The Particulate Nature of Matter

Anaximenes - Air
Thales of Miletus - Water Epirucus of Samos - Atomism
Heraclitus - Fire Aristotle and Plato - Continuous theory
Empedocles - Earth, Fire, Water, Air = LAW OF CONSTANT
PROPORTIONS

LEUCIPPUS AND DEMOCRITUS —- atomos

All matter is made up of atoms that Atoms are in Atoms are Atoms are Atoms come in
are too tiny to be seen by the naked constant motion completely uniform, with no different shapes and
eyes. They cannot be broken down around an empty solid internal sizes.
further into smaller portions. All space called structure.
forms of matter results from coming void.
together or breaking apart of atoms.

STATES OF MATTER
Solid Liquid Intensive Extensive Gas
PURE SUBSTANCE
 Rigid  Not rigid Density
Mixture Mass
 Not rigid
Element is the simplest type of matter that is composed made up of two or more substances
Color Weight that are only
 Fixed Shape  No fixed Shape  No fixed Shape
of only one kind of atom. physically
Odorcombined and can thus
Volume be separated into
 Fixed Volume  Fixed Volume  No fixed Volume
Compound is composed of two or more elements their components through simple physical means.
 (container) Particles can move past  (container) Hardness
Particles can Mixtures  Thickness
combined chemically in definite proportions. Homogenous - (container) Rigid
like salt water particles
and locked
air, exist in
one another or ionic Covalent bonding involves
-Covelent move/slide past Brittleness
anotherCan beSurface
one phase.
a single Area
into place
physically combined in varying
 sharing
the Lots ofoffree space between
electrons between particles  Lots of free space
two or more between
properties.  Little free space between
 (Flow)Particles
atoms. Ionic can when
bonds form move two
pastorone particles
more ions come Heterogeneous Mixturesparticles
-
another
together  (Flow)Particles can move/slide
and are held together by charge differences.  (Flow)Rigid -particles cannot
past one another
A compound may eithermove/slide past oneinto
be decomposed another
their
A compound may eitherPROPERTIES
PHYSICAL be decomposed into their constituent CHEMICAL
elements only PROPERTIES
through chemical means.
constituent elements only through chemical means. Elements cannot be decomposed into much
 Directly observable or measurable without having to  Property that can only be observed by changing
Elements cannot be decomposed into much simpler simpler components through ordinary chemical
change the identity of the substance the type of substance.
components through ordinary chemical means. means.
 Determining a physical property of matter can be  One example of a chemical change is rusting of
accompanied by a change in its physical state nail.
 Are those that involve changes in physical properties andMETHODS OF SEPARATING MIXTURES
thus, do not involve a change in the identity of the Extensive properties - Properties that are
Filtrationdependent
– Separatesonsolids of different
the amount sizes
of matter
substance. Phase changes, such as melting of ice to liquid
Evaporation – Removes a liquid from a solution
water, is an example of physical change since the Intensive properties - properties that to
leave a solid
are material
not dependent on the amount.
composition are the same. Distillation – Takes advantage of differences in
boiling points
Liquid – Gas = Evaporation Chromatography – Involves solvent separation on
Gas – Liquid = Condensation a solid medium

Gas – Solid = Deposition Important to know when it is appropriate to use

Solid – Gas = Sublimation them and their properties that allow for separation.

Solid – Liquid = Melting MEASUREMENT

Liquid – Solid = Freezing

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Accuracy of a data set is dependent on the closeness to a true value.
Precision of the data set is dependent on the closeness of the measured values to each other.
Reliable data – both precise and accurate

Systematic error is one that is present in every measurement and oftentimes has the same degree of error
(determinate)
Random errors are not constant and usually vary from one measurement to another (unavoidable)

Mass kg g g
Density = Density = or =
Volume m cm3 mL

What is the density of an ice cube with a mass of 2.56 g and a length of 1.35 cm?
Mass
Volume = (length)3 Density = Given: mass= 2.56 kg, length of side = 1.35 cm
Volume
2.54 g g
Volume = (length)3 = 2.54 cm3 Density = Density =1.03
2.46 cm3 cm3

m
Speed of light – 299,792,458 3.00x108
s

AN ATOMIC VIEW OF MATTER

Fundamental Laws of Chemistry

• The emergence of chemistry as a discipline of science began when Anglo-Irish philosopher
Robert Boyle (1627-1691) published The Sceptical Chymist in 1661. In his book, he defined the
"element" as the simplest composition of matter that cannot be broken down further by any
chemical means. He also suggested that atoms of elements combine to form different
"compounds".
• The concept of elements & compounds were heightened when scientist Joseph Priestley
isolated oxygen gas, which he called "dephlogisticated air" by heating mercury oxide.
• Another French chemist named Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier learned about this dephlogisticated air
from Priestley and carried out further experiments on the gas. He found out that the gas, which he
already called "oxygen", is involved in combustion and respiration. He used the quantitative
approach in his experiments; he measured the amount of the substances before and after a
chemical reaction in a closed vessel. This experiment was the reason how he formulated the law
of conservation of mass which states that in a chemical reaction, the mass of substances
produced is equal to the mass of the substances reacted.
• The law of conservation of mass is the foundation for stoichiometric calculations, which allow
chemists to determine the amount of reactants or products involved in a chemical reaction.
• Decades later, French chemist Joseph-Louis Proust established another fundamental law called
law of definite proportions. It states that any sample of a given compound will always be
composed of the same elements in the same proportion by mass.
• In 1808, John Dalton proposed the law of multiple proportions. It states that for elements that
can form different compounds, the masses of the 2nd element that can combine with a fixed mass
of the 1st element are in a ratio of small whole numbers. For example, carbon and oxygen can
combine to form two different compounds - CO and CO2. In forming CO, 5g of carbon combines
with 6.7g of oxygen; while in forming CO2, 5g of carbon combines with 13.3g of oxygen. The ratio
of masses of oxygen that combines with the same amount of carbon is 6.7:13.3, or simply about
1:2. Page 2 of 7
Dalton’s Atomic Theory
1. Matter is made up of extremely small indivisible particles called atoms
2. Atoms of the same element are identical, and are different from those of other elements
3. Compounds are formed when atoms of different elements combine in certain whole-number ratios.
4. Atoms rearrange only during a chemical reaction to form new compounds

Electrons
Cathode Ray Experiment Diagram. A high voltage is
allowed to pass through two oppositely charged plates:
the cathode which is negatively charged and the anode
which is positively charged. Rays are emitted from the
cathode- now called cathode rays - and are attracted to
the positively charged plate.

It was around the early 1890s when Joseph John Thompson started working on the Cathode Ray Experiment. He
proposed that the rays discharged from the cathode were actually made up negatively charged particles because of
their attraction to the positively charged plate. Furthermore, he also observed that these particles had the same
charge-mass ratio, regardless of the metal source. Thomson eventually concluded that these particles are part of
the atom and are now called electrons. With his discovery of the electron and considering the charge neutrality of
the atom, Thomson proposed his own model of the atom, the Plum-Pudding Model, describing the atom as jelly-like
positive matter with negatively charged particles embedded in it like pudding with plums.

Protons
In the early 1900s, another physicist Ernest Rutherford, worked on the Gold Foil Experiment whose results also led
to further discoveries regarding the atom's internal structure. Results of the experiment showed that the majority of
the particles were either undeflected or deflected at such small angles. In some rare instances, particles were
deflected at angles greater than 90 degree and some were even deflected back.
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These results differed from the expected observations with the assumptions of Thomson's model. To explain these
results, Rutherford proposed the Nuclear Model in which the atom is mostly empty space, accounting for the
undeflected particles passing through, but also containing a concentrated, dense center, accounting for the
particles deflected at larger angles. These large deflections are only possible if the center - known as the nucleus -
contains most of the atoms mass, thus accounting for the presence of the positively charged particles known as
protons.

Neutrons
- With the discovery of more advanced techniques in mass determination, such as mass spectroscopy, scientists
were able to measure masses of different elements with higher accuracy. However, it was eventually
uncovered that certain mass ratio for different elements cannot be accounted for by the number of protons and
electrons alone.
- It was James Chadwick, who eventually proved the existence of a third subatomic particle - the neutron - a
subatomic particle roughly the same mass as that of a proton but electronically neutral.
- The protons and neutrons, being located in the nucleus of the atom, are now collectively called nucleons, with
their collective mass comprising the significant mass of any given atom.

ATOMIC NUMBER VS. ATOMIC MASS

English physicist Henry Gwyn Moseley experimentally found that different metals bombarded with electrons
produced varying frequencies of X-rays. He attributed these results to the differences in the positive charge in the
nucleus of the elements.
He correlated the frequencies to whole numbers, which he assigned to each element – the atomic number.
The atomic number serves as the identity of an atom.

When Dmitry Mendeleev arranged the elements according to their atomic masses in 1869, he paved the way to the
construction of the present periodic table. However, Moseley argued and confirmed in 1913 that the basis for
arrangement in the periodic table should be the atomic number. Until now, the periodic table is still arranged in
terms of atomic
number.
IONS AND MOLECULES
Atoms of the same element can have
different number of neutrons. These
atoms are referred to as isotopes.

 Particles can be atoms, molecules

or ions.
 Atoms are single neutral particles.
 Molecules are neutral particles
made of two or more atoms
bonded together.
 An ion is a positively or negatively
charged particle.
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- When a neutral atom gains or loses one or more electrons, it

becomes an electrically charged particle called ion.
Transition metals (Group 1B to 8B of the periodic table) vary in the number of electrons they tend to lose, resulting
in a variety of electrical charges of their ions. As such, a systematic method of naming their ions is employed. In the
classical method, the ion with the lower charge ends with -ous, while that with the higher charge ends with -ic.
These suffixes are attached to the first few syllables of the foreign
name of the metal. In the stock method, a Roman numeral indicating
the charge is written in the parentheses after the English name of the
metal.

Nonmetals take a different nomenclature. The monatomic anions are named by

attaching the suffix -ide to the first few letters (root) of the nonmetal name.
Elements in Group 7A (halogens) and Group 6A (oxygen family) accept one and
two electrons, respectively.

Nonmetals can also form polyatomic ions with oxygen. The In some cases, the oxygen in the polyatomic ion is
anion with lesser oxygen atoms ends with -ite and the one substituted with a sulfur atom. In this case, a
with more oxygen atoms end with -ate prefix thio- is added to the name of the anion.

The halogens can form four different polyatomic ions

with oxygen. Each ion is named differently depending on the
number of oxygen atoms present in it.

Ternary polyatomic ions may be formed by the addition of

hydrogen atoms to binary polyatomic ions. If there is only one
type of ternary ion formed, the prefix bi- is added to indicate the
presence of hydrogen in the chemical formula. If there are
several types of ion formed with hydrogen, Greek prefixes are
used to indicate the number of hydrogen atoms present in the
ion.

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 MOLECULES
CO2 carbon dioxide
N2O4 dinitrogen tetraoxide (tetroxide)
Some binary covalent compounds are not
named systematically, but rather take trivial
names, Water (H2O) and ammonia (NH3) are
examples of these compounds
Compounds: When Atoms Combine
 An ionic compound results from an
attraction between a cation and an anion.
 The attraction between oppositely
charged sodium and chloride ions form
the ionic compound, sodium chloride.
 An ionic compound assumes a crystalline
structure, a three-dimensional well-
ordered arrangement of cations and
anions.
The formula of ionic compounds is written by
combining the symbols of the cation and the anion.
An ionic compound is neutral; thus, the cations and
anions must combine in a ratio where the total
positive and negative charges of the ions sum up
to zero.
Writing the chemical formula of ionic compounds is
done by setting the charge number of one ion as
the subscript of the other ion. This method is
known as the crisscross rule. A subscript of one (1)
is not explicitly written in the formula. Conversely, if
the element in the formula does not have a
subscript, the value is understood to be one.
If the formula contains reducible subscripts, then
the subscripts are expressed in the simplest ratio.
For a polyatomic ion requiring a subscript other
than 1, the ion is enclosed in parentheses before
the subscript is affixed.
A covalent compound results when nonmetals share electrons.
Thus, covalent compounds exist as molecules. Naming binary
covalent compounds utilize Greek prefixes to indicate the number
of atoms of the element present in the chemical formula. The first
element is prefixed and named in full; the second element is
named using its first few syllables and suffixed with -ide. The
letter "a" in the prefix is usually dropped when followed by a
vowel as in the case of tetroxide and pentoxide. The prefix mono-
is seldom used on the first element in the formula.
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 TYPES OF CHEMICAL FORMULAS

Covalent compounds may be represented using various chemical formulas.

 A molecular formula contains the symbol and the corresponding number of all atoms in a compound.

 An empirical formula shows only the reduced form of a molecular formula; the subscripts in the
original molecular formula are written in their simplest whole- number ratio,
 A structural formula shows the bond pattern and connectivity of atoms in compounds. In a structural
formula, an atom is represented by its element symbol, while lines depict the type of chemical bond
between the atoms. In the table, the lines - and = represent single and double covalent bonds.
 A condensed structural formula simplifies the structural formula, in which bonding patterns and
connectivity are less obvious but are still apparent.

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