GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF FARM ANIMAL PRODUCTION.

Animal Production.
Animal production is the practice of rearing animals or producing animal products such as
meat, egg or milk on an agriculture or commercial purposes.
BAB’S | 1
Importance of Rearing Farm Animals.
 They serves as source of food.
 They serve as source of employment.
 They serve as source of income.
 Some animals are used for research and medical purposes.
 They also serves as source of clothes and others.

Main Activities Involved In Farm Animal Production.

 Selection of breed.
 Choice of management system.
 Breeding systems and care for the young.
 Management practices.
 Finishing, processing and marketing of produce.

Ruminant Production.
Ruminant are farm animals which have four stomach chambers and also chew the cud.
Examples of ruminants are goat, cow, sheep, cattle, deer, etc.

Management Practices in Ruminant Production.

Selection of Breed.
Breeding refers to carefully selection and pairing of animals in other to produce offspring with
improve qualities. Some breeding stations in Ghana; Wa, Busa, Ejura, Pong Temale.

Desirable Characteristics Considered During Breeding.

 High meat or milk yield.
 Resistance to pest and diseases.
 Early maturity.
 Ability to adapt changes in the environment.
 Feed efficiency.

Types of Mating or Breeding.

 Pasture mating.
 Hand mating.
 Artificial insemination.

Pasture Mating.
This type of mating occurs randomly. The male animal move with the female animals and
mating occur when the female animal is on heat.
 Hand Mating.
Hand mating involves leading female animal on heat to a desirable or proven male animal for
mating or servicing.

Advantages of Hand Mating Over Pasture Mating.

BAB’S | 2  Offspring of desirable qualities are produced.
 Offspring produced a highly productive.
 Offspring produced are highly resistant to diseases.
 It enhance variation over pasture mating.

Artificial Insemination
Artificial insemination is defined as the deposition of carefully collected semen from a proven
male animal into the uterus or vagina of a female animal on heat using human devices.

Advantages of Artificial Insemination

 It prevent venereal disease (i.e. caused skin – skin contact in the genital area).
 It prevent wastage of semen.
 It produce health offspring.
 It enable female animals which cannot be mounted to also reproduce.
 It helps to produce offspring with desirable qualities.

Disadvantages of Artificial Insemination

 It is expensive.
 It is labour intensive.
 It is time consuming.
 It requires strict supervision of animals.
 It is difficult to restrict farm animals.

Heat or Oestrus in Farm Animals

Heat is a period in which a female animal is ready to accept a male for mating.
Examples of heat period in farm animals; cow (12 – 18 hours), sheep (1 day) and Goat (1 day 3
hours).

The Signs of Animals on Heat in Farm Animals.

 Loss of appetite.
 Mounting on other animals.
 Chin resting.
 Frequent tail shaking.
 Swelling and reddening of vulva lips.
 Restlessness and aggressive.
 Making unusual noise.
 Relaxation of the cervix.
 Abnormally high temperature.
 Oestrus Cycle.
Oestrus cycle is defined as the physiological and anatomical changes which occur in the
reproductive system of female animals between the onsets of one heat period to next.

The Oestrus Cycle for Some Ruminants.

BAB’S | 3 Farm animals Oestrus cycle
Sheep (ewe) 14 – 21 days
Goat (Doe) 18 – 21 days
Cow 20 – 22 days

Gestation Period.
Gestation period is the period from fertilization to birth. Example cow (9 month), Goat (145 –
153 days).

Signs of a Pregnant Ruminant.

 It becomes dull.
 It does not show signs of heat.
 It does not allow mating.
 It stomach later swells.

Parturition
Parturition is the natural process of giving birth in farm animals. When parturition occurs in
goat it is called kidding and in cow it is called calving, etc.

Signs of Parturition in Farm Animals

 There is frequent urinating.
 The udder of the animal enlarge.
 The teats become waxy in appearance.
 The belly becomes distended and drops.
 The vulva becomes relaxed.
 Discharge of mucus.
 The animal separate itself from the rest of the herd.

Husbandry Practices.
Husbandry practices are series of activities carried out in the farm to improve the productivity,
quality and good health of livestock.

Examples of husbandry practices.

Castration De – horning Identification
Culling Dipping Vaccination
De – worming Drenching Docking
Flushing etc.
 Castration.
Castration is defined as the removal of the testis of breaking of the spermatic cord of a male
animal so as to render sexual unproductive. Examples of animals that can be castrated includes;
sheep, goat, rabbit cattle, pig etc.

BAB’S | 4 Instruments for Castration.

Sharp knife Blade
Burdizzo castrator Elastrator
Emasculator

Reasons for Castrating Farm Animals.

 It prevent indiscriminate mating.
 It prevent the spread of venereal diseases.
 It makes the animal grow faster.
 It helps to remove unpleasant odour in some animals.
 It makes the animals gentle, docile and easily managed.

Types of Castration.
 Open/blood castration.
 Closed/bloodless castration.

Open Castration.
Open castration is the removal of the testis from the scrotum of an animal by cutting the scrotal
sac.

Closed Castration.
Closed castration involves the crushing of the spermatic cords with a pair of burdizzo, fitting a
rubber band tightly at the point of attachment of the scrotum to the body or injecting using
female hormones.

Dehorning.
Dehorning is the removal of horns in farm animals. Instruments for dehorning includes, electric
dehorner, dehorning paste, saw and clipper, hot iron dehorner, etc.

Importance of the Horn in Farm Animals.

 It is used for defends against other farm animals.
 For scratching the body.
 It beautifies the animal.
 They are used to drive flies away.
 It helps animals to float when crossing a water body.

Reasons for Dehorning Farm Animals.

 It makes the animals gentle and easy to handle.
 It enhance easy transportation of animals.
 Less damage to equipment.
 It prevent animals from injuring other animals.
  It creates more space for other animals in the pen.

IDENTIFICATION.
Methods of identification.
Tattooing – it involves using special instrument to make marks or number on the farm animal.
BAB’S | 5
Ear notching – it involves making holes in the ear lobe of the animals and fixing it with coded
numbers for identification.

Branding – it involves the use of iron with a desired identification mark to superficially burn off
the skin of the animal leaving the mark permanent after healing.

Ear/leg tagging – it involves clipping metallic or plastic material to the ear or leg of the farm
animal for easy identification.

Other methods include; dyeing, banding etc.

Reasons for Identification.

 Facilitate records keeping.
 Prevent livestock theft.
 It enhance easy recognition of farm animal by the owner.
 It helps to distinguish between animals
 It helps to solve dispute when animals are lost.

Docking - it refers to cutting of the tail of farm animal to a very small size.

Drenching - it is the practice of pouring of liquid drug down the throat of farm animals aiming at
killing endo parasites.

De – worming - it is the removal of worms in the stomach with the use of recommended de –
wormer at a suitable time.

Dipping – it is the practice of placing a well prepared chemical solution at the entrance to the
house of the animal so that any attendant will dip the feet in before entering the house.

Weaning.
Weaning is the act of separating the young animal from the mother to prevent sucking.

Advantages of Weaning.
 It encourage the animal to feed on solid food.
 To enhance early maturity.
 It prepares the mother to be on heat.
 It reduce the incidence of mastitis in the mother.

Importance of Recording Keeping.

 It provides information for tax assessment.
  It helps the farmer to obtain loan.
 It serves as the basics for accounting procedures.
 It provides information for farm planting and budgeting.
 For easy managerial control.
BAB’S | 6 Management Systems in Rearing Ruminants.
System Of Management Advantages
Intensive system 1. Animals are confined
2. Pest/disease are well controlled
3. Animals are given balanced
ration
4. It provides high yield live stock
5. Animals are safe from adverse
weather condition
Semi – intensive 1. It is not expensive as compared
system to intensive system
2. It is not labour intensive as
compared to intensive system
3. Animals have space for exercise
4. It can provide farm yard manure
5. Animals are better protected
than under extensive system
Extensive system 1. It is very cheap
2. It is not labour intensive
3. Animals have more space for
exercise
4. It is more suitable for local
breeds
5. It requires less managerial
practices
Feeding of Ruminants and Grazing.
Pastoral Nomadism – a practice in which cattle rearers (Fulani’s) move about with their cattle
in search of pasture and water.
Disadvantages
1. It is expensive to operate
2. It is time consuming
3. Spread of diseases is very
fast if not well managed
4. Animals yield poor meat
or milk due to ;lack of
exercise
5. Livestock may be
partially deficient except
under proper management
1. It result into over grazing
2. Efficient husbandry
practices are not
performed.
3. Animals are prone to
pest/diseases as compared
to intensive system
4. Animals are prone to
predators
1. Animals are prone to pest
and diseases
2. Animals are prone to
predators
3. Animals are prone to
adverse weather condition
4. Lack of proper records
keeping
5. Farm yard manure cannot
be obtain form this
system
 Zero – grazing - is practiced whereby grasses are cut and sent to cattle in their pens.

Rotational grazing – is practiced whereby cattle are moved about in paddocks as they graze on
the pasture.

BAB’S | 7 Factors That Determine the Type and Quality of Feed for Farm Animals.
 Class of animal.
 Purpose of rearing the animal.
 Age of animal.
 Management system.
 Physiological state of the animal i.e. pregnant or weaning.

RATION.
Ration is the quantity of food given to an animal for a day or specific period of time.

Maintenance ration.
Maintenance ration is the quantity of food supplied to an animal with nutrients that are enough
to enable the animal carry out important function like respiration, digestion etc.

Production ration.
Production ration is a quantity of food supplied to the animal in excess to be used by the animal
for productive purpose such as meat or milk production.

Balanced ration.
Balanced ration is a food which contain all the essential nutrients and are allowed to the animal
in a right proportion.

Effects of Malnutrition.
 Loss weight.
 Dullness/general body weakness.
 Poor formation of bones.
 Low resistance to diseases.
 Stunted growth.
 Poor reproduction.

Flushing.
Flushing is the practice by which more nutrition feed is given to female animal before breeding
period begins or before mating.

Reasons Why Flushing Is Important.

 It increase conception rate.
 It increase the chance of multiple birth.
 Sign of heat are more observable for hand mating.
 Improve health of female animal during pregnancy.
 Colostrum.
Colostrum is the milk produced by the mammary gland few days after birth.

Advantages of Colostrum.
 It improves growth.
BAB’S | 8  It helps to prevent diseases in newly born babes.
 It serves as source of nutrients for newly born babes.
 It prevents constipation.

Hay.
Hay is defined as dry forage conserved for use by livestock at a future date.

Characteristics of A Good Hey/Why Hey Is Used More Than Silage.

 Slightly green colour.
 Must be leafy.
 Nutritious and portable to livestock.
 Less fibrous and easy to digest.
 No dust or mold.
 Low moisture content.

Silage.
Silage is defined as a fresh green mainly legumes and grasses preserved by partial fermentation
for use by livestock at a later date.

Why Silage Is Used More Than Silage.

 It retains a higher proportion of leaves, water and nutrients.
 It is more palatable.
 It has a laxative effect.
 The preparation is less at risk from weather condition.
 Ensilaging is cheaper, quicker and less laborious.

Differences Between Hey and Silage.

Hey Silage
Less palatable. Highly palatable.
Weak aroma. Strong aroma.
Dry and slightly green. Slightly wet and green.
High vitamin D. Low vitamin D.
No laxative effect. Has laxative effect.

Diseases, Pest and Parasite of Ruminants.

Examples of Common Diseases of Ruminants.
 Anthrax.
 Bloat.
 Brucellosis or contagious abortion.
 Mastitis.
 Trypanosomiasis.
  Tuberculosis.
 Foot and mouth diseases/rot.

Characteristics Show By Sick or Ill Farm Animal.

 It becomes dull.
BAB’S | 9  It mostly lie down.
 It isolates itself.
 Loss of appetite.
 Animal grow lean.
 Frequent nasal discharge etc.

Prevention and Control of Pests, Parasite and Diseases.

 Good sanitation.
 Vaccination de-worming.
 Drenching.
 Rotational grazing.
 Dipping.
 Feeding animals with balanced diet.

Differences between Beef Cattle and Dairy Cattle.

Beef cattle Dairy cattle
Small udder Large udder
Short legs Long legs
Short face Long face
Straight back Sloping back
Rectangular shape Wedge shape

Differences between Goat and Sheep.

Goat Sheep
Both male and female can Only the adult ram is
be bearded bearded
Has musky odour Has no such odour
Has short erect tail Has longer, hanging tail
Legs have a built in shock Has no such feature
absorbers system
Absences of glands Has glands between the
between the toes toes.
 NON - RUMINANT PRODUCTION.
Non - ruminants are monogastric animals which digest food in one stomach. Examples of non –
ruminants include; pig, poultry, rabbit etc.

POULTRY.
BAB’S | 10 Poultry is defined as a term used to describe all domestic birds, which are reared for the primary
purposes of eggs and meat production. Examples of poultry includes; fowls, ducks, turkeys, etc.

Benefits from Poultry in Ghana.

 Source of employment.
 Source of food.
 Source of income from sales of eggs and meats.
 Provides feathers for decoration.
 Provides feathers which also serves as source of protein for farm animals.
 Provides manure for fertilizer.

Breeds of Fowls.
Indigenous/local breeds – fowls originate from Africa and have changed overtime.

Exotic/foreign breeds – fowls that have been introduced to Africa from other part of the world.

Hybrid breeds – fowl breeds that are obtained from crossing the local breeds with the exotic
breeds.

Differences between Local Breeds and Foreign Breeds.

Local breeds
They are smaller in size
They are slow growers
They are not used for commercial
egg or meat production
They produce less and small eggs
Their flesh are tough
They are highly resistance to
diseases
Foreign breeds
They are larger in size
They are fast growers
They are used for commercial egg or
meat production
They produce more and bigger eggs
Their flesh are soft and tender
They are not highly resistance to
diseases

Classifications of Fowl Breeds.

 Broilers.
 Layers.
 Dual purposes.

Broilers.
Broilers are birds that are kept manly for meat production. Examples of broilers are; Dark
Cornish, Marshall broilers, Plymouth broilers, Jersey black giant, New Hampshire etc.

Characteristics of Broilers.
 They are fast growers.
  They have a large body size.
 They reach maturity between 8 – 10 weeks.

Layers.
Layers are fowls that are reared mainly for egg production. Examples of layers are; Minorca,
BAB’S | 11 ISA layer, Nora sex link, Goldline 54, Single comb white leghorn. Single comb brown leghorn.

Characteristics of Layers.
 They are slow growers.
 They are nervous and difficult to confine.
 They are usually smaller in size.
 They take as long as 18 – 20 weeks to begin producing eggs.

Dual Purposes Breeds.

Dual purposes breeds are cross breeds of layers and broilers. Examples of dual purpose
breeds; Light Sussex, Australorp, New Hampshire red, Rhode Island red.

Management Systems of Keeping Poultry.

Factors That Determine the Choice of System.
 Purpose of production.
 Capital availability.
 Facility availability.

Three Common Management Systems.

 Extensive system.
 Semi – intensive system.
 Intensive system.

Extensive System.
Extensive system is a type of system where fowls are allowed to move freely in search of food
and water.

Types of Extensive System.

 Free running system.
 Free range system.

Free Running System.

Poultry under this management system are allowed an unlimited scavenging to freely search for
food and water.

Free Range or Open Range System.

Under this system fowls are housed but allowed to move free in large fenced grassland during
the day.
 The Main Differences Between The Free – Range System And The Free Running System.
Free – range system Free running system
Fowls are properly housed Fowls are not properly housed
They are restricted to a fence area They have liberty to go anywhere
BAB’S | 12 They are not allowed to mix with stray They are not restricted from mixing with stray
fowls fowls
Fowls are properly feed Fowls are poorly fed.

Semi Intensive System

This system combine both intensive and extensive system. Fowls are provided with some
housing facilities and also freedom to roam in a limited area during the day.

Types of Semi – Intensive Systems.

 Run system.
 Movable fold unit.

Run System.
Under this system, fowls are reared in a permanent pen with grassy attached to the pen for fowls
to move about.

Advantages of Run System.

 It is cheap.
 It is not labour intensive.
 It is suitable for all age birds.
 It is ideal for backyard poultry farming.
 Animals have access to natural vegetation and sunshine.

Disadvantages of Run System.

 Runs may become wet during raining season.
 Disease spread is easy.
 Animals may become weak or ill due to inadequate exercise.

Movable Fold Unit.

This involve the use of a movable house within enclose run. Fowls use the run during the day
and house during night.

Advantages of Movable Fold Units.

 Birds are protected against adverse weather condition.
 Fowls are protected from predator attack.
 Easy control of diseases.
 Culling is easier.
 It is less labourious.
 Disadvantages of Movable Fold Unit.
 It is more expensive than range system.
 It leads to low egg production.
 Fowls suffer from egg eating.
 It is labour intensive as compared to range system.
BAB’S | 13  The system is unsuccessful where land is not flat and undulating.

Intensive System.
Under this management system, fowls are completely confined or restricted in a pen.

Types of Intensive System.

 Deep litter system.
 Battery cage system.

Deep Litter System.

In this system of management, fowls are housed in a well ventilated pen both day and night. The
pens have litters of wood shaving, saw dust, or cut straw.

Measures To Be Adopted To Maintain A Good Litter House.

 Floor must be kept dry frequently.
 Floor litters must be changed regularly.
 Cracks must be mended with appropriate materials.
 Remove all insect nest and cobwebs on the wall of the house.
 Disinfect the floor after litter has been removed.

Advantages of Deep Litter System.

 It reduce pest and disease outbreak.
 It require less labour.
 Fowls are well fed.
 It give less egg crack.
 Predators are well controlled.

Disadvantages of Deep Litter System.

 Less movement therefore less exercise.
 Cannibalism may occur due to overcrowding.
 Diseases are easily spread under poor supervision.
 Record keeping is not easy.
 It is expensive.

Battery Cage System.

This system comprises a number of cages consisting of wire – mesh, galvanized or wooden cages
arranged on top of another in tiers.

Advantages of Battery Cage System.

 It saves labour and space.
 Fowls lay bigger eggs.
  Feed is used efficiently to produce eggs or meat.
 Eggs produced do not have dirty shells.
 Fowls do not eat eggs.
 Better record keeping.

BAB’S | 14 Disadvantages of Battery Cage System.

 It is expensive to construct and maintain.
 Fowls lack access to natural vegetation.
 Fowls lack space for exercise.
 Thin shelled eggs have tendency to crack on welded wire floor.
 Cage confinement result into weakness and breast blisters.

Management Practices in Poultry.

Culling.
Culling is the practice of removing unproductive or sick birds from the whole flock of birds.

Observable Features of Layers Which Attract Culling.

 The abdomen become hard and full.
 The wattle and comb shrink, become pale and dry.
 The vent become very dry.
 The space between the pelvic bones and the breast bones accommodate only two fingers or
less.

Advantages of Culling.
 Reduces the spread of pest and diseases.
 It saves cost.
 It maximize yield.
 It creates more space for exercise.

Debeaking.
Debeaking is defined as the partial removal of the beak of poultry bird.

Reasons for Debeaking.

 To prevent cannibalism.
 To prevent egg eating.
 To prevent pecking.
 To reduce food wastage.

Decombing.
Decombing is the practice of removing the comb of a poultry bird.

Reasons for Decombing.

 It prevents pecking of the comb.
 It makes fowls grow fat.
 It reduces restlessness in birds.
 It helps to reduce pressure on birds.
  It reduces microbial infection of the comb.

Vaccination.
Vaccination is the process of introducing into the body dead or weakened pathogens which
stimulates the immune system to produce appropriate antibodies to fight specific antigens.
BAB’S | 15
Day – Old Chicks Production.
Day – old chicks are produced from the broody hen or an incubator.

Types of Eggs.
Table eggs – are unfertilized eggs produced by hens, which have not been crossed by cockerels.
They are meant for consumption.

Hatching eggs – these are fertilized eggs obtain from hens which have been crossed by
cockerels.

Incubation.
Incubation is the process where fertilized eggs are kept under optimum temperature and
controlled humidity condition for the development of the embryo of chicks.

Sources of Day – Old Chicks/Types of Incubation.

Broody Hen/Natural Incubation.
Under this type of incubation, the hen is allowed to sit on 8 to 15 eggs at most. The process of
turning ensures that the embryo is always in touch with the warm breast of the hen. The hen is
allowed to sit on the eggs for 21 days in the dark, dry, cool place without disturbance. It leave the
eggs in such for food and exercise during the day and also during which time the eggs are
ventilated. When the eggs are hatched the broody hen provides warmth for the chicks.

Advantages of Natural Incubation over Artificial Incubation.

 It is suitable for hatching few eggs.
 It is less expensive.
 It is less labourious.
 More eggs are likely to be hatched.
 It does not rely on external source of heat.

Disadvantages of Natural Incubation.

 Broody hens may not be available to sit on eggs at the time incubation is required.
 Eggs are exposed to dangers.
 It produce few eggs and hence does not support production of commercial quantities of
chicks.

The Hatchery/Artificial Incubation.

This involves keeping fertile eggs under optimum temperature and controlled humidity
conditions for the development of the embryo into chicks in an incubator without the presence of
the mother for a period of 21 days.
 Advantages of Artificial Incubation.
 It produce a large quantity of chicks.
 Eggs are safe from dangers.
 Incubation can be done at a convenient time.

BAB’S | 16 Disadvantages of Artificial Incubation.

 It is expensive.
 It is time consuming.
 It is labour intensive.
 It is uneconomic for hatching few eggs.

Activities Carried Out By The Farmer At The Hatchery After Hatching.

 Sexing of chicks.
 Drying of chicks.
 NDV vaccination.
 Sorting out abnormal chicks and packing.

Factors to Consider In Selecting Eggs for Hatching.

 The egg must weigh 53 – 56g.
 The egg must be oval shape.
 The egg must have smooth and clean shells.
 Egg must be selected from a healthy hen.
 Place of the storage of eggs must have a suitable temperature and humidity.

Characteristics of Good Chicks from Hatcheries.

 It should be a good size.
 It should have a bright clean eyes.
 It should have fluffy feathers.
 It should stand firmly on sturdy legs.
 It should show a distinct variation features.
 Chick must also be free from abnormality.

Definition of Relevant Terms.

Broody hen – this is a hen with adaptive features which can sit on her eggs and hatch them into
chicks and provide warmth for the chicks.

Brooding – this is a stage in poultry keeping during which newly hatched chicks are confined
and provided with extra warmth until they develop enough feathers to enable them to keep
themselves warm.

Brooder house – this is a house specially designed to take care of the chicks from the first day to
the fourth week.

Brooder – this is a device in which newly hatched chicks maybe kept to provide them with
warmth.
 Differences between Good Layers and Bad Layers.
Good Layers Bad Layers
Has a large, bright comb and Has a dull, dry and scaly comb
wattle
Has a bright red face Has a tint yellowish face
BAB’S | 17 Has an enlarge, smooth, oval Vent is shrunken and dry
in shape vent
Has a soft and loose skin Has a thick skin
Abdomen is expanded, soft Abdomen is contrite, hard and
and pliable fleshy

Differences between High Producers and Low Producers.

High Producers Low Producers
Vent is bluish white Vent is yellowish or flesh colour
Eye ring and ear lobe are white Eye ring and ear lobe are
yellowish
Has a white beak Has a yellow beak
Shanks are white and flattered Shanks are yellow and round
Plumage is worn soiled Plumage is not much worn

Diseases Affecting Poultry.

Newcastle disease Gumboro disease
Bird flu Fowl pox disease
Fowl cholera Fowl typhoid
Fowl pneumonia Favus
Coccidiosis Rickets

General Signs Shown When Fowls Are Sick.

 Dullness
 Low appetite
 Leanness
 Diarrhea
 Coughing

General Measures for Proper Poultry Management.

 Start the farm with disease-free stock.
 Chicken should be fed regularly.
 At brooding, chicks must be given right amount of heat.
 Troughs and the floors should be washed and disinfected regularly.
 Avoid overcrowding of fowls.
 Keep only birds with improved breeds.

Mortality of Poultry Birds

Mortality of birds is defined as the death of birds.
 Causes Of Mortality Of Poultry Birds/ Reasons For The Fluctuations In Eggs Laid Daily.
 Disease outbreak.
 Presence of predator.
 Poor feeding.
 Contaminated feed.
BAB’S | 18  Poor housing.

Ways of Reducing Mortality of Poultry Birds.

 Proper housing.
 Provision of clean water and food.
 Regular deworming.
 Vaccination.
 Culling.
 SOIL CONSERVATION

SOIL
Soil is the naturally loose uppermost part on the earth crust containing minerals and organic
materials through which plants grow.
BAB’S | 19
Factors Which Influence the Formation of Soil
 Climate.
 Biological factors.
 Topography.
 Parent materials.
 Time.

Components of Soil/ Soil Resources.

 Organic matter.
 Inorganic mater/mineral salts.
 Water.
 Air.
 Living organisms.
 Soil particles.

Organic Matter.
Organic matter refers to dead plants and animals in the soil and their water products such as
urine and faeces.

Sources of Organic Matter.

 Dead plants.
 Manure.
 Dead soil micro or macro organism.
 Compost.
 Human waste.

Importance of Organic Matter.

 It helps to improve soil structure.
 It enhance soil water – retention.
 It helps to regulate the temperature of the soil.
 It provides nutrients need by plants for growth and development.
 It makes the soil suitable for cultivation.

Functions of Soil.
 It is the major source of nutrients needed for plants growth and development.
 It provide water needed for plants growth.
 It also provides air for root respiration.
 It serves as habitat for soil living organisms.
 It provides mechanical support for plants.
 SOIL CONSERVATION
Soil conservation refers to series of activities which are carried out in the farm aiming at
maintain, improving or protecting the soil and it resources.

Methods/ Ways of Conserving Soil.

BAB’S | 20  Irrigation.
 Avoid overgrazing.
 Afforestation.
 Crop rotation.
 Shifting cultivation.
 Mulching.
 Application of fertilizer etc.

SOIL WATER CONSERVATION

Soil water conservation refers to the rational use of water in the soil in its natural state so that
there will be sufficient for plants growth and development.

Source of Soil Water.

 Rainfall.
 Irrigation.
 General flow of water through the ground.
 Condensation.

Ways by Which Water Can Be Lost From the Soil.

 Evaporation.
 Transpiration.
 Percolation.

Methods of Conserving Soil Water… (Refer to ways of conserving soil)

Importance of Soil Water.

 It helps to regulate the soil temperature.
 It provides moisture needed for seed germination.
 It serves as the source of water for soil living organisms.
 It is required for essential growth and development of plants.
 It prevent the plant from wilting.

SOIL NUTRIENTS.
Soil nutrients are elements which are considered essential in the soil for maximum growth and
development of plants.

Types/Classifications of Soil Nutrients.

 Micro/minor nutrients or trace elements.
 Macro – nutrients or Major nutrients.
 Micro Nutrients.
Micro – nutrients are chemical elements needed in small amount for growth and developments.

EXAMPLES OF FUNCTIONS DEFICIENCY

MICRO SYMPTOMS
BAB’S | 21 NUTRIENTS
Manganese (Mn)  It activates respiratory enzymes in  It causes chlorosis
the plant  Poor plants growth
 It is required for nitrogen
metabolism
Iron (Fe)  For chlorophyll formation  Chlorosis in terminal
 It is a constituent of protein leaves
 It also cause smelling of
leaves
Zinc (Zn)  For root development  Production of extremely
 It is essential for chlorophyll small leaves
production  Spots generalization with
rapid enlarging
Copper (Cu)  It also helps in the formation of  Young leaves
chlorophyll permanently witted
 It activates respiratory enzymes in without chlorosis
the plant  Stalks become weak and
unable to erect.
Boron (B)  It helps plants to translocate food  Poor plants growth
substances  Leaves become twisted
 It helps to increase crop yield.
Molybdenum (Mo)  It is for nitrate assimilation  It may cause trees to be
 It helps in the formation of food completely defoliated
substances.  It cause premature
flowering in crops

MACRO – NUTRIENTS.
Macro – nutrients are chemical elements which are needed in plants in larger quantities for
efficient growth and development.

EXAMPLES OF FUNCTIONS DEFICIENCY

MACRO – SYMPTOMS
NUTRIENTS
Nitrogen (N)  It promotes chlorophyll formation  Stunted growth in plants
 It promotes plants growth and  Leaf chlorosis
development  Weak slander stems
 It is used in the formation of proteins,
enzymes and nucleic acid
Phosphorus (P)  It helps in stalk and stem  Stunted growth in plants
development  The stalk become weak
and slander
  It increases plants resistance to
disease
 It speeds up ripening of fruits
Potassium (K)  It strengthen the stalk of plants  Leaf chlorosis
 It helps to promote plants growth and  Uneven ripening of fruits
BAB’S | 22 development  Defoliation
 It activates enzymes for respiration
and photosynthesis.
Magnesium (Mg)  It activates enzymes in the plants  It may cause plants
 It is essential for the formation of defoliation
carbohydrates, fats and vitamins  Yellowing of leaf margin
and lamina
Sulphur (S)  For formation of plants hormones  Leaf chlorosis
 It is also essential for chlorophyll  Stunting growth in plants
formation
Calcium (Ca)  It helps in cells formation  Dwarfing of plants
 For health growth  Roots may rot.

SOIL FERTILITY.
Soil fertility is the ability of the soil to supply all the necessary nutrients needed for plants
growth and development.

Fertile Soil.
A fertile soil is a soil which contain all the necessary nutrients needed for plant growth and
development.

Characteristics of a Fertile Soil.

It should be well aerated.
It should have a good soil texture or structure.
It should have a favourable pH.
It should have sufficient organic matter or humus.
It should have adequate minerals or nutrients. etc.

Soil Productivity.
Soil productivity is the ability of the soil to produce specific plants under proper management
system.

NB: A fertile soil is not necessarily a productive soil because some crops may grow in acidic soil
and hence productive for such crop but may be unproductive for a crop which cannot grow in
such soil.

Conduction under Which a Fertile Soil Will Not Be Productive.

 Erosion.
 Leaching.
 Unsuitable temperature.
 Presence of weeds.
  Lack of water.
 Water logging.

Maintaining Soil Fertility … (Refer to ways of conserving soil)

BAB’S | 23 Soil Depletion.

Soil depletion refers to the loss of the fertility of the soil which support plants growth and
development.
Or

Soil depletion occurs when the nutrients in the soil are removed and not replaced, and the
conditions which support soil fertility are not maintained.

Causes of Soil Depletion.

 Bush burning.
 Deforestation.
 Over grazing.
 Erosion.
 Excessive use of fertilizer.
 Leaching. etc.

LIMING.
Liming is the process by which certain calcium compounds or ashes are added to the soil to
correct it pH.

Liming Materials.
 Limestone.
 Slaked lime.
 Quicklime.
 Wood ash.
 Calcium hydrogen carbonate (CaHCO3).

Advantages of Liming.
 Reduce the acidity or alkalinity of the soil.
 Improve soil structure.
 Enhance the performance of soil micro-organisms.
 Enhance the control of soil borne disease.
 Enhance the absorption and utilization of soil nutrients.

CROP ROTATION.
Crop rotation is the growing of different kinds of crops over the same piece of land over a
period of time.

Principles Underlying the Selection of Crops for Crop Rotation.

 Shallow rooted crop must follow a deep rooted crop since they will absorb nutrients at
different levels in the soil.
  In the case of a four years crop rotation the crops cultivated in the first year should be
repeated in the fifth year.

NB: Crop rotation involves the cultivation of annual crops only.

BAB’S | 24 Examples of a Crop Rotation Programs.

Plot/Years Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4
Plot 1 Maize Cassava Groundnut Cabbage
Plot 2 Cassava Groundnut Cabbage Maize
Plot 3 Groundnut Cabbage Maize Cassava
Plot 4 Cabbage Maize Cassava Groundnut

Advantages of Crop Rotation.

 Control disease.
 Control soil erosion.
 Maintain soil fertility.
 Increase crop yield.
 Helps to control weeds.

Reasons for Including Leguminous Crops in the Crop Rotation Program.

 Helps to fix nitrogen in the soil.
 Increase crop yield.
 Helps to control pest and diseases.
 Helps to reduce soil erosion.
 Helps to regulate the soil temperature. Etc.

Fertilizer Application.
Fertilizer refers to any substance that is applied to the soil to replenish or increase it fertility.

Types of Fertilizer.
 Organic fertilizer (Manure).
 Inorganic fertilizer.

Organic Fertilizer.
Organic fertilizer is a fertilizer which is obtain from dead plants and animals and their waste
products.

Sources of Organic Fertilizer.

 Green manure.
 Farm yard manure or animals dropping.
 Compost.
 Human waste.
 Dead plants materials.
 Dead micro – organisms in the soil.
 Dead macro – organisms.
 Types of Manure.
 Green manure.
 Farm yard manure.
 Compost.

BAB’S | 25 Green manure

This involves the ploughing of young green plants especially leguminous crops directly into the
soil.

Farm yard manure or animal manure

This involve the addition of faeces, urine, blood and bedding of farm animals to the soil.

Compost
Compost is the decayed or decomposed organic matter usually of plant source that is added to
the soil to improve it fertility.

Composting is the addition of compost to the soil to increase it fertility.

Advantages of Organic Fertilizer or Manure.

 It enhance the activities of the microorganisms in the soil.
 It help to regulate the temperature of the soil.
 It help to increase crop yield.
 It aids aeration of soil.
 It helps to correct the soil pH.
 It helps to improve soil structure.

Chemical or Inorganic Fertilizer.

Inorganic fertilizer is a man – made fertilizer which is added to the soil to improve it fertility.

Examples of Inorganic Fertilizers.

 N.P.K
 Urea
 Ammonium nitrate
 Nitrate soda
 Ammonium sulphate
 Potash sulphate
 Single superphosphate
 Muriate of potash etc.

Classification of Inorganic Fertilizer.

 Single or simple fertilizer.
 Compound or mixed fertilizer.

Single or Simple Fertilizer.

Single fertilizer is a fertilizer which contain only one of the three major plants nutrients (N.P.K)
 Examples of Single Fertilizers.
 Sulphate of ammonia.
 Urea.
 Muriate of potash.

BAB’S | 26 Compound or Mixed Fertilizer.

Compound fertilizer is a fertilizer which contain two or more of the major plants nutrients
(N.P.K) in a reasonable proportion.

Types of Compound Fertilizer.

 Complete compound fertilizer
 Incomplete compound fertilizer.

Complete Compound Fertilizer

Complete compound fertilizer is a compound fertilizer which contain all the three major
nutrients in their right proportion. Examples N.P.K fertilizer 20:20:20

Incomplete Compound Fertilizer

Incomplete compound fertilizer is a type of compound fertilizer which contain only two of the
major nutrients. Example N.P.K fertilizer 20:0:20.

Disadvantages/Harmful Effects of Inorganic Fertilizers.

 They leach easily.
 They destroy the soil structure.
 They are injurious to soil living organisms.
 They increase soil acidity.
 They increase the temperature of the soil.

Factors to Be Considered When Applying Fertilizers.

 Climate condition.
 Time of application.
 Condition of the soil.
 Level of weed control.
 pH of the soil.
 Nature of the crop.

Methods of Fertilizer Application.

Broadcasting – spreading the fertilizer by hand or machine of the farm land before planting the
crop.

Drilling method – the fertilizer is applied with a drill at the same time as the seed is sown.

Ring method – the fertilizer is applied in a circular way equidistant form the plant.

Spraying/foliar method – the liquid fertilizer is sprayed on the crop using the sprayer.
 Side dressing – the fertilizer is applied along rows of plants or between rows or around
individual plants.

SOIL EROSION.
Soil erosion is the washing away of the nutrients in the top soil by wind or water.
BAB’S | 27
Types of Erosion.
 Splash erosion.
 Sheet erosion.
 Rill erosion.
 Gully erosion.

Splash erosion
It is the first stage of erosion process. It occurs when raindrops hit a bare soil. It causes soil
particles to be dislodged

Sheet erosion
It usually occurs along the slope. The top soil is removed and washed almost uniformly along the
slopes without digging channels in the soil. Usually caused by a heavy rainfall.

Rill erosion
It is caused by light rainfall when water runs along the slope at a slow rate and carries slow down
the hill. It form shallow, wavy and narrow channels along a hill side.

Gully erosion
These are deep, steep-sided channels along the hill sides formed as a result of the deepening of
rills as rainwater flows through them.

Causes of Erosion … (Refer to causes of soil depletion)

Effects of Soil Erosion

 It deplete the soil fertility
 In wind erosion, farms and livestock may suffer from respiratory and eye problems.
 It changes the shape of the land.
 It causes siltation
 It decreases crop yield.

Prevention of Soil Erosions

 Mulching
 Afforestation
 Agro forestry
 Avoid overgrazing
 Counter ploughing
 Crop rotation
 Avoid bush burning
 DICTIONARY
Transpiration is the loss of water vapour through the aerial part of a plant.

Wilting is a condition whereby there is insufficient amount of water to supply to plants.

BAB’S | 28 Percolation is the process where water moves downward through openings in the soil.

Leaf chlorosis is a condition in which a leaf produce insufficient amount of chlorophyll for
photosynthesis.

Plant defoliation is the widespread loss of leaf on a plant.

Mixed farming is the practice of rearing animals and cultivating crops over a piece.

Mixed cropping is the practice of growing different type of crops over a period of time.

Counter ploughing or counter farming is a farming practice of planting across a slope

following its elevation contour lines.

Terracing is a sloping piece of land that has had flat areas like steps built on it. It is a soil
conservation practice applied to prevent rainfall runoff on sloping land from accumulating and
causing serious erosion.

Agroforestry is a land management system in which trees or shrub are grown around or among
crops or pastureland.
 PREPARATION OF GASES

Air is a mixture of gases.

Wind is a fast moving air. Wind can be felt but air cannot be felt.
BAB’S | 29
.
Composition of air includes 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 0.9% argon, o.1% other gases (i.e.
carbon dioxide (0.04%), helium, hydrogen, methane, water vapour, neon etc.)

PROPERTIES OF AIR.
1. It is a mixture of gases.
2. It occupies space or has volume.
3. It has mass.
4. It has a density of 1.225 kgm-3
5. It exerts pressure.
6. It is a colourless, odourless gas.
7. It has no chemical formula. Etc.

Apparatus for Preparing Gases in the Laboratory

1. Round bottom flask 2. Flat bottom flask 3. Test tube 4. Delivery tube
5. Thistle funnel 6. Cork/stopper 7. Retort stand 8. Clamp
9. Tripod stand 10. Bee hive stand 11. Beaker/water trough
12. Large bore Pyrex glass tube 13. Measuring cylinder 14. Wire gauze Etc.
*watch WASSCE 2014 & NOVDEC 2015.

Methods of Collection of Gases

The methods of collection of gases depends on the solubility and density of the gas. Below are
some of the methods used for collection of gases;

1. Collection over water or displacement of water

This method is used to collect gases that are insoluble in water. Examples of insoluble gases
includes hydrogen, nitrogen, helium and methane.

Method
1. Fully fill a test tube with water and place it upside down (inverted) into a water trough
containing some amount of water.
2. Introduce the gas into the open end of the inverted test tube containing the water using a
delivery tube.
3. As the gas enters the inverted test tube it displaces water, hence it is very easy to identify the
gas in the test tube when it is filled completely.
 4. Seal the open of the test tube and test for the presence of the gas.

BAB’S | 30

NB: (i) This is usually the best method of gas collection because all gases are less dense than
water and hence can be collected easily.

Limitation:
1. This method is not advisable to collect gases that are soluble in water. Examples of soluble
gases are ammonia, hydrogen chloride, Sulphur oxide, etc.

2. Gases that are collected by this method are not pure because they are mixed with water
vapour.

2. Downward delivery
This method is used to collect soluble gases that are denser than air. Examples of gases denser
than air are carbon dioxide, hydrogen chloride, chlorine gas and Sulphur dioxide. Oxygen
gas is collected by this method because it is slightly soluble in water and heavier than air.

Method.
1. Connect a gas jar to the flask that is giving off the gas using a delivery tube.
2. The gas move to the button of the gas jar when delivered and the air the gas jar is displaced
upwards since it is less dense than the air until the gas jar is filled with the collected gas.
BAB’S | 31

3. Upward delivery
This method is used to collect gases that are soluble and less dense than air. Examples of gases
that are less dense than air includes; ammonia, helium, hydrogen, neon, nitrogen, methane,
water vapour, carbon monoxide. Etc.

Methods
1. Inverted gas jar is connected to the flask that is producing the gas.
2. The gas move to the top of the gas jar when delivered and air is displaced downwards because
it is denser than the gas introduced into the jar.
 REACTIONS AND GASES THAT WOULD BE PRODUCED

1. Carbon dioxide gas.

Acid + carbonated compound → Salt + water + carbon dioxide gas.
BAB’S | 32
Example of balance chemical equation.
2HCl + CaCO3 → CaCl2 + H2O + CO2

2. Hydrogen gas
Acid + Some metals → Salt + Hydrogen gas

Example of balanced chemical equation

2HCl + Zn → ZnCl2 + H2

3. Oxygen gas
𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑠𝑡
(i) Hydrogen peroxide → water + oxygen gas

OR

𝐶𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑠𝑡
(ii) Potassium trioxochlorate (V) → Salt + oxygen gas

Example of balance chemical equation

𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑠𝑡
(i) 2H2O2 → 2H2O + O2 (only catalyst is involved)

OR

𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑠𝑡
(ii) 2KClO3 → 2KCl + 3O2 (Both heat and catalyst present)

4. Ammonia gas
Base + Ammonium salt → Salt + water + ammonia gas
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡

Example of balance chemical equation

NaOH + NH4Cl → NaCl + H2O + NH3
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡

5. Nitrogen gas
Ammonium salt + Nitrate Salt → Salt + water + nitrogen
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡
 Example of balance chemical equation.
NH4Cl + NaNO2 → NaCl + 2H2O + N2
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡

BAB’S | 33

EXAMPLE OF GASES, PROPERTIES, AND TEST IN THE LABORATORY

Gases Properties Test in the laboratory
1. Carbon dioxide It is colourless, odourless and When the gas is passed
tasteless. through limewater for some
It is heavier than air. time, the limewater turns
It is soluble in water milky (whitish)
2. Hydrogen It is colourless, odourless and When a lighted splint is
tasteless. dipped into a test tube
It is heavier than air. containing the gas it produces
It is soluble in water a ‘pop’ sound and the lighted
splint goes off.
3. Oxygen It is colourles, odourless and When a glowing splint is
tasteless. lowered into a test tube
It is heavier than air. containing the gas, it burst
It is soluble in water into flame.
It is a pour conductor of heat
It supports combustion
4. Ammonia It is colourless 1. Hold red litmus paper into
It has a pungent/choky smell the test tube containing the
It is less dense than air gas, the colour of the litmus
It is soluble in water paper changes to blue.

2. Hold glass rod dipped into

5. Nitrogen It is colourless, odourless and
tasteless.
It is non – poisonous
It is less dense than air
It is insoluble in water.
concentrated HCl in the gas,
dense white fumes is formed.
1. If a glowing splint is
introduced into the gas, it
immediately goes off.
2. It also shows no colour
change on the litmus paper.
 USES OF THE GASES PREPARED IN THE LABORATORY
GASES USES
1. Carbon dioxide gas (CO2) 1. It is used as a refrigerant
2. It is used in fire extinguishers
BAB’S | 34 3. It is used for inflating life jacket
4. It used for photosynthesis in plants
5. It is used in carbonated beverages.
2. Hydrogen (H2) 1. It is use for welding
2. It is used as rocket fuel
3. It is used for the production of HCl
4. It is used for hydrogenation of fats and oil
5.It is used to prepared ammonium fertilizer
3. Oxygen (O2) 1. It is used for welding and cutting of metals
2. It is used for the production of steel,
plastics and textiles.
3. It is used by animals for respiration
4. It is used for combustion
5. It is used in water treatment
4. Ammonia (NH3) 1. It is used as a fertilizer
2. It is used as a refrigerant
3. It is used to manufacture plastics, textiles
and explosives
4. It is also used to manufacture pesticides
5. It used in water treatment
5. Nitrogen gas (N2) 1. It is used to manufacture fertilizer
2. It is used to manufacture nitric acid
3. It is used to manufacture nylon
4. It is used to manufacture proteins and
amino acids
5. It is used to manufacture chlorophyll in
plants.
 REPRODUCTION AND GROWTH IN PLANTS.

Reproduction
Reproduction is the process whereby living things give rise to new offspring of their kind.

BAB’S | 35 Types of Reproduction

- Sexual reproduction
- Asexual reproduction.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS

Sexual reproduction in plants is a type of reproduction which involves the use of fertilized seed
to produce new plants.

NB: All flowering plants undergo sexual reproduction. Examples of flowering plants includes;
mango, pawpaw, tomato, maize, cowpea, pear.

NB: Gymnosperms are plants that do not produce flower. Examples of non-flowering plants are;
liverwort, ferns, moss, horsetails, cycads.

Flowering Plants.
A flowering plant is a plant which produces a flower.

Flower.
A flower is the reproductive part of a plant.

Parts of a Flower and Their Main Functions.

Sepal – it protect the flower at the bud stage

Calyx – A group of sepals.

Petal – it attracts insects and birds to the flower to cause pollination.

Corolla - A group of petals.

Stamen (male part of the flower). - It consist of the anther and the filament.

Androecium - A collection of stamen.

Anther – It produces and store the pollen grain/male gamete or sex cell.

Filament – It also hold and support the anther in a position suitable of pollination.

Pistil (female part of a flower). – It consist of the stigma, style, and ovary.

Gynoecium – A group of pistil.

 Stigma – it receives the pollen grain during pollination.

Style – it holds the stigma in a position suitable for pollination.

BAB’S | 36 Ovary – it develops to form the fruit.

Ovule – it develops to form a seed.

Receptacle/Thalamus - it also support the flower in a position for sexual reproduction.

Pedicel – it attach the entire flower to the parent plant.

Types of Flower
A complete flower – a flower which consist of the four main/integral floral parts (i.e. calyx,
corolla, pistil and stamen. Examples of a complete flower includes; roses, tulips, pea plants and
hibiscus.

An incomplete flower – a flower in which any of the four integral parts are missing. Examples
of incomplete flowers are; watermelon, papaya, gourd and corn.

Bisexual flower/hermaphroditic – a flower which has both the stamen and pistil. Examples are;
beans, okro, flamboyant flower.

Unisexual flower/vestigial – a type of lower which only the stamen or pistil. Examples are;
watermelon, pawpaw, maize.

Importance of Sexual Reproduction in Plants.

1. It enhance variation among species
2. Improves quality of offspring
3. It ensures continual existence of species.

Life Cycle of a Flowering Plant.

1. Flower formation
2. Pollination
3. Fertilization
4. Fruit and seed formation
5. Dispersal of seeds
6. Germination
7. Growth of seedling to maturity.
 POLLINATION
Pollination is the transfer of a matured pollen grain from the anther to the stigma of a flower.

TYPES OF POLLINATION
BAB’S | 37 - Self – pollination
- Cross pollination

Self- pollination is the transfer of matured pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of the
same flower or another flower on the same plant.

Cross pollination is the transfer of matured pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of
another flower on a difference plant but of the same species.

Agents of Pollination.
1. Insect
2. Birds
3. Water
4. Wind
5. Mammals

Mechanism of pollination by insects

When an insect (e.g. butterfly) visit a mature flower for the nectar, the anther releases pollen
grains which adhere to the mouthparts of the insect. The sticky stigma pick up the pollen grains
as the insect brushes it body onto the surface of the stigma when it visit another plant for the
nectar.

Differences between Insect Pollination and Wind Pollination.

Insect/Entomophily pollination.
- Flowers are large and conspicuous
- Brightly coloured petals
- Highly scented flowers
- Have nectar
- Examples; roses, flamboyant flower
Wind/Anemophily pollination
- Flowers are small and inconspicuous
- Petals are dull coloured
- Flowers are not highly scented
- Have no nectar
- Examples; Maize, palm oil.

Advantages of Cross Pollination over Self-Pollination.

1. Seeds produced are healthier than those from self-pollination
2. Seeds are highly resistant to changes in the environmental conditions
3. It enhance variation

Advantages of Self-Pollination over Cross Pollination.

1. No agent is required
2. Higher chance of pollination occurring.
 FERTILIZATION
Fertilization is the fusion of the male sex nuclei and the female sex nuclei to form a zygote.

Process of Fertilization in Plants

When a matured pollen gran is deposited onto a matured stigma, it grows through the stigma,
BAB’S | 38 style and ovary. The pollen grain divide into pollen tube nucleus and regenerative nucleus. The
pollen tube elongate and enter the ovary through the micropyle. The regenerative nucleus divide
into two sperm nucleus. One of the male nucleus fuse with the polar nuclei to form an endosperm
and the other fuses with the ovum to form a zygote. The zygote divides after fertilization to form
an embryo.

SEEDS AND FRUITS FORMATION

SEEDS
A seed is a developed ovule.

Parts of a Seed and Their Functions.

Testa/Seed coat – it protect the embryo against external and mechanical damages.

Plumule – it develop to form the shoot system of the plant.

Radical – it develop to form the root system of the plant.

Hilum – it is the point of attachment of the radical to the placenta of the fruit.

Endosperm – it stores food substance in the form of starch.

Micropyle – it imbibes or absorbs water into the seed for germination.

Cotyledon – it is the site for digestion and also it stores food for the seed.

Types of Seeds
- Monocotyledonous/Endospermic seeds
- Dicotyledonous/Non-endospermic seeds

Monocotyledonous seeds are seeds which consist of one cotyledon. Examples are maize, rice,
wheat, millet and sorghum. They have endosperms and also their pericarp and testa are fused
together.

Dicotyledonous seeds are seeds which consists of two cotyledon. Examples are groundnut,
orange seeds, cowpea seeds, and soya bean seeds. They have no endosperms and also their
pericarp and testa are separated.
 FRUITS
A fruit is a developed ovary which contain one or more seeds and two natural scars.

NB: A fruit may be formed from an ovary or both from an ovary and other flower of the plant
such as the calyx.
BAB’S | 39
Types of Fruits
True fruit – a fruit which develops from an ovary or any other part of the flower. Examples are
mango, pawpaw. Etc.

False fruit – a fruit which develops from an ovary and other parts of the flower such as the calyx
and stalk. Examples are; pineapple, apple etc.

Further Classifications of Fruits

Simple fruit - a fruit develops from a single flower with a single ovary or many fused ovary.
Examples are; mango and pawpaw.

Aggregate fruit – a fruit develops from a single flower with many separate ovary. Examples are;
strawberry and cola.

Multiple/composite fruit – a fruit which is develops form many flowers on the same stalk.
Examples are; pineapple.

Dry fruit – a fruit whose pericarp dries up at maturity stage. Examples are; okro and cowpea.

Fleshy fruit – a fruit with the entire part being succulent or juicy. Examples are; mango and
pawpaw.

Dehiscent fruit – a fruit which split or open to release their seeds at maturity stage. Examples
are; okro, beans and apple.

Indehiscent fruit – a fruit which does not open to release the seed at maturity stage. Examples
are mango, tomato, coconut.

Drupe – a fleshy fruit with only one seed. Examples are mango, oil palm and coconut.

Berry – a fleshy fruit with many seeds but some have one seed. Examples are orange, pawpaw.

NB: Parthenocarpic fruits are seedless fruits. Examples are; plantain, banana, pineapple.

Dispersal of fruits and seeds

Dispersal of seeds is define as the transfer or spread of seeds from the parent plant.

Advantages of dispersal of fruits and seeds.

1. It help to avoid over crowding
2. It helps to prevent easy spread of disease.
 3. It enhance variation in the species of plants
4. It helps to avoid competition for nutrients

Disadvantages of Dispersal of Fruits and Seeds.

1. Some of the plants may die when they are transferred to unsuitable environment
BAB’S | 40 2. It depends on external factors whose presence cannot be assured.

Agents of dispersal Examples of fruits and Features of the fruits and seeds dispersed.
seeds dispersed
Wind Tridax, Tecoma, They are small in size.
Cincoma, Combretum. Presence of pappus (i.e. parachute structure).
They have a very low density.
They possess floss or mass of hairs.
Some seeds have wing-like structures that keep
them floating.

Running water Coconut, Palm, Fibrous mesocarp and air trap

Mangroves, water lily.
Animals Mango, Orange, Pawpaw,
Tomato, Pear.
Explosive mechanism Pride of Barbados,
Crotalaria, Okro.
They are water proof
Endocarp is hard and stony
Fruit are buoyant and float in water surface.
They are large in size
They are sweet and brightly coloured
They are juicy or succulent
Some fruits have hooks on the surface of the
pericarp
Presence of margin on the pericarp which make it
easy to split.
The fruit dry up when reaching the maturity stage.

GERMINATION
Germination is the series of changes that occur in a seed by which the embryo in the seed grow
into a seedling or a young plant.

The Process of Germination

- The seed imbibes water through the micropyle.
- The embryo of the seed swells.
- The seed coat soften and raptures.
- The food stored in the cotyledon is digested and transported to the plumule and radicle.
- The radicle grow out first to form the root system and the plumule also grow out through the
raptured seed coat until it reach the soil surface.
 Conditions Necessary for Seed Germination
- Viable seed
- Oxygen or air.
- Availability of water
- Optimum temperature
BAB’S | 41 - Presence of hormones and enzymes.

Types of Germination
- Epigeal germination
- Hypogeal germination

Epigeal Germination
Epigeal germination is a type of germination in which the cotyledon of the seed appears above
the soil surface. Examples of plants that undergoes epigeal germination are; groundnut, mango,
cowpea, beans, water melon and orange.

NB: All dicotyledonous plants undergoes epigeal germination

Hypogeal Germination
Hypogeal germination is a type of germination in which the cotyledon remains below the
surface of the soil. Examples of plants which undergoes hypogeal germination are; maize, sugar
cane, ginger, rice, palm. Etc.

NB: All monocotyledonous plants undergoes hypogeal germination.

Differences between epigeal germination and hypogeal germination.

Epigeal germination Hypogeal germination
- Cotyledon appears above the soil surface - Cotyledon appear below the soil surface
- Hypocotyl of the radicle elongates - Epicotyl of the plumule elongate
- Cotyledon turn green to photosynthesize - Cotyledon does not photosynthesize
- Energy for growth is derived mainly from - Energy for growth is derived mainly from
the cotyledon the endosperm.

Definition of Terms
Imbibition
Imbibition is the tendency of a seed to absorb water and swell.

Dormancy
Dormancy is the resting stage of a seed in which growth is stopped and all metabolic activities
are also reduced to the minimum just to keep the cells alive.
 LIGHT ENERGY
Light energy is a form of energy which make vision possible.

Characteristics of Light
 It travels in a straight line.
BAB’S | 42  It travels with a speed of 3.0 × 108 m/s in a vacuum.
 It can be reflected
 It can be refracted
 It can undergo interference.

Sources of Light
Natural sources of light – these are sources of light which exist in nature. Examples are; sun,
other stars, fireflies, glowing worms, glow fish, etc.

Artificial sources light – these are the sources of light which are made by man. Examples are;
torch light, car headlight, burning candle, burning wood, lantern, etc.

Luminous and Non – Luminous Bodies.

Luminous bodies
Luminous bodies are bodies which emit light on their own. Examples includes; sun, fireflies,
electric bulb, torch light etc.

Non – luminous bodies

Non – luminous bodies are bodies which does not emit their own light rather they are visible
when luminous bodies reflects on them. Examples are; moon, water, mirror, chair, etc.

Reason why the moon is a non – luminous body.

The moon is an example of a non – luminous body because it becomes visible only when the
light from the sun reflects on it.

Other Classification of Bodies Which Produces Light

Incandescent bodies – these are bodies which emit light when heated. Examples includes;
filament bulb, charcoal, sun, etc.

Fluorescent bodies – these are bodies which emit light in a relatively cold state. Examples
includes; glow fish, glow worm, fluorescent bulb, etc.

Phosphorescent bodies – these are bodies which absorbs energy and emit light at lower
frequency or different colours. Examples are; glowing paints, road markers, safety signs, stars
people put on their bedroom walls, etc.

NB: phosphorescent bodies emits light even when the source is removed for a while.

Rays and Beams of Light

 Rays are single narrow path of light.
 Light ray

 Beam is a collection of light rays.

BAB’S | 43

Beam of light rays

Types of Light Rays

Parallel beam – beam which rays will never meet

Diverging beam – beam which rays are traveling from the same source and scatter whiles they move

Converging beam – beam which rays are traveling from different sources and meet as they move.

Rectilinear Propagation of Light.

Rectilinear propagation of light is the tendency of light to travel in a straight line.

An Experiment to Demonstrate the Rectilinear Propagation of Light.

Materials needed: burning candle, three cardboard papers, and blade.

Procedures.
1. Create holes of equal size and identical dimension of the three cardboard papers namely A, B
and C.
2. Place the three cardboard papers in a straight line or equal alignment on a table i.e. A, B and C
respectively.
3. Put a burning candle behind A and observe the lamp at C through the holes.
4. Again displace the cardboard B and observe the lamp as show in the diagrams below.
BAB’S | 44

Observation
It would be observe that when the holes are in the same alignment, the light can be seen by an
observer viewing from C. (i.e. from the first diagram).
When the cardboard B is displaced the observer cannot see the burning candle. (This is also
shown in the figure below). This is because the holes are not in a straight line.

Conclusion
It can be concluded that, light travels in a straight line.

Application of Rectilinear Propagation of Light.

 The operation of pinhole camera.
 Shadow formation.
 Formation of eclipse.

The Operation of the Pinhole Camera.

The operation of the pinhole is based on the fact that light travels in a straight line. The pinhole
camera is made from a light proof box, painted black on the inside with a small hole in front and
a piece of frosted glass or oiled paper at the back. When an object is placed in front of the
camera, the image is formed on the screen at the back of the camera. If the hole is small, the
image is clear and it is said to be focus. When the hole is large the image becomes brighter but
blurred due to multiple collection of small holes each producing an image.

Properties Of Images Formed In A Pinhole Camera.

 It is diminished
 It is inverted
 It is real
 The image is clear when the holes is small and blurred when the pinhole is large.
 Differences between the Pinhole Camera and the Modern Camera.
Pinhole Camera Modern Camera

It has no less It has lens

BAB’S | 45 It produces images that are It produces brighter images

slightly blurred
It does not require focus It require focus.

SHADOW
Shadow is a region of darkness cast on a surface when an opaque object is placed between the
source of light and the surface.

Factors Which Affect the Type of Shadow.

 Size of the light source.
 Size of then opaque material.
 The distance between the opaque material and the source of light.

Types of Shadow.
 Umbra
Umbra is a region of total darkness which is cast on a surface when an opaque object is placed
between the source of light and the surface.

 Penumbra
Penumbra is a region of partial darkness which is cast on a surface when and opaque object is
placed between and extended source of light.

Fig: solar eclipse.

Reflection of light
Reflection of light is the bouncing back of light after striking on a surface.
BAB’S | 46

Laws of reflection
At the point of incidence;
 The incident ray, the normal ray and the reflected ray all lies on the same plane (i.e. same
point of incidence)
 The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. As show below.

Formation of an Images
Image is defined as the point where the rays coming from an object appears to meet after a
reflection or refraction. Images are usually formed by mirrors, lenses, and other shiny smooth
surfaces.

Types of Images
 Real image
A real image is an image formed by actual intersection of rays. Example, image formed on
lenses, concave or convex mirrors.

 Virtual image
A virtual image is an image which is formed by the apparent intersection of rays. Examples,
images formed on a plane mirror, pool of water, driving (convex) mirror.

NB: concave mirror can produce both the real and virtual image.
 Image on a plane mirror
The plane mirror obeys the two laws of reflection.

BAB’S | 47

Characteristics Of Image Formed On A Plane Mirror.

 It is virtual (i.e. not real)
 It is laterally inverted
 It is erect or upright
 The image is the same size as the object
 The image distance is equal to the object distance.

Uses of Plane Mirror.

 It is used as a dressing mirror.
 It is used to construct car driving mirror.
 It is used in shops to help detect shop lifting.
 It is used for periscope construction.

Periscope
A periscope is an instrument used t look for objects behind an obstacle.

Principles of operation of a periscope.

Two mirrors as show in the diagram above, rays of light of the object behind the obstacle are
reflected at a right angle by the upper mirror onto the lower mirror. The lower mirror also
reflects the image of the object at a right angle into the observer’s eyes.

Uses of a periscope.
 Submarines use periscope to search for oncoming warship.
 Drivers of double ducker buses use a periscope to view the upper deck.
 Refraction of light
Refraction refers to the change in the direction of light when it travels from one medium to
another medium of different optical density.

 When light travels from an optical denser medium to a less dense medium it is refracted
BAB’S | 48 away from the normal.
 When light travels from an optical less dense medium to a denser medium it is refracted
towards the normal.

Application of Refraction of Light Everyday Life

 Refraction causes mirages
 Refraction makes stars appear to twinkle
 Refraction makes pond appear shallower than they really are.

Laws of Refraction
 The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal at the point of incidence all lie in the same
plane.
 The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is constant
for any given pair of media. – Snell’s law