BIS3043 CRITICAL APPRECIATION OF DRAMA

DRAMA/PLAY
A drama is a story performed on stage for an audience although a genre called closet drama is meant to
be read only. A drama, like any other work of fiction, is usually a work of the imagination of the writer.
The writer of drama is called a playwright or dramatist. Nowadays, a playwright sometimes collaborates
with a director to produce the play on stage. And more often than not, the director will present the drama
on stage according to his understanding of its meanings and themes.

A drama is usually composed of acts and scenes although some drama may have only scenes.
Compared to Greek or Shakespearean drama, which use verse form, modern drama normally uses
prose. Some of the main genres of drama are tragedy, comedy, tragicomedy, farce, dark comedy,
history, musical and documentary drama.

Helmer and Nora arguing in A Doll’s House

The play A Doll’s House by Henrik Ibsen is a realist drama. What this means is that, among others,
the play is written in prose instead of in verse, the characters involve common people instead of the
nobility and issues presented are more everyday instead of the higher concerns such as the issues of

1
 human destiny and purpose of existence.

DRAMA SUBGENRES AND PERFORMANCE SPACE

INTRODUCTION
When we talk about drama or play we always associate the art with what we understand the drama as is
shown on television or the theatre. We know that the actors on stage perform fictionalisation of ideas or
issues or, at other times, a dramatisation of real events. Drama was supposed to tell a story through play
acting and normally there are messages presented through the themes of the drama. It is only partly the
real story.
In fact, drama had not begun as the generalised fictionalisation of human conflicts and concerns. It
has a long tradition and history and at the beginning it was more theological than secular. What this means
is that early Western drama was performed as part of religious activities in worshipping the gods. Initially
Western drama was performed in order to reflect religious beliefs and values. In Greece, as the cradle of
Western civilisation, drama started as a performance to worship Dionysius, the Greek god of wine and
fertility. The annual event was staged in the hope of receiving the god‟s favour and avoiding his
displeasure. But what started as religious rituals eventually evolved into dramatic performance for
entertainment and leisure as we understand it today. Since then drama has come a long way to represent
all issues affecting all walks of life of human society.

CONTENT
Possible Origins of Drama
It is difficult to know how drama developed into part of human cultural activities. Therefore, we can only
speculate how it became part of our artistic culture. Basically, there are three theories about the origin of
drama.

The first theory proposes that drama or theatre came into being due to early humans‟ perceptions
of the forces that appear to influence or control their lives. Having little understanding of natural causes,
they attributed natural events that affected them to supernatural or magical forces. They began to perform

2
rituals to see if the actions would affect natural events. Perceiving a connection between these actions and
the results they wanted, the group began to perform these actions into rituals. Ultimately, rituals also
include elements that entertain and give pleasure through performance and the skill of the participants.

As people become more knowledgeable, their conception of supernatural forces and causal
relationships may change. As a result they may modify or abandon some rites. But the myths that have
grown up around the rites may continue as part of the group‟s oral tradition. When this occurs, the first step
has been taken toward theatre as an autonomous activity, and thereafter entertainment and aesthetic
values may gradually replace the former mystical concerns.

Natural phenomena such as storms and tsunamis are fearsome to humans and, therefore, need to be
appeased.
The second theory of the origin of theatre is that it came about through the activity of storytelling. Under this
theory, relating and listening to stories are seen as fundamental human pleasures. Thus the recalling of a
significant event such as a hunt, a battle or other meritorious feats was elaborated through the narrator‟s
pantomime and eventually through each role being played by a different person. Thus, so this theory
proposes, the theatre is borne.

The last theory proposes that the theatre evolved out of imitations of animals or out of narrative
forms of dances and songs. Admiration for the performer‟s skills, talent and grace was seen as motivation
for elaborating the activities into fully realised theatrical performances.

3
 Which of the theory above do you feel best explains the early development of drama? Give your
reason.

__________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________

Play, Drama and Theatre

What are the differences between a play, drama and theatre? To a beginner these three terms can be
confusing. When is a drama a play and when is it a theatre?

The word drama is more limited in meaning. Drama comes from the Greek word dran, meaning “to
do.” In our context, drama refers mainly to written words of a play whether acted or merely read. Drama is a
form of literary composition where actors take the role of characters, perform the actions indicated, and
utter the written dialogue.

A play, on the other hand, is the physical realisation of the drama. A play, by definition is an event
or an action. It is actually what happens on a stage. It involves characters, conflicts, settings, sounds, music
emotion and passion. It is an interaction between all these elements and the audience.

The word theatre comes from the Greek theatron, meaning “seeing place.” Our modern definition
of theatre may vary, but in terms of performative art, theatre refers to the building or space where a play is
performed. But it is not only that. When we say theatre, the word also refers to all activities related to a
dramatic performance. Therefore, the theatre covers elements such as architecture, setting and acting.

4
 drama theatre play

The Development of Drama into Theatrical Performance

A play is also an imitation of a slice of life. What is presented on stage as conflicts brings out
human problems that are somehow related to our struggles in life. The themes presented or the problems
probed make us reflect on our own conditions as we grapple with our existence.

There are many dramas that have been performed on stage. Have you
read and watch the same drama/play? Are there differences in your experiences between
reading a drama and watching it performed? What are the differences? Explain to a friend next
to you.

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

5
Types of Drama
Like any other literary productions such as the novels or films, we can also classify plays based on certain
subgenres or types.

Tragedy
Social Comedy

Melo-
Musical
drama

DRAMA

Docu-
Farce
mentary

Tragi-
History
comedy
Dark
Comedy

Types of Drama

A tragedy is a play that deals with serious human issues such as suffering, downfall and more often than
not, death. It normally involves the fall from grace of the main protagonist who, in classical tragedy, must be
of noble birth. Tragedy brings out pity and fear in the audience as it shows how weak we are as mere
mortals in the face of a greater power that determines our fate. Oedipus Rex by Sophocles is acclaimed by
Aristotle as the perfect tragedy. You will read more about this play in the following chapter.

6
 Aristotle in his literary text, Poetics, regarded Oedipus Rex as the perfect tragedy

However, the concept of tragedy has changed over time. Starting with Henrik Ibsen, who is considered the
father of modern drama, tragedy can also include the downfall of a common man or woman. His famous
play, A Doll’s House, is a modern tragedy that explores the unequal husband-wife relationship. On a
broader thematic sense, Ibsen portrays the unfair treatment of women by men in nineteenth-century
European culture. Arthur Miller‟s Death of a Salesman is another good example of a modern tragedy. The
play revolves around the crumbling world of an aged travelling salesman named Willy Loman that ends with
his eventual suicide. The two modern tragedies are a far cry from classical tragedies that focus on
characters of noble or aristocratic birth.

A comedy is the opposite of tragedy. A tragedy begins with the elevation of the protagonist to a
higher social or moral status and ends with his or her downfall. A comedy, on the other hand, begins with
confusions and conflicts and ends happily with the resolution of the confusions and conflicts, and is usually
followed with a marriage or marriages. As a subgenre it is less emotive and intense in theme since a
comedy does not attempt to evoke a deep sense of pity and terror but more to elicit laughter than shock.
The Taming of the Shrew by Shakespeare is an example of comedy. It tells of Katharina who is shrewish in
nature so much so that no man wants to take her as wife. Baptista the father announces that his younger
daughter, Bianca, will not be wooed until her elder sister is married. Eventually Petruchio manages to
„tame‟ Kate to be a submissive wife. Therefore, the drama ends happily when everything goes back to
normal as Katharina and Bianca are married.

7
 The Taming of the Shrew

A melodrama is a serious play with unimportant theme. The protagonists are more likeable than
heroic and the villains are too obvious in their wickedness. In terms of messages and themes melodrama
presents to the audience a simplified version of life of good versus evil and good against bad. It seldom
delves into the more complex human issues as in a tragedy and a play of this genre normally ends
pleasantly. Intellectually a melodrama is empty but it is compensated by pleasurable and amusing endings.

A farce is a comical and humorous play on a trivial theme. The most common plots of a farce will
be mistaken identity, illicit romance and elaborate misunderstandings. Identical twins, lovers in closets, full
stage chases, switched potions, switched costumes (often involving man and woman), and misheard
instructions are the often used methods to produce outrageous situations and uproarious response from
the audience. The Bear by Anton Chekov is an example of a farce. It is about a young widow named
Popova who vowed never to marry again after the death of her husband. One day a man named Smirnov
comes to collect his debt from her late husband. After some quarrel between them that leads to an eventual
duel Smirnov and Popova ends the play with them kissing each other. It is an amusing play with the
insignificant theme of love to break man‟s (and woman‟s) resistance to it.

8
 Tragicomedy is often called a tragedy that ends happily. As a subgenre it attempts to bridge
between tragedy and comedy. Tragicomedy maintains the serious mood and tone throughout the play but it
always ends happily.

Dark comedy is the opposite of tragicomedy. If tragicomedy ends happily, dark comedy is a
comedy that ends tragically.

The history play deals with dramatisation of historical personalities and the events that surround
their lives. As a subgenre it was established by William Shakespeare. Shakespearean history plays
normally deal with English kings especially from 1377 to 1547 such as kings Richard II, Henry IV, Henry V,
Henry IV, Richard III, and Henry VIII. Most of these plays maintain a serious tone but with sprinklings of
humour thrown in.

Richard ll by William Shakespeare

The documentary genre is a fairly recent subgenre. In such plays plots are taken from trial transcripts, news
reports, personal and official records. These materials are then brought on stage to highlight particular
issues and points of view.

9
 The musical play, as its name implies, relies on extensive use of music and songs. Usually the
musical aspect is combined with another genre to create musical comedy, a musical documentary or a
musical history.

The famous Broadway musical cats. It was the second longest running show that ran from 1982-2000.

Social dramas, sometimes called problem plays, evolved in the nineteenth century and dominated
the stage through the early part of the twentieth century. This type of drama explores social problems and
the individual‟s place in society; the plays can be tragic, comic or mixed. Examples of social drama are
Susan Glaspell‟s Trifles, Arthur Miller‟s Death of a Salesman and Henrik Ibsen‟s A Doll’s House.

10
PERFORMANCE SPACES

There are many different types of performance spaces. This section looks more closely at the more
common stages and types of production within them.

Ampitheatres

Open stage

Theatre in-the-round/arenas

Thrust stage

Proscenium arch theatre

Different types of performance spaces

The Amphitheatres

Amphitheatres were of Greek origin and were slightly modified by the Romans. These theatres normally
accommodate a large number of audiences for large scale productions. Plays that are full of ceremony and
movement are suitable for these theatres.

11
 The Amphitheatres
The Proscenium Arch Theatre

This type of theatre is the most recognisable form of dramatic performance space. The proscenium is a
space in front of the back scenery. The word proscenium now means the front opening of the stage and the
area around it.

The arch is the frame surrounding the front of the stage. It is normally constructed as a permanent
structure. The impression this type of theatre gives is that the audience is watching the play through a
picture frame.

The Proscenium Arch Theatre

12
The Open stage

The open stage has the audience facing the stage whereby the stage is at one end of the building. Modern
and school theatres are open or a mix between this and proscenium. The advantage of these theatres is
that they suit many kinds of production with their simplicity in conceptual framework.

The Open Stage

The Thrust stage

This type of stage has a raised platform that thrusts out into the audience, who sits on all three sides. This
theatrical set-up allows for excellent actor-audience contact and which draws in the audience into the
action.

13
 The Thrust Stage
Theatre in-the-round/arenas

In this form of theatre the audience is not necessarily seated in a circle; it could be seated in a square, for
example. However, as the name implies, it does surround the acting space. This form of theatre is ideal for
close, intimate contact with the audience without requiring much setting or scenery preparations.

The Theatre in-the-round/arenas

14
 UNDERSTANDING DRAMA

Drama and fiction are different. Undoubtedly, the best way to understand and appreciate a drama is to
watch it performed on stage. Watching a life performance and reading a drama are two different
experiences. In a theatre performance there is a close relationship between audience and actors. What is
more important is that there is no narrator to direct our understanding of the drama. Instead, the audience
has to observe and come to his own conclusion about what is presented on stage. Therefore, it is very
important that you, as a student studying drama, know some of the technical aspects and conventions of a
play presentation.

Performing a Play

The play you read is only the first half of understanding and appreciating the drama. The written text is
merely a blueprint for the performance before an audience. The second half of appreciating a drama is to
see it performed on stage. When you begin reading a drama you are also asked to think like a director.
Unlike a novel that provides the reader with detailed explanation of plot, settings and characters, a drama
only provides him with dialogues and stage directions. The reader, thus, has to imagine the stage, settings,
costumes, lighting, actors and their voices and movements. For example, when the text says:

Mrs Linde (in a dispirited and somewhat hesitant voice): Hello, Nora
Nora (uncertain): Hello

the reader has to imagine the line being spoken by the characters as the bracketed stage directions
instruct. As the reader continues reading he will build up a more complete picture of the play derived from
how he imagined the scene should be played out. Therefore, it is necessary for the reader to understand
some of the conventions and technical aspects of a dramatic performance.

15
A play is a performance art. Unlike a written text, the audience has to make his own assumptions based on
what he sees

Verse and Prose

A play may be written in verse or in prose. What do they mean? Verse writing tends to be more poetic. On
the other hand prose writing is more colloquial, which means that it is used more frequently by the common
folks as opposed to the nobility. The use of verse writing is much more evident in earlier plays. Modern
plays, more often than not, use prose writing.
In Shakespearean plays, verse is spoken by more noble and serious characters and prose by
commoners or low characters. Compare Macbeth‟s soliloquy in Act 2, Scene 1 with the porter‟s dialogue in
Act 2, Scene 3.

Macbeth:
Is this a dagger which I see before me,
The handle toward my hand? Come, let me clutch thee.
I have thee not, and yet I see thee still.
Art thou not, fatal vision, sensible
To feeling as to sight? or art thou but
A dagger of the mind, a false creation,
Proceeding from the heat-oppressed brain?

16
 (2.1.52)

Porter:
Marry, sir, nose- painting, sleep, and urine.
Lechery, sir, it provokes and unprovokes; it provokes
the desire, but it takes away the performance. Therefore,
much drink may be sai to be an equivocator with
lechery:
(2.3.54)

Acts and Scenes

Plays are usually divided into acts and scenes. During Shakespeare‟s time plays are divided into five acts
with several scenes in each act. Later on, plays had three acts and some contemporary plays do not have
acts, but mere successive scenes. A Doll‟s House is a play with three acts.
A scene is understood to define an action at a particular place and time. The scene ends and another
begins to indicate the shift in time and place mentioned.

Stage Directions
A written drama has only the dialogues and stage directions. The stage directions are very important
because they tell how various aspects of the play should appear- how the characters should look and
sound, the place of the action, the time of the action, the weather or any other thing that the dramatist feels
are necessary to the understanding of the play. Some playwrights give brief stage directions while others
may provide detailed descriptions.

17
The Stage

You have been introduced to different types of stages where a play can be performed. Understandably,
some plays are more suitable to some types of plays. Shakespearean plays were normally staged on the
thrust stage with the stage protruding towards the audience, allowing for audiences to sit around three
sides of the stage. This type of stage brings the audience closer to the actors. However, this kind of stage
allows for minimal settings, if at all. Therefore, dialogues are very important to indicate aspects that settings
could not provide. Since all of Shakespearean plays were stage during the day, for a night scene an actor
has to mention that it is night.
The proscenium stage is commonly found in contemporary theatre. As technology becomes more
sophisticated, proscenium stage allows for these modern gadgets to be used to their full advantage.

The Setting

If you wish to stage a play you must pay attention to the setting. Of course, minimal stage directions allow
you to be more imaginative on how to design the setting. Detailed stage directions, however, minimise your
ability to be imaginative but they provide precise settings the way the dramatist wishes them to be.

Setting can be minimal or it can be spectacular. Most often it is the director‟s imagination that creates the
setting especially with a play that provides minimal stage directions.

18
Costume

Costumes also play a very important function in a play. Costume may indicate the time period of the drama,
social class or personality of characters. Oedipus in Oedipus Rex will be suitably attired in kingly fashion
that is different from his lesser subordinates and subjects. The costumes worn by the characters on stage
also tell us of the time period and country of origin of the drama. Similarly, a playboy will wear his attire
differently from a businessman, a farmer or a beggar.

A dramatist may be precise in his descriptions of what each character wears or he may not indicate
detailed descriptions of what the characters should wear. Under this circumstance you should try to fulfil the
spirit of the dramatist‟s instructions and have the actors give the correct impression.

A scene from the play The Importance of Being Earnest by Oscar Wilde. The costume indicates the
characters as being from the middle-class Victorian society

19
Movement

In a play each character should move appropriately to the role given to him. Characters with power, such
as kings or overbearing husbands, may move with certain confidence and arrogance. An old tramp may
move with certain clumsiness and a worried father may walk with a particular haste and alacrity.

Movement, or positioning of characters, may indicate relationships too. A king heads a procession and
his seat is raised on a dais with his subjects standing humbly around him. A crowd on one side and a
solitary man on the other may indicate a conflict between these two sides. Every movement and every
grouping presented on stage gives some meaning to the audience. It is up to you to interpret their
meanings.

Lighting

Stage lighting can also be a useful tool in a play. Lighting can be used realistically or metaphorically.
Realistically, light can be dimmed or brightened to suit the time of day. A dimmed lighting may indicate
night time and a brightened lighting can imply the day time. In Waiting for Godot by Samuel Beckett, the
night settings may indicate the dilemma and uncertainty faced by the two tramps over the existence of
Godot. Similarly, a modern director may want to play with red lighting and darkness to indicate the dark
themes of Shakespeare‟s Macbeth.

Sound Effects

Sound effects may be used realistically or metaphorically to enhance the audience‟s understanding of
scenes in the play. The screeching sound of a car may indicate Willy Loman‟s last moment in life as he
crashes his car or the sound of clashing swords may indicate a battle. Metaphorically, the rumbling sound
of thunder may imply troubles that a character may soon face or the chirping of a bird may indicate Nora‟s
condition in her relationship with her husband, Helmer in A Doll’s House.

20
 ELEMENTS OF DRAMA
INTRODUCTION
Drama, as a literary production, is quite unique. It is written to be performed on stage. There are plays that
are meant to be read only but most playwrights write their drama for the enjoyment of a live audience.
Because of this unique characteristic, students wanting to learn about drama must understand its elements
and conventions. Some of the elements of drama are familiar to students because these elements overlap
with other literary genres such as diction, symbolism and plot. But there are also other differences that
separate drama from other forms of literature. For example, the audience must determine the personality of
a character by watching how he plays the role in the drama and by comments by other characters. This is
very different from fiction, for example, because the narrator will normally describe the character for the
reader. In this unit, you will learn about the many elements of drama and some of the similarities and
differences with other forms of literature.

ELEMENTS OF DRAMA

setting diction

point of
tone
view

character symbolism

plot drama theme

Similar to prose and poetry, there are many elements of drama.

21
Elements of drama

Plot

The Plot Structure of Drama

Like any other literary genres a drama consists of a structured sequence of particular elements. Basically a
drama follows four standard dramatic sections.

Climax

Rising action Falling action

Exposition Denouement

Figure 1.8 Freytag‟s Pyramid of Plot Structure

The Exposition: The exposition introduces important early information about the play where characters,
situations and conflicts are introduced. In Oedipus Rex, we are introduced to Oedipus the King and the
crisis faced by the city of Thebes in the form of the plague. We are also introduced to some of the major
characters such as Jocasta, Creon and Tiresias.

The Rising Action/Conflict/Complication: In this stage conflicts are beginning to develop. Conflicts can
be internal and/or external. Internal conflicts occur within a character. In Macbeth, Macbeth is torn between
his guilty conscience of the killings that he committed and the need to preserve himself from his enemies.
On the other hand, external conflicts happen between a character and outside forces. These forces may be
another character (protagonist), a society, fate or against natural forces such as a storm or an earthquake.

22
In Oedipus Rex, Oedipus is in conflict with Creon and Tiresias whom he accuses as trying to usurp the
throne.

The Climax: Conflicts or complications in a drama cannot remain unresolved. As the conflict heats up it will
reach a climax when something occurs that sets the turning point to the conflicts or complications. In
Macbeth the climax is when Macbeth murders King Duncan after which he will have to face the
consequences of his deed. In Oedipus Rex, the play reaches its climax when Oedipus realises that he had
inadvertently committed the two sins as prophesied by the Oracle of Apollo.

The Falling Action: The falling action stage happens after the climax when the following events are set to
reach the resolution or denouement. Again by using Macbeth as an example, falling action is when
Macbeth tries to forestall the witches‟ prophecies by killing those he feels threaten his kingship. The
realisation of the prophecies also forms part of the falling action in the drama. In Oedipus Rex, the falling
action reaches its conclusion with Jocasta hanging herself and Oedipus stabbing his own eyes with
Jocasta‟s brooch.

The Denouement: In this stage the conflicts are resolved and life goes back as normal. With reference to
the same drama Macbeth, the denouement would be the death of Macbeth at the hands of Macduff and
Malcolm is installed as the new king of Scotland. In Oedipus Rex, the denouement is when Oedipus is
exiled and the city returns to normal.

23
Character

A character in a play is the actor who is given the role to imspeakerte the fictional figure of the drama. The
actor who acts as the character will perform the actions and dialogues, and display emotions of the given
dramatic character. A character in a drama, like a fictional character in prose, may be human or nonhuman.

There are two types of characters- round characters and flat characters. Round characters are fully
developed and they normally undergo some change in the course of the play. Basically, the audience is
given more elaborate descriptions of round characters than flat characters. Round characters are usually
the major characters and flat characters play minor roles in the drama. Since round characters play major
roles, the central plot and events of the play normally revolves around them. Flat characters, on the other
hands, serve as additional characters to sustain the plot of the play. They are normally static- that is these
characters do not undergo any changes throughout the course of the play.

A drama always has conflicts within the plot. The conflicts are usually between a protagonist and
antagonist. A protagonist is the main character of the drama and the antagonist is the character who is
opposed to the protagonist. Although a protagonist is sometimes called a hero, he or she may not have the
necessary characteristics to be described as a hero. In Death of a Salesman, the protagonist of the play is
Willy Loman but he lacks the heroic characteristics necessary to be deemed a hero. Similarly, the main
character Macbeth in Shakespeare‟s Macbeth is a protagonist who is a traitorous villain. Another dramatic
character is a foil. A foil serves to contrast with the protagonist in terms of behaviour and attitudes. In
Macbeth, Macduff functions as a foil to Macbeth in his loyal and heroic qualities to the traitorous Macbeth.

24
 FOIL

PROTAGONIST CHARACTER ANTAGONIST

Basic Types of Character

Point of View

Unlike prose fiction and poetry, drama does not have a specific point of view. Therefore, what we have
learnt about first-person or third-person point of view does not apply to drama. Instead, it has what is called
dramatic point of view. In drama, the audience (or reader) is given only actions and words of characters
without any particular perspectives given by the playwright. Therefore, the audience has to draw his own
conclusion based on the points of view of the many characters in the play.

However within the dramatic limitation above, characters (heroes or villains alike) do have the
opportunity to present their specific perspectives. The first is by the use of soliloquy, a device whereby a
character reveals his or her thoughts directly to the audience. One of the most famous soliloquies is
Hamlet‟s To Be or Not to Be, a monologue about a decision he should make in the face of the apparent
immorality that surrounds him. Usually, there will be only the character on stage to tell the audience what
his thoughts and feelings are. Another similar device is aside, a brief remark made by a character to the
audience with the understanding that other characters on stage do not hear his thoughts.

25
Setting

Setting in drama or play functions to indicate the specific time and place of events. For example, the play
Hang Jebat: The Death of a Warrior by Usman Awang has its setting in and around the fifteenth-century
Malacca palace. This setting tells us that the play was set at an era of the glorious Malacca sultanate. But
the same setting also gives the reader the context from which the play is written. During those days the
sultan had full power over his subjects and to disobey him, let alone to dishonour him, would mean certain
death.

Setting can also help to create a suitable mood for the play. A dark and sombre background may
indicate a sense of foreboding or evil of a particular scene in a play. In Macbeth, the appearance of the
three witches in a dark and gloomy weather suggests the sinister nature of their meeting.

Setting can be realistic or non-realistic. A realistic drama or play will pay attention to details in how
the stage is set. This is in order to produce an actual real life setting. The drama Trifles by Susan Glaspell
is one example of a drama that attempts to produce a realistic setting for the play. Unlike realistic setting, a
non-realistic setting is more symbolical or representational. It pays less attention to real life details than to
the meaning behind such setting. In Waiting for Godot by Samuel Beckett, the only conspicuous details are
a tree with two leaves and a mound. Similarly, in The Sandbox by Edward Albee the setting consists of a
few chairs and a sandbox. In these two plays the sense of realism is less important than the symbol that
the settings represent.

26
 REALISTIC SETTING UNREALISTIC

Different types of setting

Thinking about drama:

Read the setting of the play Waiting for Godot by Samuel Beckett and determine whether the
setting is realistic or non-realistic. What do you think is the significance of the setting to the
theme of the play?

A country road. A tree.

Evening.

27
 Exercise 2
And now read the setting from Trifles by Susan Glaspell. Is the setting realistic or non-
realistic? Discuss within your group the significance of the setting to the theme of the play.
Compare the effects of the two settings on your expectations of the plays.

SCENE: The kitchen in the now abandoned farmhouse of John Wright, a gloomy kitchen, and
left without having been put in order – unwashed pans under the sink, a loaf of bread
outside the breadbox, a dish towel on the table – other signs on incompleted work. At the
rear the outer door opens and the Sheriff comes in followed by the County Attorney and
Hale. The Sheriff and Hale are men in middle life, the County Attorney is a young man.; all
are much bundled up and go at once to the stove. They are followed by the two women- the
Sheriff’s wife first; she is a slight wiry woman, a thin nervous face. Mrs. Hale is larger and
would ordinarily be called more comfortable looking, but she is disturbed now and looks
fearfully about as she enters. The women have come slowly, and stand close together near
the door

The setting of Waiting for Godot by Samuel The setting of Trifles by Susan Glaspell
Beckett

28
Diction

Play and drama are basically about words. These words carry the meaning of the play and drama as they
are spoken by characters or as the reader read the printed text. The diction of drama can be formal or
informal, rich in details or in can be simple in factual information. For example, the play Oedipus Rex by
Sophocles is very formal in sentence structure and word choice. The Death of Salesman by Arthur Miller,
on the other hand, is very colloquial.

Playwrights must choose their words carefully. First of all, the words used should be suitable to the time,
place and even characters. Playwrights also use rhetorical devices to project emotions and themes of their
drama or play. In drama, as in prose or poetry, words can have many layers of meaning. A doll in A Doll’s
House is both physical and symbolical. Symbolically, it tells of Nora‟s circumstance of living with her
husband, Helmer.

Tone

Tone relates to mood and attitude. In our everyday lives we understand the mood and attitude of someone
by the tone of his or her voice. A pleased teacher and an angry mother use different tones of voice to show
their moods and feelings. It is similar to drama (or prose and poetry). A playwright conveys his attitude to
certain issues by way of the tone of his literary work. In Jebat: The Death of a Warrior the playwright
informs the reader/audience of his notion of the idea of loyalty in the dialogue between Jebat and Tuah
while they duel to the death. The tone of this play is of sadness and also sympathy for natural justice and
anger at the abuse of power. However, the reader or audience should be aware of the difference between
the tone of individual characters and that of the play as a whole. Jebat and Tuah may project different tones
in their viewpoints on justice and loyalty. The tone of a play is derived from our overall understanding of the
play and the feeling it impresses on our sensitivity, whether sad, cynical, tragic, reflective or resentment.
And by that definition tone in literature can be endless.

29
 wistful
melan-
scornful
choly
sympa-
ironic
thetic

playful
romantic

disgusted joyful
tone

The different shades of tone

Symbolism

Symbols are one of the most usual literary devices used in drama (as well as prose and poetry). A symbol
in a literary text goes beyond its natural meaning into ideas beyond it. Symbols can be in many forms-
objects, persons, settings, actions, or even situations. There are two types of symbols- universal symbols
and private symbols. Universal symbols are those representing ideas that are collectively accepted by the
audience or general reading public. A rose is universally accepted as representing love and dove as a
symbol of peace. The same rule applies to darkness, a scale, a lion or a crown (respectively signifying
ignorance/evil, justice, courage and monarchy). Private symbols derive their meanings within the context of
the drama or play only. The dead bird in Trifles is not merely a dead bird but it signifies the oppressive
marital state of Mrs. Wright. Similarly, in The Death of a Salesman, Willy Loman symbolises the illusory
nature of the American Dream.

30
 These are universal symbols. What do you think are their meanings? Can they have more than one
universal meaning?

_________________ _________________ _________________

_________________ _________________ _________________

Can you think of other universal symbols that are commonly used? List out as many universal symbols
as possible in five minutes. Compare your symbols with your friends. Are there symbols that your
friends do not recognise?

31
List out your universal symbolisms here

SYMBOLS MEANINGS

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

32
Theme

When a playwright puts pen to paper he already has an issue which he wishes to express in his play. It is
normally an issue related to the society the playwright lives in. He could be endorsing or criticising the issue
involved. The issue could be about women‟s fight to gain equal rights with men as in A Doll’s House, man‟s
powerlessness against fate in Oedipus Rex or the sense of purposelessness of human existence in Waiting
for Godot. These are the themes of the plays.

Playwrights do not normally state the theme(s) of their play. This issue that the playwright wishes
to highlight is weaved into the plot to become the theme of the play. As a reader/audience we are expected
to recognise the main theme of the play. However, a play or drama does not usually have a single theme.
Within the main theme there could be several minor themes embedded in the play or drama. Therefore,
while the main theme may be obvious to the audience or reader, other minor themes are dependent on the
ability of the audience or reader to perceive them.

33
 UNDERSTANDING DRAMA THROUGH TEXTS
INTRODUCTION
The previous unit introduces students to some of the basic facts about drama. This and the following units
will try to explain the elements of drama based on the play Oedipus Rex by the Athenian playwright
Sophocles. This play is chosen for three main reasons. Firstly, it is acknowledged as a tragedy of enduring
quality that is still studied and performed. The play also exhibits universal values that even Malaysian
students can relate to. Secondly, the drama is quite short and can be read in a single sitting. It is, therefore,
not a burden for students to read. Lastly, it is not difficult to understand the play and its underlying theme.
Therefore, students will find it accessible as well as engaging. However, students are advised to read the
play in The Bedford Introduction to Literature given in the module which is easier to understand and
appreciate.
In this unit we will analyse some of the elements of drama based on the play Oedipus Rex. However, it is
important that students read the drama before they continue. Students will also be asked to analyse the
play A Doll’s House by Henrik Ibsen as a form of analytical exercise.

34
CONTENT
Plot, Action and Conflict in Oedipus Rex

Like any typical prose or drama, the play Oedipus Rex also follows Freytag‟s plot structure. This means
that the play follows the five basic plot developments of exposition, rising action, climax, falling action and
denouement. Here, we will try to explain the plot structure of Oedipus Rex so that students can get some
understanding of how the structure functions.

Climax (Oedipus knows the truth)

Rising action Falling action (Oedipus blinds himself)

(conflicts between Oedipus/Tiresias,
Oedipus/Creon, Oedipus/Jocasta)

Exposition Denouement (Oedipus exiled from Thebes)

(characters and circumstances
in Thebes introduced)

Exposition:
In exposition the reader is introduced to the main characters, circumstances and conflicts that they face. In
Oedipus Rex, the reader is presented with the characters Oedipus, Creon, Tiresias, Jocasta, and other
minor characters. Oedipus is portrayed as a caring king who wishes to find the solution to the misery of his
city-state. It appears that the city-state has been ravaged by a plague. Oedipus has sent his brother-in-law
Creon to the temple of Delphi to seek the answer to the cause of the plague. Creon comes back to tell
Oedipus that the plague is because the murderer of Laius, the previous king, has not been brought to
justice and the only way to rid of it is to bring the perpetrator to justice. Hearing this, Oedipus resolves to
find and punish the murderer of Laius.

35
Rising action:
At this stage, conflicts begin to take shape. We must understand that conflicts can happen between
characters, between a character and other elements or even within a particular character. There are many
types of conflict in this play. For example, it is a conflict between characters (Oedipus/Tiresias,
Oedipus/Creon, and Oedipus/Jocasta). In the broader picture there is also a conflict between a character
and supernatural forces (Oedipus/Fate).

One of the most significant conflicts between characters is between Oedipus and the blind prophet,
Tiresias. Their conflict begins when Tiresias refuses to tell Oedipus the answer that could lead to Laius‟s
murderer. Moreover, Tiresias advises Oedipus not to pursue the matter further. This enrages Oedipus who
accuses Tiresias of conspiring with Creon to undermine his kingship.

Climax:
The conflicts that are described above will eventually lead to a climax as a way to resolve all the conflicts.
In Oedipus Rex the climax is when Oedipus realises the „sins‟ that he has inadvertently committed. He now
realises that all the prophesies have come true- he has killed his father and married his own mother.

Falling action:
After the climax, the plot will go downhill as conflicts are disentangled to be eventually resolved. Falling
action in this play is when Oedipus laments his fate and as an act of redemption blinds his eyes with the
pins taken from his dead mother/wife‟s dress.

Denouement:
This last part of the plot serves as a closure to the play. As a form of further self-punishment Oedipus asks
to be exiled from Thebes. His exile brings things back to normal in the city-state.

The play fulfils neatly all the constructs of the plot structure indicated in Freytag‟s model. However, a play
does not clearly indicate where the structure is separated. What we have given above as example is our
view of the plot structure of the play. When students begin to read this play (and any other plays or prose)
they have to find out for themselves the formation of the plot structure. This is where students‟ ability to
recognise literary elements is tested.

36
 Setting in Oedipus Rex
Oedipus Rex is a Greek drama that goes back to the earliest period of Western stage performance. In one
version the drama opens with time and scene described as below:

Time and Scene:

The royal house of Thebes. Double doors dominate the facade; a stone
altar stands at the centre of the stage.
Many years have passed since Oedipus solved the riddle of the
Sphinx and ascended the throne of Thebes, and now a plague struck the
city. A procession of priests enters; suppliants, broken and despondent,
they carry branches wound in wool and lay them on the altar.
The doors open. Guards assemble. Oedipus comes forward, majestic
but for a telltale limp, and slowly views the condition of his people.

This description of the setting contextualises the play to a specific time and space. The scene is outside the
main gate of the royal house of Thebes. It provides the reader with a wealth of background information.
Previously it was terrorised by the Sphinx but Oedipus managed to save the city-state from furthering
suffering by the Sphinx. But from the description we also know that the city is currently suffering from a
plague the cause of which baffles the citizens. Therefore, the people slowly marches to the palace to seek
protection and guidance form Oedipus, the king who had saved them once.

There is also information that we can deduce from the setting. It tells us of some of the beliefs of that
society. For example, the citizens of Thebes still believed in the supernatural forces that could affect their
immediate wellbeing. It is their belief that the plague is caused by a wrongdoing committed by an unknown
perpetrator who is yet to face justice. Therefore, the setting plays the role of contextualising the play within
a world where gods and humans are closely bound to an extent that a displeased god could inflict
immediate misery to humans.

The explanation above shows how important setting is in providing information in order for the reader to
contextualise the play. Once we understand the background setting it is easier for us to analyse the play.

37
 The setting for A Doll’s House is late 1800‟s Norway (the play is published in 1879). What
does it tell you about women of that era?

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

38
Character in Oedipus Rex

There are major as well as minor characters in the play. In this section we will discuss some of the major
characters based on our understanding of the play. Remember that in drama a playwright does not provide
his opinion of characters. Whatever we understand of characters is through their actions and opinion about
them by other characters. We as reader/audience make deductions based on these two sources.

Character and characterisation depends on audience‟s perception. A playwright may want to

project his ideas of characters in their characterisations but eventually it is the audience, based on her life
experience, to decide the nature of the characters‟ speakerlities. For example, one audience may feel that
Jocasta is a heartless mother who gives away her son to be abandoned Mount Cithaeron. Another
audience may decide that she is merely a victim of circumstance in a culture still steep in superstitious
beliefs and the power of supernatural forces. As a student, you should not merely parrot what other critics
say about each of the characters in a play. Instead, you should draw on your own life experience to
determine the qualities, be they good or bad, of the characters.

Below are the attributes of some of the major characters in Oedipus Rex. You may or may not
agree to these interpretations. However, as a literature student your argument must be supported by a
close analysis of the play. What this means is that you should be able to identify the lines from the play that
support your argument about characters (or any other argument related to the play).

39
Oedipus

In this play we can perceive how in the early part of the play the playwright paints a positive view of
Oedipus. As early as the beginning of the play the reader is presented with a compassionate nature of the
Theban king.

Oedipus: Oh my children, the new blood of ancient Thebes,

why are you here? Huddling at my altar,
praying before me, your branches wound in wool.
Our city reeks with the smoke of burning incense,
rings with cries for the Healer and wailing for the dead.
I thought it wrong, my children, to hear the truth
from others, messengers. Here I am myself –
you all know me, the world knows my fame:
I am Oedipus.

Helping a Priest to his feet.

Speak up, old man. Your years,

your dignity- you should speak for the others.
Why here and kneeling, what preys upon you so?
Some sudden fear? Some strong desire?
You can trust me; I am ready to help,
I’ll do anything. I would be blind to misery
not to pity my people kneeling at my feet.

This extract reveals the softer side of Oedipus‟ character. As a king he is wise and just. Oedipus is also
shown as a compassionate ruler who is willing to speakerlly hear about the misery that befalls his subjects.
In this instance, the reader is introduced to Oedipus‟ characteristics by way of his words and actions.

Oedipus is also persistent in his effort at finding the truth although Tiresias and Jocasta advise him
against it. This shows his strong sense of justice and responsibility. He wants to do what is right for the city-
state and for natural justice.

But Oedipus‟ personality is much more complex than that. As we read on we will notice that he is
also a temperamental king and quick to make hasty judgments. For example, in an argument with Tiresias,

40
Oedipus accuses him of conspiring with Creon to take over the throne. Later on, Oedipus also confronts
Creon on his perceived traitorous intention. Oedipus also intends to have Creon executed for this
misplaced judgement.

Jocasta

As a wife and mother Jocasta shows a less exemplary personality if we judge her by our standard. She is
someone who only obeys decisions made by her husband even with regard to the life of her own son. She
is also used to the life of comfort and ignorance. Therefore, once she realises the truth of Oedipus‟
background she tries to stop him from pursuing the truth for fear of the unimaginable shame. Once she
realises that he would not stop until the truth is revealed she runs to her room and kills herself rather than
face the reality.

However, we must not denounce Jocasta as someone who is selfish and weak. We should also try
to understand her from the perspective of the culture that she is in. In those days women were still
regarded as inferior to men. The right to rule was in the hands of men, whether it be of the city-state or a
household. As a wife and mother Jocasta‟s actions are restricted by the cultural norms of her society.

Creon

Creon is a co-ruler Thebes but he also respects Oedipus as a good ruler. From the play we know that
Oedipus is the more dominant of the two rulers. When the people come to the palace it is Oedipus that the
regard as “our greatest power.” Creon is a loyal friend to Oedipus and he still maintains the loyalty even
though Oedipus accuses him of treachery.

41
Tiresias

Tiresias is the blind prophet who knows the unspeakable truth. However, he initially refuses to reveal it to
Oedipus thereby incurring Oedipus‟ anger. Although Tiresias is a subject to Oedipus he shows uncanny
courage in debating with Oedipus about the truth that Oedipus forces him to reveal. Note the angry retorts
of the two characters.

Tiresias: I’d rather not cause pain for you or me.

So why this ... useless interrogation?
You’ll get nothing from me.
Oedipus: Nothing! You,
You scum of the earth, you’d enrage a heart of stone!
You won’t talk? Nothing moves you?
Out with it, once and for all!
Tiresias: You criticise my temper ... unaware
Of the one you live with, you revile me.

This extract reveals Tiresias‟ independent nature although faced with the power of a king. But it also tells us
that Tiresias is a kind man who does not wish to cause Oedipus to suffer had he known the truth. However,
pushed by Oedipus, Tiresias eventually reveals that Oedipus is the murderer that he seeks.

Why do you think Tiresias has such courage? Consider his status as the Apollo‟s
priest. Do you think that is the reason why Tiresias is able to speak freely to
Oedipus? What does it tell you about the role of religion in Greek politics.

Before you read further think of some of the major characters such as Oedipus, Jocasta, Tiresias and
Creon. What is your opinion of each of them? Discuss these characters with your friends. You will find
that there are differences of opinion about the same characters. Why?

42
 Write down some of the personalities of the major characters of the play A Doll’s House. Discuss
with your friends whether you have the same descriptions of their personalities. What are the
similarities and differences?

Nora Helmer

Characteristics: Characteristics:

1. 1.

2. 2.

3. 3.

43
 Mrs. Linde Krogstad

Characteristics: Characteristics:

1. 1.

2. 2.

3. 3.

Point of view in Oedipus Rex

As has been mentioned earlier, drama or play does not have point of view as there are no narrators to tell
the story. But in drama there is what we call dramatic point of view which is information told by characters.
Therefore, in Oedipus Rex the reader/audience is presented with as many points of view as there are
characters. Each character offers his or her point of view. The reader has to make his own conclusions
based on the individual perspectives of the characters. Consider this scene:

44
 Jocasta: No, listen to me! Please! Don’t do this thing!
Oedipus: I will not listen; I will search out the truth.
Jocasta: My thinking is for you- it would be best.
Oedipus: This “best” of yours is starting to annoy me.
Jocasta: Doomed man! Never find out who you are!
Oedipus: Will someone go and bring that shepherd here?
Leave her to glory in her wealthy birth!
Jocasta: Man of misery! No other name shall I address you by, ever again.

In this heart-rending scene, Jocasta begs Oedipus not to seek the truth further as she already knows the
consequence of it. As Oedipus keeps on insisting to know the truth Jocasta is left with only one option-to kill
herself. When she says, “Man of misery! No other name shall I address you by, ever again,” she is, in fact,
pronouncing her intention to commit suicide.

Here we are presented with the points of view of Oedipus and Jocasta in relation to Oedipus‟
insistence to know the truth as opposed to Jocasta‟s pleading for him not to pursue it. Both of them have
their own reasons for their views and we as readers may agree or disagree with any one of them.

. Consider this scene from A Doll’s House. What do you think is Helmer‟s point of view with
regard to Nora?

HELMER: [walking about the room] What a horrible awakening! All these eight years- she who was my joy and
pride- a hypocrite, a liar- worse, worse- a criminal! The unutterable ugliness of it all! For shame! For shame!
[Nora is silent and looks steadily at him. He stops in front of her.] I ought to have suspected that something of the
sort would happen. I ought to have foreseen it. All your father‟s want of principle- be silent!- all your father‟s want
of principle has come out in you. No religion, no morality, no sense of duty-. How I am punished for having
winked at what he did! I did it for your sake, and this is how you repay me.

NORA: Yes, that‟s just it

45
Diction and Language in Oedipus Rex

The language used in the play is formal. There is a reason to it. Sophocles‟ Oedipus Rex is a tragedy in the
classical tradition. What we define as „tragedy‟ now is different from the concept of tragedy during
Sophocles‟ or even Shakespeare‟s time. In those days dramatic tragedy was meant to dramatise the rise
and fall (usually ending with exile or death) of characters of noble birth only. Hence, convention requires
that the language used be formal and dignified. Compare this with the contemporary tragedy Death of a
Salesman by Arthur Miller. In this more recent drama we will notice that the language used is less formal
because the definition of tragedy has changed- a tragedy can even happen to a common man. Therefore, it
is not realistic and suitable for Death of a Salesman to use formal and elevated language as was commonly
used for classical plays.

Compare between the two excerpts taken from Oedipus Rex and Death of a Salesman.
Do you notice the difference in terms of diction and language used? Which is more
formal and poetic and which is more informal and colloquial? What are their impacts on
your reading experience?

Oedipus Rex

Oedipus: ... I will speak out now as a stranger to the story,

a stranger to the crime. If I’d been present then,
there would have been no mystery, no long hunt
without a clue in hand. So now, counted
a native Theban years after the murder,
to all of Thebes I make this proclamation:
if any one of you knows who murdered Laius,
the son of Labdacus, I order him to reveal
the whole truth to me. Nothing to fear,
even if he must denounce himself,
let him speak up
and so escape the brunt of the charge-
he will suffer no unbearable punishment,
nothing worse than exile, totally unharmed.

46
Death of a Salesman

Willy: Remember, Christmas time, when you had the party here? You said you’d try to think
of some spot for me here in town.

Howard: With us?

Willy: Well, sure.

Howard: Oh, yeah, yeah. I remember. Well, I couldn’t think of anything for you, Willy?

Willy: I tell ya, Howard. The kids are all grown up, y’know. I don’t need much anymore. If I
could take home- well, sixty dollars a week, I could swing it.

Howard: Yeah, but Willy, see I-

Willy: I tell ya why, Howard. Speaking frankly and between the two of us, y’know- I’m just a
little tired.

Tone in Oedipus Rex

As we have discussed tone refers to the attitude of the playwright to the issue presented in the play. In this
play the playwright gives a sense of tragic hopelessness of man against fate as exemplified by the rise and
fall of Oedipus. The play reminds us that as humans we are mere mortals who have limited power over our
destiny. Even a good intention can turn out badly as in the fact that the servant, out of pity, gives Oedipus
to a shepherd who then presents him to his Corinthian king. The adult Oedipus will eventually return to
complete the prophecy.

But the play also reflects the noble nature of man even though he has no control over his destiny.
That nobility comes out of Oedipus‟ steadfastness in pursuing the truth as well as in punishing himself by
blinding his eyes for a „sin‟ he inadvertently committed. Therefore, another tone is one of defiance against
the all-powerful Fate.

47
 Chorus: Dreadful, what you’ve done ...
how could you bear it, gouging out your eyes?
What superhuman power drove you on?
Oedipus: Apollo, friends, Apollo-
He ordained my agonies- these, my pains on pains!
But the hand that struck my eyes was mine,
mine alone- no one else-
I did it all myself!
What good were eyes to me?
Nothing I could see could bring me joy.

This scene reveals to us how Oedipus has a strong sense of duty and justice. Although he did not commit
those „sins‟ knowingly he still accepts his punishment. It is this fact that partly brings out the tragic but
defying tone stated above.

What do you think is Oedipus‟ tone in this scene? Where does it take place? Who is
the accused?

Oedipus: You- here? You have the gall

to show your face before the palace gates?
You plotting to kill me, kill the king-
I see it all, the marauding thief himself
scheming to steal my crown and power!
Tell me,
in god’s name, what did you take me for,
coward or fool, when you spun out your plot?
Your treachery- you think I’d never detect it
creeping against me in the dark? Or sensing it,
not defend myself? Aren’t you the fool,
you and your high adventure. Lacking numbers,
powerful friends, out for the big game of empire-
you need riches, armies to bring the quarry down!

48
Symbolism in Oedipus Rex
There are many symbolisms in this play but we will discuss only two. The first symbolism is sight against
blindness. In fact the audience is reminded of this dualistic symbolism throughout the play. And it is more
apparent in the argument between Oedipus and the blind seer, Tiresias. In this scene the two characters
abuse each other over sight and blindness. In his rage, Oedipus accuses Tiresias of being blind, both
physically and of knowledge. He also boasts of the advantage of sight over blindness by acusing Tiresias‟s
physical blindness is also the cause of his diminishing prophetic power.

Oedipus: It does
but not for you, old man. You’ve lost your power,
stone-blind, stone-deaf – senses, eyes blind as stone!
Tiresias: I pity you, flinging at me the very insults
each man here will fling at you as soon.
Oedipus: Blind,
lost in the night, endless night that nurse you!
You can’t hurt me or anyone else who sees the light-
you can never touch me.

In this scene, Oedipus mocks Tiresias for his blindness and tells me him that because of that he can never
do anyone any harm (or any good either). Tiresias, on the other hand, mocks Oedipus back by stating that
his sight is of no use to him when he cannot see what he has done. As Tiresias explains:

Tiresias: So,
you mock my blindness? Let me tell you this.
You with your precious eyes,
you’re blind to the corruption of your life,
to the house you live in, those you live with-
who are your parents? Do you know? All unknowing
you are the scourge of your own flesh and blood,
The dead below the earth and the living here above,
and the double lash of your mother and your father’s curse
will whip you from this land one day, their footfall
treading you down in terror, darkness shrouding
your eyes that now can see the light!

49
This scene focuses on the idea of physical sight and prophetic blindness as opposed to physical blindness
and prophetic vision. What the play suggests is that our physical sight has its limitation. Oedipus might
boast that since he has sight he is better than Tiresias who lives in his blind world. But we know how wrong
Oedipus is. It is actually the blind Tiresias who knows the real murderer and sinner. His initial refusal to tell
the truth is because it will hurt Oedipus more than he can imagine.

The other symbolism is the crossroads. Actually the crossroads is only mentioned in the play. It is
mentioned when Oedipus relates the circumstance behind how he kills a stranger (Laius, his father) at a
crossroads. How is the crossroads a symbolism? In a sense, the crossroads symbolises Oedipus‟s fate.
Imagine for a while what would have happened had things go out differently at the crossroads. Our
assumptions is had he not killed the stranger his fate would have been different. He might still solve the
Sphinx‟s riddle and save Thebes from the murderous Sphinx but he might not have been chosen as king
since Laius might have still been alive.

A three-way crossroads

50
 However, Oedipus‟s murder of Laius has become a self-fulfilling prophecy that leads from one
revelation to another that Oedipus could never have known. As Oedipus laments his past deed at the
fateful crossroads:

Oedipus: O, triple roads- it all comes back, the secret,

dark ravine, and the oaks closing in
where the three roads join...
You drank my father’s blood, my own blood
spilled by my own hands- you still remember me?
What things you saw me do? Then I came here
and did them all once more!

It is this explanation that makes the crossroads into a symbolism of our unknown future. We might prefer
one decision over another without really knowing the consequences of the decision that we have made.

Can you think of other symbolisms in this play? What about symbols associated to the sea
such the tides and harbours? Could they have any significance in explaining the play? What
do you think?

51
Describe some of the symbolisms used in A Doll’s House. What do they symbolise?

the tarantella dance the skylark

the macaroons
the Christmas tree

52
Theme in Oedipus Rex

Themes are the universal ideas that the playwright wishes to draw attention to. In Oedipus Rex the major
theme is light and darkness. This theme is closely related to the symbol of sight and blindness mentioned
above. In the play, light (or sight) does not necessarily reveal the truth and darkness (or blindness) does
not essentially mean ignorance of truth. In this play it is actually the other way around. Let‟s analyse this
scene where the Messenger narrates what he sees in Jocasta‟s chamber:

Messenger: ... He rips off her brooches, the long gold pins
holding her robes- and lifting the high,
looking straight up into the points,
he digs them down the sockets of his eyes, crying, “You,
you’ll see no more the pain I suffered, all the pain I caused!
Too long you looked on the ones you never should have seen,
blind to the ones you long to see, to know! Blind
from this hour on! Blind in the darkness- blind!”

In this scene Oedipus realises that his sight (therefore, light) has failed him because it did not see what he
should have seen. Instead, Tiresias who is blind is able to see what is going on. Since his sight has failed
him Oedipus feels that it is useless and he is better off without it- to be in darkness and knowing is better
than to be with light but still not able to see/know. It is for that reason that he blinds his eyes.

Another apparent theme of this play is the question of free will as opposed to the future that is
determined by fate. This theme is very predominant in Greek drama. In Oedipus Rex, the question of free
will and the power of fate is pivotal. Throughout the play there is no protagonist-antagonist conflict of the
usual sense. The play is not about hero against villain. In fact, there are no bad guys that we can identify in
the play. The play is even full of well-meaning characters whose actions, unintentionally or otherwise, lead
to undesirable results. It is free will against fate. Hence, the action of the servant who gives the baby
Oedipus to a shepherd out pity eventually leads to disastrous results. Oedipus‟s action of running away
from his adopted city-state in order to avoid the realisation of the oracle is actually playing to the script of
destiny when he wanders to his own city-state that leads to the murder of his father and the incestuous
relationship with his mother. Oedipus‟s well-intentioned pursuance of justice, inadvertently, leads to the
exposure of his „sins‟. Succinctly, these instances of free will against the power of fate lead to the theme of

53
the limited power of humans as mere mortals to determine their own destiny. Humans are helpless against
the all-encompassing supernatural power of Fate in influencing the future.

What do you think of Oedipus at the end of the play? Is he heroic or simply foolish? Do you
sympathise with him or feels that he is too arrogant? Justify your opinion of him.

CONCLUSION
In drama the audience is given more freedom to make his own conclusions on characters and themes. This
freedom is much more restricted in reading a novel because the author directs the reader to the
characterisation and themes by way of point of view of the narrator. As a critic we must be able to analyse
the play from various perspectives and weight them based on our understanding of relevant human issues.
We may want to study only characters and analyse their actions and decisions or we may want to focus on
certain aspects of the play that is worth discussing. For example, a critic may wish to analyse how a
contemporary feminist may judge on Nora‟s actions and decision to leave her family or that Helmer is also
a victim of circumstance as much as Nora is. But at the end of the day, your analysis must be based on a
close analysis of the text.

54
WRITING A CLOSE ANALYSIS OF TEXT
The close analysis of text is very important in literary criticism. Writing a close analysis of the text indicates
that you understand the text and is able to discuss, academically, issues presented in the text. A close
analysis of text means that you discuss certain issues based on your close reading of the text and by
providing excerpts to support your argument. For example, in your reading of Oedipus Rex, you may want
to argue that Jocasta is selfish in her attempt to stop Oedipus from continuing with his investigation.
Therefore, in your essay you must indicate the excerpt that shows that Jocasta is what you claim she is.
The same rule applies with other thrusts of your arguments, always justify you view with excerpts from the
text. This unit will show you how to apply a close reading to text be it poetry, fiction or drama.

ASPECTS OF CLOSE ANALYSIS: READING AND WRITING

There are two important aspects of close analysis:

 close reading- in close reading you focus on a passage to get a more complete and in-depth
understanding of the text.
 writing a close analysis- writing a close analysis of one or more passages is a basic skill in literary
studies. It is very common for student to be asked to write an analysis on a part of the text in detail
as this is the best way to provide supporting evidence for an interpretation of the text‟s wider
meaning.

CLOSE READING
In close reading, try to identify elements that deserve comment in an analysis. You can do this in many
ways:

 by studying and discussing the opening passages of a text to see how narrative voice, characters,
setting, ideas and values might be presented.
 by reading and comparing the beginning and the ending of a text to find changes that might occur.
 by studying key scenes or passages to consider their literary importance in terms of character
development, narrative importance, emergence of views and values and use of language and
special literary techniques.

55
CLOSE ANALYSIS
Close analysis of text helps you to understand the text better. By doing a close analysis you will understand
how the author constructs the text with all the principal elements that create meaning. Once you have
understood how the text is constructed, you will be able to discuss and analyse it much more confidently.

HOW TO WRITE A CLOSE ANALYSIS?

There are several ways in which you can write a close analysis of a text:

 You could also compare and contrast between passages within the same text.
 You could analyse a passage to find its significance to the whole text.
 Or you could analyse two or three passages to identify their significance to the overall theme or
underlying views and values. This method is the most effective way of close analysis of text.

HOW TO READ A PASSAGE CLOSELY

You can start to read and analyse a passage by using the What? Where? How? and Why? questions. By
asking these questions you are actually moving progressively from what is obvious in the passage to the
more complex ideas and issues reflected in the text.

 What- What happens in the text? What is the conflict? Between whom? Over what? What is the
ending?
 Where- Where is the setting? What do we know about the setting? Does it have any impact on the
ideas and values in the text?
 How- How is language used in terms of tone, sentence structure, choices of words and images
and how they affect the reader.
 Why- Why does the writer write in such a way? What is/are his views with regard to certain issues?
Why does he use this particular language? Why is the ending written in such a way. This is the
most important question because it relates to the themes, ideas and values inherent in the text and
its broader implication for meaning.

56
A THREE-STAGE PROCESS OF TEXTUAL ANALYSIS
As with any other reading exercises you must have a plan of action for writing a close analysis of a text.
Basically it involves identifying, arranging and writing. Below is the process that you can follow to begin
writing an academic criticism:

1. Do a close reading of the passage and identify features o the text that will be useful in your
analysis. The features such as language use, characterisation, setting and imagery are useful
to understanding the themes and key ideas in the text.
2. Once you have identified the features related to your scope of analysis, you should arrange
your material to form a logical sequence of ideas. The arrangement should be from specific
features of the text to its broader ideas, views and values.
3. Now you can begin writing the analysis. Remember that the basic rules of essay writing also
apply in your academic writing. You must have an introduction that states the thesis statement
of your essay, each of your ideas must be in its own paragraph and finally there is a conclusion
to put a neat close your to your argument and criticism.

READ

ARRANGE

WRITE

The Three- stage Process of Textual Analysis

CONCLUSION

Literature is like fashion, its definition changes over time. However, there are some things about literature
that remain constant. Literature teaches us about ourselves as human, not through preaching but through

57
stories and reflections. It is mostly about the play of words that appeals to our sense of beauty. And good
literature should be like onions; it should have many layers of meaning that provides the reader with new
insights each time it is read.
Understanding literature is about understanding how the text is written and to relate to what issue. It can
be about something speakerl, social, political or ecclesiastical. Those issues in the texts are the concerns
of the author and it is our job as a literature student to make academic criticisms of those issues. We may
agree or disagree with those values portrayed. What is important is that it allows for a discussion and
criticism with the eventual purpose of making us a better individual after an encounter with the text.
The contemporary world has seen literature blossoming into different genres. Besides the traditional
genres of fiction, play and poetry there are also new genres as the product of modern inventions. Movies,
television shows and biographies can also be considered into the realm of literature.

58
 Sample Essay:

The Fate of the Mortal: The Limitation of Oedipus‟ Power to Chart His Own Destiny in the Play Oedipus
Rex

by
Lajiman Janoory

The Play Oedipus Rex by Sophocles puts into center stage the issue of fate, or destiny of man. Is man
the master of his own fate, or is there a power, omnipresent and omnipotent, that decides on his
actions and future? This issue has always been discussed, especially in philosophy, concerning the
existence of man. Is our existence accidental in a ready-made world so perfect in its formation and
equilibrium? Or are we the creation of the Supreme Being whose existence is felt but never seen by
naked eyes like the wind that touches us but never able to see. Oedipus Rex is another text that deals
with the religious connotation of man the mortal against Fate, or God the Immortal. In this text, Fate
makes itself present in the form of the Oracle and its fulfilment. In fact, the central plot of the play itself
is about the attempt by man to elude the Oracle‟s prophcies. It is an attempt by man to „cheat‟ Fate by
doing whatever within his power to make it possible to avoid his predestined future. The Oracle and
Oedipus‟s pride will set the chains of events in motion and the influence of Fate on the whole text is so
pervasive that we cannot fail to notice it.

Throughout the text, there are three oracles that foretell basically the same prophesy. First, it is
revealed to Laius, the ruler of Thebes and the father of Oedipus. He is told in the oracle that his son will
kill him and marry his wife. As a result, Laius orders the infant to be left to die in the nearby Mt.
Cithareon. But before that his feet is pinioned to prevent him from crawling to safety. Human
kindness(or Fate?) has it that the shepherd takes pity on the baby and instead of leaving him to die,
gives the boy to another shepherd from Corinth, a city on the other side of the mountain. The Corinthian
shepherd then presents the infant to his king, Polybus, who raises him as his own son and names him
Oedipus or Swollen Feet due to the deformed limbs.

This first Oracle reveals to Laius the nature of the child‟s future. Laius is aware that Fate should

59
be equated to the will of the God and as a mere mortal he is supposedly unable to change it or prevent
it from happening. But such is the propensity of man not to merely lament over what is yet to happen
but try to do something about it. He hopes that his action will break the Oracle and deny Fate its divine
course. Laius‟ order for the boy to be killed is an attempt to avoid the horrifying fate. He is threatened
by the existence of his son so he tries to have him killed, thus ending his and his wife‟s problem and
deny Fate its course.

This is the unconscious effort of pitting himself against Fate to decide the better entity, man or
God? It is a test at how far man can go against the will of Fate. Is he independent In his actions, and if
he is, can his actions bring about the changes that he desires as oppose to the will of Fate? Fortunately
for Laius, he is not able to see how wrong he is and how Fate is able to show to him that a mere mortal
is no match for Fate.

The second Oracle is revealed to Oedipus. Oedipus travels to Delphi to confirm his parentage
at the Oracle of Apollo. The Oracle, however, reveals to him a horrific prediction that he will kill his
father and sleep with his mother. Oedipus, like his biological parents, tries to avoid Fate. Since he
believes that his foster parents are his natural parents, he runs away. Fate has it that he is running
away to complete the prophesy itself. This instance reflects to us the issue concerning knowledge. A
mere mortal is shallow in his knowledge, especially about his fate in the future and that Fate is all
knowing, thus to go against Fate is sheer foolishness.

Nothing but Fate could have arranged the meeting between Oedipus and his father at the
three-junctioned road since the Oracle states specifically that that is the place where Oedipus will kill
his father. It should be noted that at this period the city of Thebes is still under the spell of the Sphinx.
The fact that Laius is able to avoid the Sphinx and leaves the city, hence his meeting with Oedipus,
reveals to us the inexplicable workings of Fate. Oedipus meanwhile who is running from Fate
encounters his father and his entourage in a chariot. They force him off the road and a fight breaks up
between them with Oedipus inadvertently killing his father and all but one of the guards. Fate also
shows its force here when Oedipus is able to defeat all of them. This is a feat against all odds. It can
only be explained if we refer back to the Oracle. In order for the Oracle to be completed, Oedipus has
to fulfil another abominable task of sleeping with his mother. Had he been killed in the encounter,

60
Oedipus‟s fate would not have been fulfilled. We can assume then that Fate is actually protecting
Oedipus for his second fulfilment of the Oracle.

Oedipus goes on to confront the riddles set by the lethal Sphinx. He is able to solve the riddle,
becomes the King of Thebes and unknowingly marries Jocasta, his mother-wife. The fact that Oedipus
manages to solve the riddle can also be deduced by the fact that he walks using a staff due to the
mutilated feet caused by his father. A normal man, who lacks the experience of having to use a staff for
walking will lack the mentality for answering the riddle. It is then fated that Oedipus should have
mutilated feet to be able to have hindsight on the answer. And it is also the will of Fate that the cause of
the mutilation itself is caused by his father the king. And the mutilated feet is, indirectly, the cause for
him being able to be enthroned as the King of the Thebes and as a reward the hand of his mother as
wife. Such is the power of Fate that no mere coincidence could be as uncanny as these incidences.

The third oracles is revealed after many years passed and when Oedipus has already had
children with his mother-wife Jocasta. Gradually, Thebes succumbs to a vile plague, which kills
animals, children and crops. Oedipus promises to save the city as he once did. He sends Creon, his
brother-in-law, to seek the Oracle for help. The God‟s answer is that the plague is caused by an
unpunished murder- that of Laius. In the end, the murderer whom Oedipus has cursed so much turns
out to be himself.

Oedipus‟ pride is partly the working of Fate. When he was told that his parents in Corinth are
not his real parents, his pride forces him to seek the truth by going to seek the Oracle. The Oracle
presents him the fact that he will kill his father and sleep with his mother. It is strange for a man with
Oedipus‟ will to seek the truth and not to sit awhile and ponder over the Oracle. If he is a foster child,
surely the Oracle does not mean his foster parents. Thus, Fate has blinded Oedipus to the truth when
his characteristics show that he is an intelligent and perceptive man.

Oedipus‟s pride also forces him to kill his own father because he refuses to give way to his
father‟s entourage. Under normal circumstances, a lone stranger would surely give way to a group of
people, as when a man on foot gives way to a passing car. Oedipus‟s pride, once slighted, does not
tolerate other than revenge. This hubris then results in his murdering not only his father but also other

61
lives. And when the truth is slowly revealing itself Oedipus could have listened to Jocasta‟s advice not
to seek for the truth further and stops it now and then. But Oedipus‟s pride gets the better of him and
only the bottom of the truth will satisfy his pride. Thus, it is fated that his pride will reveal his horrible
fate. And as Jocasta says;

Chances rule our lives, and the future is all unknown.

Best live as best we may‟ from one day.
Nor need this mother-marrying frighten you;
Many man has dreamt as much. Such things
Must be forgotten, if life is to be endured.
(p 52)

All the revelations of the first to the third Oracles reveal that man‟s fate is predestined and that
he is merely a puppet with God playing the role of the master puppeteer. However hard one tries to
avoid the predestined fate, he is still not able to avoid it. Fate will have the better of him in ways that
man could not imagine for he has neither the strength nor the knowledge to elude it. How uncanny it is
that a man such as Laius could have killed his infant son with a single strike of a sword, yet he sends
him away for another person to kill him. Human conscience in his part is surely not the cause since he
himself pinned both Oedipus‟s ankles. The single stroke that could have contradicted the Oracle is
avoided by one man who trusts others to do his orders. It is strange that he would not do it himself and
will then know for certainty that the Oracle is contradicted instead of expecting others to do it and will
never be sure of the killing. Only Fate could have a hand in it.

Another set of question is although his fate is predestined, does he have the mortal capability
or freedom to determine his own future? As a puppet of Fate, all the characters like Laius and Oedipus
cannot affect the future that the Oracle has predicted for them. No matter what they do Fate will have a
way of getting the Oracle realised. However, man as an individual is not fully determined in his action
by Fate. He has his freedom of action. Thus he is responsible for his deeds and misdeeds. In
Christianity or in Islam, for example, the belief is that God is omnipotent. He knows everything about
man- his feelings, his actions and even his future. Some arguments forward the idea that if that is the
case, it seems that Fate determines man‟s actions. Thus, heaven and hell serve no purpose in

62
punishing or rewarding man because his actions are predetermined. If a man commits murder, isn‟t it
what Fate wills him to do and to punish him for the deed which is predetermined will be an injustice?
But then the opposing argument states that man is not in totality determined in his action, at least not
the minute detail of all his actions. He still has the freedom to choose the good and the bad. This is due
to the advantage given to man which no other beings are given- the will to think. Since man is able to
think and to decide his actions he should be responsible for them. Without the power of thinking, man
will be like other animals whose existence is merely to satisfy its basic needs of eating and procreating,
both of which are instinctive. A cow, for example, will always graze the grass, produce the milk and
bear a calf because Fate has decided that that is the life of a cow. It is unable to think and try to
improve on its life. Once it has the thinking ability the cow will also be responsible for its actions. Thus,
heaven and hell will serve a purpose as to motivate him to do good deeds and avoid misdeeds.

In Oedipus Rex man is not a mere puppet who always has to dance to the tune of the puppet
master. There is a certain freedom or action that is exclusively his, the action that is not determined by
Fate but by his own free will. In Oedipus it is his errors of judgement or hamartia. He seems to make
important mistakes of judgements that set the events of the story into action. His pride, blindness and
foolishness all play a part in the tragedy that befalls him.

Even from the opening dialogue we sense the pride in Oedipus. When consulted by his
subjects praying for relief from the plague he reacts kingly and graciously, saying „- I, Oedipus, whose
name is known afar‟ (p 25). Oedipus is a good king but he is also proud. Perhaps this attitude is
deserved, for Oedipus had solved the Sphinx‟s riddle, an apparently heroic feat, and is seen to be the
„greatest of men‟ (p 26) but Oedipus still possesses the hubristic tendencies which will doom him. This
is emphasized by the chorus in saying;

Who walks his own high-handed way, disdaining

True righteousness and holy ornament,
Who falsely wins, all sacred things profaning;
Shall he escape his doomed pride‟s punishment?
(p 50)

63
 Oedipus‟s pride certainly sets it all off. When a drunken man tells him that he is a mere foster
child of King Polybus, his pride is so wounded that he will not let the subject rest. It sets him on a
journey to Delphi to ask for the truth based on a drunken man‟s words. Being drunk is being in a state
of half consciousness and half unconsciousness and to take the words seriously show the flaw of pride
in Oedipus. Had he left the matter to rest the chain of events would not have occurred. His foolishness
shows when the Oracle is revealed to him which states that he will kill his father and sleep with his
mother. It is the reason for his leaving Corinth and travels to Thebes and in the process embarks on the
journey of fulfilling the Oracle‟s prophecy. Oedipus comes to Delphi with a question but he was given
the wrong answer. His foolishness could not tell whether his question is properly answered. Had he
been more calm and a little less proud he would have thought objectively and realize the true meaning
of the answer. He would have stayed in Corinth where it is safer knowing that his foster parents are not
his natural father and mother. Even until nearly the end the answer to his question (his true father) is
not answered. That is the reason why he refuses to go home to Corinth after he receives the news of
his foster father‟s death because he still has what he believes his natural mother. A cleverer man would
think that half a truth fulfilled is not the work of Fate. Fate cannot have him not fulfilling both misdeeds,
the murder of his father and marrying his mother. To skip one and commit another would be to say that
Fate is not that omnipotent after all, thus indicating the weaknesses of God. Oedipus should have
realised that, (if he has faith in Fate) Polybus‟s natural death means that the king is not his father.

Oedipus‟s pride continues to be a flaw that leads to the story‟s tragic ending. He is too proud to
consider the words of the prophet Teiresias. Teiresias warns him not to press into these matters for „It
will be easier thus for you to bear your burden, and me mine.‟ (p 34). But pride in his intelligence leads
Oedipus to continue his search. Oedipus must have thought that, he, a man who solved the riddle of
the Sphinx has more substance compared to a blind seer whose words are of no practical use. He
values truth attained through scientific enquiry over words and warnings from the gods. This is the
result of his overweening pride. Practicality against prophecy must have been at the back of Oedipus‟s
mind and he believes that he is by far a better man than Teiresias.

Through the character of Oedipus, Sophocles shows to us the futility and consequences of
defying the divine order. Oedipus, who is exemplary in character and who is a good leader of his family
as well as his people, succumbs to the one sickness of the heart which is hubris or pride. What makes

64
it tragic is that Oedipus, whose sickness is inherent in all men, is punished so horrifyingly by Fate. The
wisdom he has gained through the ordeal has exposed him to the power of God as well as the
acceptance that though we cannot control Fate we do have control over our own actions.

REFERENCES

Sophocles, 1947, The Theban Plays, Penguin Books Inc., Middlesex, England.

65