current in the opposite direction, then the close part
of the conductor carries, the more current and the magnetic field of the far off half
of the conductor cancel each other. Thus, the current is zero in the remote half of
the conductor and crowded at the nearer part of the conductor.

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6.3 Ferranti Effect
The Ferranti Effect is a voltage increase in the receiving end of an electrical
transmission line when it is operated in a no-load, or low-load, condition. This
results in a receiving end voltage value higher than the sending point.
The effect is caused by the interaction between the inductance and capacitance of
the line.
When the power line is operated at no-load or low load conditions, the voltage at
the receiving end can be higher than the input voltage. If this voltage exceeds the
rated value of the line, it can result in dangerous situations and cause stress to the
cables and components.

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 CHAPTER 8

CONCLUSION
Transmission and distribution stations exist at various scales throughout a power
system. In general, they represent an interface between different levels or sections
of the power system, with the capability to switch or reconfigure the connections
among various transmission and distribution lines.
The major stations include a control room from which operations are coordinated.
Smaller distribution substations follow the same principle of receiving power at
higher voltage on one side and sending out a number of distribution feeders at
lower voltage on the other, but they serve a more limited local area and are
generally unstaffed. The central component of the substation is the transformer, as
it provides the effective in enface between the high- and low-voltage parts of the
system. Other crucial components are circuit breakers and switches. Breakers serve
as protective devices that open automatically in the event of a fault, that is, when a
protective relay indicates excessive current due to some abnormal condition.
Switches are control devices that can be opened or closed deliberately to establish
or break a connection. An important difference between circuit breakers and
switches is that breakers are designed to interrupt abnormally high currents (as
they occur only in those very situations for which circuit protection is needed),
whereas regular switches are designed to be operable under normal currents.
Breakers are placed on both the high- and low-voltage side of transformers.
Finally, substations may also include capacitor banks to provide voltage support.

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