Ci.

,,)- • ,Emtm,in
l
. . . . . 't f practical diode under forward b'
f 18- 1.12 (c) shows compl~re equ1wlent c,rcu' o ristic has a slope inverser
•fleet of fi>nvard resistance ls 1nlroduced. The characte
•as. It,,.
Yr>roPon;.,,, 1li,
forward resistance. al to
· equivalent circuit charactenshcs
This . . of th•· d"'°de is .obtained by approximated
. . Slrai8ht .
sesment. ActuaJ(y the diode characterlstios is an exponential t•t, as ~ •wr;;~unat,on onry ..:•11,
pan ofcharacteristicis shown in Fig. J.13 and that too linearly. once 1 e ".''~ mg equivaiellt ci fii1
is called fll«ewlae linear equivalent clreult (model) and the charactens1,cs are know,, as ~q
wise linear. diode cbaracterlstfcs. ·

Piecewise Linear Characteristics

'
/._ Actual Characteristics
'

'-_,,_,___ _ _ _ _..., Forward Voltage

Fig. 1.13: Piecewise linear diode characteristics

Significance ofsuch approximation is that it enables us to solve the diode problems with sufficient
ac.curacy.

Piece-wise linear characteristic is shown in Fig. 1.13. Actual curve is shown by dotted line and
it is replaced by iw,-axi mate graph shown by Ii ne up!o V=V,._. Curi-ent flow is negligible practically
so straight line Is drawn upto V=V,_. For voltage beyond V,_ , dynamic resistance is infmity hence
approximated graph increases linearly from VA onwards.
Thus approximated graph consists of two straight line pieces;
(i) Horizontal line in Non-operating region O V ~VA
(ii) Slopping line beyond VA (or V> VA).

In the equivalent circuit the actual value of VA and rF depend on the type of diode and also on the
voltage and current range.

We have seen that diode is a device which conducts only in one direction i.e. when it is forward 7
biased. In reverse bias, it does not pennit the flow of current. This property of diode is used in
rectifiers. Rectifier is a circuit which converts an a.c. signal into a d.c. However, this d.c. is not pure
but has some a.c. ·component, thus is pulsating d.c. ·
This pulsating d.c. is then fed to filter and regulator circui~ which provides smooth and regulated
d.c. output. The block diagram ofa power supply containing rectifier is shown below. It converts a.c.
mpply in to d.c. supply.
 Transformer
a.c. (stepdown) Rectifier Filter +
input Regulator Load
a.c. d
· voItage .c. d.c.
1
vo tage output

fo+•
(pulsating)

~t ~~~lakd)

· F,'g. 114 •Bl kJ· 1,

The rectifier circuit are · f . . oc ,agramo,a.o.pou,er•upply
. o two types-
(1) Half-wave rectifier
(ii) Full-wave rectifier
1.7.1 Half Wave Rectifier (HWR)
This is the simplest rectifier arr . . .
wave rectifier, rectifying element co:~gement, cont_ammg a smgle diod~ as rectify_ing element. In half
cycle is eliminated from output C. . u~ts only ?unng one half cycle of mput a.c. signal. The other half
secondary of transformer and .1 rrcmt
d diagram is shown m . F'ig. 1•15 D'od . connected m
1 e 1s . senes
. with
oa RL.
The secondary voltage ofth tr c: • . •
e ansiormer 1s a smuso1dal a.c. voltage and can be expressed as
Vs = Vm sin mt = Vm sin 0
... (1.24)

0 +

Rf

Vs = Vmsincot Voe

j
Fig.1.15: Half wave rectifier circuit
Operation During Positive Half Cycle : In the positive half cycle of secondary a.c. voltage
's (A is positive w.r.t B), the diode will be forward biased, so current flows in the circuit in the
irection as shown in Fig.1.15(a). This current (denoted as IL) flows through load resistance RL for
lmost fu]J positive half cycle. IL can be expressed as

- vm sin (J)(
IL =lmsinrot - r1+rs+RL ... ( 1.25)
Cl:ID--------- • ""'"bJ ,/J/Nhm,i:.J
\\' here• rr and r:1 Arc fon,ra nf rc!l istnnce of diode
. and. secon dary wm
· d.mg resista
·
ncer
esp
e~li
V '1..-----, + \,~I
l

Va., Voe

~I rv·•-· ,)
AC
Main Input
220\1, Ml Hz

®
1. J5 (a) : Hal/warNI rvc6/it1r/or po1itirN1 ha//cyc!t1

AC
Main Input
220V, 50 Hz

®
1.1S (b): Hal/wave rectifier/or negative ha/fcyc/e
Fig. 3.32

41t e

I
Load I
I

Voltage
I
I I I
1t '31t :41r
e
I

Load
Current

F,'g. 1.15(c): ~vQftmn, o/rQcti/,flr circuit

 t>,,te 6,~11,'tJ ..._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _--,-{ f.,.a)

Opera t ion during Negative Half Cycle: During negative half cycle (voltage at A is negative
w.r.t. B), diode becomes reverse biased hence does not conduct. Therefore the load current 1L does
not flow for complete negative half cycle
IL = 0 (during negative half cycle)
... ( 1.26)

Waveforms for input voltage, load current and voltage is shown in Fig. I. I 5(c).
This shows that only half cycle (positive) of the input is rectified and hence name half wave
rectifier. From waveform, it is clear that output voltage is not a perfect d.c. It is unidirectional and
pulsating voltage.
Analysis of output waveform of Half Wave Rectifier :
Let us assume that
Vm = Maximum value of voltage on secondary of transformer
Rt, = Load resistance
rr = Forward resistance of diode (assumed to be zero)
R,. = Reverse resistance of diode (assumed to be infinite)
lavg =d.c. current through load
~.m.s. = r.m.s. vlaue of alternating current is load.

rs = resistance of secondary winding of transformer.

Im = Peak value of current on secondary side
(a) Average Current (Ide)
The average value of current of waveform for Half Wave Rectifier is given as,

lavg = Ide

= Area under Curve for One Cycle of output waveform

...(1.27)
Base for One Cycle

2,r
f fr d (0)
= 0
2K
1r 2,r
f1msin0d(0)+ f od(0)
27r

1 1r
=- I [-cos0]o
1r m
2
 I
.. I;"'•' K ( ~o d l)/

J 21 J
<k "=-
It
"' .!!! •
,,.
O..l I B I,.,

( b) D.C. Oa tp . \:"
ur olraR<' (V )
, n e d.c.. (1 c . dr / dR .
• · ;:J \ eraf!.c) \ v /ta8e developed 111:ross the on 1, 15
1
,k I"" R,

I,,,
{Since Ide = - from P~ .
tr . "'i 0 at, 0 1!
(1 .~8))

(from e
,.,
== -!!!... x _ __ _
q,h
·<S)

,,, . rs + rf
J-,.. ~ -
RL

rs + rf
RL << 1 hence negligible

S o, the d.c. value of output voltage is 31.8 percent of the maximum a.c. input voltage.
( C) R.M.s. Load Current (lrmJ

Root-mean-square value ofalternating current in output wavefonn can be obtained by perfonning

square-mean-root operation on load current i.e. square of Load current is I}_. For mean, calculate
area under the curve (by integrating) and then take mean over the period of 21t. Finally take the
>quare root
J
1 /2
.fr.m.s. =[ 21£ !fl
2Jr 2
d (0~
)

1
=[ 2ff !l~sin
,r
2
@td (0)+ Jo.d(B)j
F ltr )
J
 ~ds - - - - - - - -@D
--·

=[ !( ~' ~) J d8

=[£[e-si~26IJ
=[ ;J-o- si~2~ + s~o]f =[1;; r
[1,m, Ii]=
... (1.3 0)

(d) Ripple Factor :

The main function of rectifier is to convert a.c. into d.c. but the rectifier circuit does not fully
accomplish this purpose. There is d.c. component as well as unwanted a.c. component (ripple)
present in the output wavefonn.
Therefore the quality of output can be decided by ripple factor (r).
The ripple factor (r) is defined as
Ripple factor

r.m.s. Value of Alternating Current in Load

(r) = - - - - - - - - - - - - " ' - - - - -
d.c. or Average Current in Load

( / n,rsrora/ )2 _ / tit'
2
)

I;,c

We know that, lrm s = r.m.s. value of alternating current in load

.. .(1.31)
 (LT • ,,,,.,,./,,, ~/p/,-ll./ - - - - - -
:i) tJcp<:"det1I o f currt:n~ wave s hape and
nd ' "- ~
'lw df•" r c:' \J1tr, ,," " / ,,, ,,,,pie fm: wr :; ~: rcssi o n for ripple fac to r. a Oi"-,
r"r ~t, ,._tt!< l t ,,I /\\U uJ.m c , P 10 use va1ucs o f l """ an d /dc fro
VI< we f UJVC er¾ 't
' , ' " d,·11• v ripple· /m: wr f u. r //\I J I J
1\,,., we gel.
. rn eq t1,w I.•
( 1l,,
:Ut< ( I . I<) 1111 11 ,,. 11/" t i llllC 111 / ;£/w1II OII ( • I ()~

'

/r=l.21 /
;n_ output wavefo ··[I
. From above £qua,;on (1 .32) ;i ;s seen that a.c. comPonent presentrnd
1
''1
limes the d.c. component. If above value is express~d as a P:rcen~ge, ,c~tes that, am lltt is
component is I 2 I% greater than amount of d.c., which obv,ously is not desired. ount Of ·<1

{e) R-,;n~Uon Eff,deney · '<

Rectification efficiency is defined as

= d.c. output Power = P.tc

11 a.c. input Power Pac

33
J;,,JrF +rs +I() (I
. The above Equation ( / .33) ; geneniJ;sed expression for rectification and valid r. ... · l
rectifier · · 5
or all h,..._
circuits. !or half wave rectifier substitute ·Jpcs of
-7ac _= 1,,/n and lrms = I,,/2 Equation ( J.33) becomes

= __(C...:fm'._!!-/ff_.:)'.:......:..R~L_ _
2

(/m / 2) 2 (1'_( +r_, +RL)

R ectJacat10n
·r. . Efliciency,

But RL >> r,F + rs so neglecting l'_f +rs

RL
1-'. NG I NE • . Hl"-H; & n
· trica l E n 1&ln r~ rluv.
' ''" of ",1u1l r n1 •
l•. l )
U•tr
l'I "lllll'-
\\ • V

'Yor,,n .,. 4

(f) Peak Inverse

It is
d" ·
. defined as th
II)(

v.0 It•R•(PIV)
. •. •
e rnax 1rnurn
~

-----J
>< I Oo .,, 40,6 ¾

..
(1.34)
·
con •hon that the d;Ode . Va/uc of "'•e.,e Vo/ta .
obviously V m• .....
""••ere V can
i Wtthstand
. With 0 ut getting
. damaged
ge or Voltage
J across
fh diode in reverse bias
. ,,,
• n "se o
P. I. V. "" /J,'• I '"'"''"'un,v a Iue of Voltage ""'" aecondruy •lfwav""tifio,
in <eve..., bi., it;,
(g) R,pple F,..q••ney ...(1.35)
It is same as supply & .
(h) Voltage Regulation equency i.e . 50 Bz
It is defined as change in
1
of full load Voltage. Vo !age &on, no loaa to full load. Th;, ch.,,ge i, expre,,..., pe,centage
Therefore % Voltage regulation

Percentage of Voftage Regulation "fc(NLJ - V"'''!l x l 00

Vdc(FL)
full load condition. ...(l.36)
Where V*fNLJd. c. output voltage at no load condition and V<k/F~ - d.c. output voltage with
For the half wave rectifier

We can recognize that ...(\.37)

Ide Rl = vdeFL
...( 1.38)
and
Vm V
- = dcNL
tr
... (1.39)
ubstituting these values in Equation (3 .15)
Ide (rs+ r~ + vdeFL = vdeNL
VdcNL - VdeFL = Jde (rs+ rJ,I ...(1.40)
 -
- IQ...\',l -_ ,& \ \
. ..'$.

• ,,,,,,... p,,,~,,,.,u:, - ~
· Per • ._ . . _. rectifier can be given as
t:. t;. ll lfJMe • 1.,Jtr1J!c rc1p 1/11tio 11 ror J,11/1 wove

= I'_,. ,, - ,.
/fA·Ur, X / 00
1;.,u

p . . .
crcentnge Vo ltage Regulat10n = (rs + rF ) x JOO

{h} Th,nsformcr Utilization Factor (T.U.F.)

the W~1~/e des igning a power supply, it is to determine the rating oftransfonner, because
rocti/Jers utilize a tr. Ii. h daryside feeds the a.c. power. Transfonn aJn-io
Facto (l' U llns onner, w osesecon It. d fi d erur,I si,1
r · .F.J is useful in determinino the rating of transformer. ,s e me as iq_r I
o · lo\

TUF = d .c. Output Power

a.c. Power .Rating if Secondary if Tran-rformer

~ c(roted}

The above expression seems to be similar to the expression of rectification efficienc b

actual/
. O" d 1L'lerent
~c.. · d1"ffcerent from the actuy Ut 11. is
in the manner that rated power (of secondary) 15
dehvered 1
a Po\Ver

2
TOF= 1dc~
F;ms1rms ... (J.43)

... The above expression is also valid for all rectifier circuits .
For Half Wave Rectifier

,
I.
- -1!!..
·de -
It

Substituting these values in Equation (3.21)

... (l .44)
 llut \\f\! ~mo\" that
,,. . - I,.,,,.,, I '\ I R,)

(';-----
r
(from t:q. 1.25)

1V F .. H,.
1,.,(,.1' ... ,. + R ) ,,,.-
• I· I X
2v 2

=34- -
1T
R,.
r._ + r . + R
= 2.fi.
2 ----
. ,. l n I + rF + r_.,
Rl

TUF = -y- = 0.287

n ... ( I .45)
Rating of transformer b d . · . ·
can e etennmed usmg TUF as follows:

Rating of Transfonner = d .c. Output Power

0.287 ...(l.46)
1.7 .2 Demerits of Half Wave Rectifier
(i) Ripple content in output is very high (r = 1.21)
(ii) Rectification efficiency is low (l'\ = 40.6%)
(iii) Transformer utilization factor is low (TUF = 28.7%),
(iv) The current flowing through the secondary winding has a net d.c. value, resulting in ampere-tum
N 2xldc which can cause d.c. saturation of the transformer core.
Example 5 : A diode has an internal resistance of 20 .a is used to build a half-wave
rectifier. The supply voltage is llOV (rms) and the load resistance is lk.Q. Calculate
(i) Efficiency of rectificatiQn
(ii) Ripple factor
(iii) The percentage regulation from no load to full load.
Solution : Given data :
R1 = 20 Q
Rl = 1000 n
(V)RMS = 110 V
-
-.
, ., / 55.563
I• "" "' [ i O+ IOOO/ s O. l 525A
N/ + Ht

= 48.54 mA
Y«: =f oe x R1. on full Load
= 0.04854 X JO00 = 48.54 f/

Ripple Factor= J.21 for half wave rectifier

No load d.c. voltage is

,,, rm 155.563 24 V
r DC(NJ. ) =-;;-= ,r 49.54

Yx(NL)-VJX:(FL)
Voltage Regulation =_::...:.l:.::::.!--_,__-"-x 100
Vx (FL)

= 49.5424-48.54 x JOO= ).OM%

48.54

Example 6: A Ila(/ wave rectifier MIISists of a transformer having open-circuit sec a........
,1.,,_ • _, h • ondary
vou,1ge ef IOI{ a secondary resistance of 1 ohm and a dioue avmg a dynamic resis•
~,
2 okms. Determine
(a) Tke no-load de. output voltage.
f/J) Tke dc. output voltage when tltefull load d.c. current of JOO mA is drawn.

(c) T/te percentage voltage regulation.

 sotutlt'J t1 : 1:or the h.. lf '~'"'-' rc~1in11,.

Given doto: H1 .. :1 U
~. I U

and l,t, ... JfJIJ mlf fl , J Am11

(a) VJ<•NI. • ,r

X \ OV
= ____ -= 4 .49 volt.,
,r

= 4.49 - 0.l x (2O + 1O) =- 4.19

(c) Percentage Voltage Regulation

9 4 9
= 4 .4 - ,t x l00% = 7.16 %
4.19

l .7 .3 Full Wave Rectifier

In full wave rectifier, the d.c. output is obtained during both the half cycles of input a.c. supply.

D1
0 -il

+
- idt Vdc
vsm RL
AC . ~
Main
Input
C i
220 V,
50 Hz
vsm

i
- i d2

®
Fig. 1.16: Full wavg r1ictif;11r
p

f ,

!l

J
t

, t• tJ

J ,.
zjJ!

-•
rl

A--
,,:!

. .....
• ---- <, -'-<111 ..:_ ,
,<.
·•,(
v.~i" ,.. ... .,. C ;;
....
'
lf;"t ,I [ ,- • 19

. I 11 ,/

--
r~ • j

.,
.
:1, ,,.
' ,.,A
,:
.,
. __,'./:...,.,__,.
,;
"'
._/ I!) 4

f~.,-,., l JI) fr J.</ .. _...,.,. ,..,nfi..r

 patr',-,d
. I 6 where two diodes are e
n inf •S· 1· • · - lllplo
•fi r is show The a c. mput is app 1ied to d' Y~ .
-rtt 1e ·nput. · •Od •ti
I• ffu ll'' u,•e •~-¥ 1eofo.c,1 eslh ¾
cire nil di:ll!nutt O · r ,1,oih 1he h• 1f cl"'_ p ,rllJlsfort11•'· "'ii~
ci~uil in order to 11.-cll.. \ , hich is a center ta
.· ronsforoie,
. bl ct
to !iu,m . . ' ·tJvc f:lal f cycle . . w r.t. B), the d.10d e D ' is
. forward b'
L)unng I os• . . . 05 1uve · . C. . 1a~6~
n point A as P . h If cycle, the pomt ts negative ~a,,
0

•) o~rarioD .
( During pas111ve .. If cyc le (W 11e Ln thtS a . - w.q ~'ll
ha I nows through RL· t conduct. Therefore Ic12 - 0, only ct· .Poitit
t urrent di does no 10q
hence wi ll conduc 'c b' sed and hence . ti 1 I 6(a). eD
8 and diode 0 2 is reverse _,al This is shown in ig. . . I
rrentl - di.
supplies the loa d cu L D1
®
+ 7
t
D.

® D2
F~g. l, J6(a): Recti/;cation a/Positive Hal/ Cycle /or [u/1 wave rectifier

(b) Operation During Negative Half Cycle

In the negative half cycle polarity reverses and A becomes negative and B become positive
(point C is negative w.r.t. point B), hence the diode D 1 does not conduct being reverse biased. Diode
D conducts being forward biased current in the circuit is shown in fig. l . l 6(b ). Therefore Id1 o,
2
only diode D2 supplies the load current IL = ld2.

© D1

i - i RL
jl
'
C+

l
+
-jd2

® D2

Fig. ] . ] 6 (/,) Rectif;catio nof N.egative Half Cycle o//u/1 wave rectif,'er
 Fig. I .16(c) shows the wavet; l¼{e C.;,Hit, a.
---------- um
orrns of current Idt and ld2• and IL.

'

oo,--:~~~~·3~1t~ ~w~
' 7t '
--+ cot
~2 :

lrn '
'
'

Sn
0 ' cot
' '
' '
' '
'
Fig. l. l 6(c) : Waveforms /or /u!I wave rectifter

RLId!is and
Since
through Id, flows in the same direction through the load resistance, the total current IL
IL = 1d1 + ld2

It is seen that both half of input wave is rectified' and hence name full wave rectifier.
Analysis of Full Wave Rectifier :
(a) Average Current (Ide)

lavg = Ide
= Area under the curve for one cycle of output waveform
base for one cycle

=0 - - -
1[

7r

JIm sin(0)d(0)
-..::.0_ _ _ _ __

= f m [-cos B];
1[
 = Im[- cos;r+cosO]
I(

(b) D.C. Output Voltage (Vdr)

V<k -- JR
de L

(c) RMS Load Current (IrmJ

Jr

2
Jrms == ,. J1m sin 2 0 d0
0

Im
lrms ==72
(d) Ripple Factor
From defmition, ... ( 1.49)

The generalized expression for ripple factor is given as

For full wave rectifier, substituting value of! and/ as

I Im d I - 2/m nns de
"'" : fi an de - -;- we get
 I, =0.482 \
The above expression for ripple factor indicates that rit>t>\e content is much \ower as com\)ate~
atfwave rectifier. Hence a fu\\ wave rectifier l>rovides better d.c. output than na\twave rect\t\et.
1

Rectification Efficiency·
percentage Rectification efficiency given by

T/ = Pde x 100%
Pac
for full wave rectifier Pde and Pac are given as
2
. 2 . (21 ~
Pde =(Id,) Ri =\ nm_) RL

Pac= Unnsl(rF +rs+ R1)

=(Jij
2

(rF +rs+ R1)

 But

0~
1lnwx
=~ XI Q0 % = 81.2%
,, 0 2
IT
1'/1e efficiency of full wave rectifier is twice that of half wave rectifier and
efficiency can be 81.2%. llJa
(t) Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)
. It c-. r di'odes in full wave rectifier circuit is
Pea k, inverse vo age 1,0
PJV = Vm + Vm = 2 V111
We note that PTV for diode in half wave circuit is Ym' where as in full w .
ave c1rc1
(g) Ripple Frequency
It is twice the supply frequency i.e. 2f.
(h) Voltage Regulation
Voltage regulation is defined as

•
Percentage Voltage Regulation = .~cNL - ~cFL
x J00%o
~ cFL

Less the value of voltage regulation, better is the performance of rectifier circ Ul.
't
For a full wave rectifier circuit
2V.
~ cNL = __!!!.. and ~cFL = Ide Rl
tr
(i) Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF)
In a full wave rectifier, we find out TUF for primary and secondary winding separate/
because in secondary each halfis conducting for 180° while in the primary the current flow!;
complete 360°.
d.c. output Power
TUF (secondary) = a.c. Power ratmg
. of secondary
 J>i,(e t!,irr:uits e.•- - - - - -----1( 1.,1 )

= O.BJ 2 (~suming ideal diode) ...(1.52) _

TUF (primary) = 2 x TUF of half wave rectifier circuit
= 2 X 0.287
= 0.574 ... (1.53)
Therefore using Equation ( 1.52) and ( 1.53) average TUF for full wave circuit is given as
Average TUF for
Full Wave Rectifier

= TUF of Primary+ TUF of Secondary

2

_ 0.574+0.812
2
Average TUF for full wave rectifier= 0.693 ...(1.54)
Merits of Full Wave Rectifier :
(i) Ripple content in output is much lower than in half wave rectifier circuit (r = 0.482).
(ii) Rectification efficiency is high (11 = 81.2%) hence better d.c. output.
(iii) Transformer Utilization factor is betterthan that of half wave rectifier circuit (TUF = 0.693).
(iv) There is no d.c. current flowing through the secondary winding. Hence no problem of saturation
of transformer core.
Demerits of Full Wave Rectifier :
(i) The circuit requires a center-tapped transformer which is costly.
Example 7 : A full wave rectifier circuit is required to give a d.c. output voltage of B0V.
Neglect resistance of diode. Find:
(i) d.c. load cur~ent if RL = 5Kn
(ii) Efficiency of rectifier
(iii) Peak current through diode. {Raj. Univ. 2003}

Solution : Given data : Vde = 80, RL = 5KO

1
vdc
(i) d.c. Load Current Ide = Rr =
80
= 16 mA
5000
 (II) £f'r,cJrnc)•ofReeriftcr
2

1/ = ,! .R~c,[,::,] =[1,,,1T2
1l R l 2 21,,, l a
]

2
•
[ 2..121
-;- e 0,8/05

,,. 81.05%
Vm
(Ui) Peak current through diode Im = Rf + RL
_ 2V,,, V. _ Vdc .tr = BOtr and Rf =0
//de - 7 ==> m - 2 2

1 = JI',,,= BOn = 25.13 mA

• RL 2x5000
1.7.4 Bridge Rectifier
A bridge rectifier is shown in Fig.1.17. The advantage of this circuit over the fu)I wa
. two diodes is that the center tappmg
with . 1s
. eliminated.
. . ve rectifier
1

Input
220 V, +
50Hz
Eoc

Fi'g. 1.17: Bridge recb"/i'1r

The bridge rectifier circuit is essentially a full wave rectifier circuit, using four diodes. Four
diodes D1, D2, D3 and D4 fonns the four anns of the electrical "bridge". A.C. voltage coming from
transformer secondary is fed to the two corners of the bridge and load resistance is connected to the
other two comers. Direction of all the diodes and polarity of d.c. output is fixed and should be
remembered.
{a) Operation During Positive Half Cycle : During positive half cycle of ac input voltage
point A is more positive than point B), the diodes D1 and D2 will be forward biased whereas D3 ~d
reverse biased. Therefore current flow through load RL is due to D1 and D _ The current path 15
2
~int A, through Di, Rv D2 and back to point B. As is shown in Fig. l .17(a). ·
 ~e t!,;'rt11,'t, a.a- - - - - - - -- @!)
(b) ~~ration D~ring Negative Half Cycle : In the negative half cycle (when point B is
more pos1t1ve than point A), diodes D and D will be forward biased whereas D1 and D2 reverse
t6
biased. N~w, current fl~w in the circui{ is due diodes D and D • The current path will be point B,
3 4
through diode D3, RL, D4 and back to point A. This is shown in Fig. I. I7(b).

A.C. ~
Main
Input
220V,
50 Hz

--
Fig. l .17(a): Positioe halfcycle
A

A.C.
Mains
Input
220V,
50Hz

Fig. 1.17{1,): Negatioe ha/fcyc/e

Output wave fonns are shown in Fig.l.l 7(c).

Two half cycles

Fig, 1.1 ](c) Output waoe/orms off,.,/1 wave bridge rectifier
 ~/#fr',-itl
,,,,,~'!
. tion of current flow through 1
d,rec 1)1e h oaci
c)'clcs. h waveform s are same as t at of tes-
f,11 11 the /JCJ '( • As I e I f I . OIJti, is~.
· . hat in t,ot ;r,c11t1on. fthis the resu ts o ana ysrs is al llt1v ,: ~
~o1e htte t . • t fu // ",are rc_ c1 ·1 because o so sail} ~~ct I
11i11.s. i,c <,)OW" rectifier c,rcur • . efei.(t,
~me, d oddf11// ,, 01c . ti
(orf\\tl I c ?/
.. /ff
l ==-
(,) f\n~tllSe current. " If
21,,, ::: (at no load)
·;) d c output voll'll!!C
/I_ -- R,.
Jc - tr
tr
(il1 • '

JI,,, - 1,,, Rl
wMre,
I,,,
(iii) RMS current, f ,,,,s ::: J2
(iv) ripple factor = 0.48
M rectification effi ' :V T) ::: 8/.2%

(v,) PIV = Vm
I
fre uency d.c.output voltage for fuJJ load given as
(\lil)Ripple frequency is double as supp y q

2V,,, I (r. +r )
11& (at full load) =--;;-- de s F
c. an be used for bridge circuit. However PIV is V , also in th
Th refore the same iormu1ae c . db 2R m e
: ' . d V ( t full load) resistor 1s replace Y F'
express10n for efficiency an de a .
Merits and Demerits of Bridge Rectifier Circuit
Merits :
(i) It does not require center tapped secondary winding whereas it is must with two diode full wave
circuit.
(ii) Transfonner Utiliz.ation Factor (TUF) is better (it is 0.812).
(iii) Due to better value of TUF (0.812), for the given power output, the size of transformer required
will be smaller in case ofbridge rectifier than in case oftwo diode fulJ wave circuit TUF = 0.693)
(iv) Diodes and transfonner used in two diode full wave circuit are costlier than used in bridge
rectifier.

. . voltage (PN) for each diode is Vm in bridge rectifier, while it is 2Vm in 2 diode
(v) The peak inverse
fu/1wave circmt.
Demerits:
'i) ~ rid~e rectifier circuit requires four diode which is more than that in two diode fult wave rectifier
CJICUJ(.
 --------------.
() As two diodes conducts at .
.... Pi,,(e t!,irc11,'ts • ( 1 ,, )
- ·- -
11 additional voltage creates p abtlime. There is more diode voltage drop in bridge circuit. This
.. ro em and can t b . d
The add1tlonal diode voltage d no e ignore , When low d.c. voltages are required.
higher secondary voltage. rop may be compensated by choosing a transformer with slightly

-- s.
ompan•1on o n1t1ti '11r•

--
Property Half-wave FuJl.-wave Rectifier
No,
Rectifier Centre-tap Brt~e
J. Number of Diodes Used
1 2 4
2. Necessity of Transformer
....- No Yes No
3. Rectification Efficiency (ri)
..... 40.6% 81.2% 81 .2%
4. Ripple Factor
- 5. Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)
1.21 0.482 0.482
Vm 2Vm Vm
- 6. Output Frequency
- 7. r.m.s Current {Inns)
f 2f 2f
Im Im Im
:~ "',, 2
8. d.c. Current (Ide)
Im Irr, 'l-Im Irr, 2/m Irr,
--.
,9. ·:~ d.c. Output Voltage (Vde) V.m 2Vm 2Vm
,~'.':- ,' "' Tr, Tr, ' Tr,

Example 8 : Find the diode PIV rating, diode average current rating and the transformer
rms ratings for use in a rectifier which delivers 2 Amps de at a voltage of 200 Vde to a
resistive load, for following configurations.
(a) Full wave bridge (b) Full wave centre tapped (c) Half wave.
Solution:
_(a) For Full wave bridge configuration
2
vdc =-Vm
7C

V. = nVac
m 2

V = 3.14x200 = 314 V
m 2
 3. 14 , 2... .1, 141\
2

/.,.,_" I,.,/~ 3.JrI.J 121 A

= ......

For hridcr l't,nt,~wmll()ll,

• ' .. • diod
• C P/V raring = Vm==314 V

n; :\Jc ~,' erncecurrem rnrmg

· -- I A A
' ' •secondary rarmgs
Transfomwr · arc 222 Vm,s, 2.22 nns
(b) For fuU tt11Vt> center-tap configuration

,, _ 3./4x200 = V
v. =2Va.· - 2 314

314
Vf1#s = /2 = 222 V

Jr 3.14 x2
IIll =-Id,
2 C == 2 - =J./4A

The cun-enr flowing in each halfofsecondary is only halfway

Ji Ji ==2.22A
I nns ==~==~
For center-tapped configuration,

Diode PJV == 2 V111 == 2 x 314 == 628 V

And diode average CIIJTent rating " / A

Transfonner
(<) For 68/f-wavesecondary ratings are 222-o _ 222
<onligurafion, V,,., 2.22 A rrns

vm == 7t vdc =3.14 x 200 =628 V

vm 628
V,., a Jf a IA/4 V
0
444
1
- 1t ldc " 3./4 X 2 " 6.28 A
I,,, 6.28
1171ts ==2 ==2==3.14 A
Diode P/V rating~ v. 62B y
atid diode •••rage current rating • 2A
Transformer ratings are 444 y ro,,
, 314
· A tJJJs.
 />i,/(e e,,',r11its ._.- . - - -- - - - - - ,( 1.+7 )
CLIPPERS : I
A wave shaping, circuit which controls the shape of output waveform by removing or clipping a
portion of the applied wave is known as clipping circuit. These are also referred to as voltage
limiters, amplitude selector and slicer.
According to the clipping levels, clippers are classified as :
1. Positive clipper 2. Negative clipper
3. Biased clipper 4. Combination clipper.
According to the connection of diode, clippers are of following types :
1. Series clipper
2. Shunt clipper
3. Multidiode clipper
This section explains working of different clipper circuits. The circuits are considered to use
ideal diodes.
1.9.1 Series Clipper
The circuits for positive and negative series clippers are shown in figure l.27(a) and (lJ
respective_ly. ·

(a) Positive series {I,) Negative series clipper

Fig. 1.27
C~nsider a sinusoidal ~ave at the input. The following steps analyze these circuits.
Step 1: Consider positive half of the input wave.
-If diode is forward biased; replace it with short
- If diode is reverse biased; replace it with open.
+o---o o - - , . - - ~
D
V

(a) R:,sitive series clipper {I,) Negatioe series clipper

diode reverse biased, so open diode forward biased, so s~ort
Fig. 1.28
 • A1IM"f .c/aln,,,i&$

F rposi't'ive series clipper in fig. l,28(a), ,.v

a r;"',",l.
l..!d:!J t Voltage v.. 0 Th plots of output VO1!ages are Shown 9 0
,

Step
2 1: Find outpu I 28(b) Va= V. e
. perin fig. ·
•n lli. l ·
f~
·li I
1
'series
""'t'-- c •P
n1cc~tively. V0 · v,V •. .
· ·11

" - - . _ _ - ,. t

(a) Output/or po11

......,,...,,,,__
. ~- Fig. .
_ 1.2() .,.,,.,
(/,)Ouiputfer""9a6..-.,d,·

. h lf of the input wave.

Step 3 : Considernegabve a . d· replace it with short.
- If diode is forward biase ' • . n
_ If diode is reerse b185
. ed •. replace tt w1th ope .

D
V
V
i~------~-
(a} Posifioe series cGpper during-oe halfo/input

Fig. J.30
Step 4: Find output voltage.
· - For fig. 1.30(a), V == V
0
- For fig. l.30(b) V == 0
0

Step S :Completing the wavefrom obtained after step 2 iind plotting Iransfer curve.

I
I
-v -------J __ _
I
I
I
I
I

-v

{a) Output/or Posit,"oe s . ,.

llries c"PPer V:::::
0
Vj
--------------_.• J>,,t(e t!-ircu 1 •----------GJD

I
I
-v - - - - - - - ..J_ - -
I
V I
I
I
I

(b) Output /or negative series clipper . (d) Trans/er Curoe for Negatfoe Series Clipper
Fig. 1.31
Transfer curve gives the graphical relationship between input and outpufvoltages. For positive
halfcycle of input VO= input voltage. Graphically this is represented as a 45° straight line. For
negative half V O = 0. Thus me get transfer curve a,s
1.9.2 Parallel Clipper
The parallel positive and negative clipper circuits are shown in fig. 1.32.

R R

~1l D D

(a) Positive parallel clipper (b) N egative para/le/ c/ipp_er

Fig. 1.32

The steps discussed for series clipper are followed for the analysis of parallel clipper. Positive
parallel clipper is analyzed below :
Step 1 : Positive half ofinput wave forward biased diode Din Fig. l .32(a) thus, diode is replaced
by a short.
R

Step 2 : Output voltage VO = 0

 - - -- - -- Aw;u,f ,Patr-iu
.strp .J l'ur ncgo1h c half of input wave, diode is reverse biased and th
~,n·u,t os , ltl''"' i11 fi g. 1.JJ . lls tePI
R ----,---o ii~ .

.:I - : }· 'I
r, J. 33 .. Pura!le/posilica clipper during negalioa ha/{
rig. r.
'f.0 'f lnp,,t

Ster> 4 : For fig 3. 10, V0 = V;

Step S : The output waveform is thus obtained as in fig below With it
s transri
V
.
V --- •

I
I
-v . - - - - - - - LI - -
V0 I
I
I
I

-v
0/P waveform Transfer curve
For negative parallel clipper, the output voltage V 0 = Vi for positive half of in
negative half of input. This is shown below with the transfer curve. put and \•it
Vo

_ _ _ _,___.__ _? v,

l. 9.3 Biased Clipper

Consider the circuit shown in fig. l .34 which introduces a de source V I to the negative series cli~
D

R v,

Fig. 1.34 : Biased negative series c/ippar

d
-
The same steps as for series/parallel clipper nre f(lllowed.
Step 1 : The voltage that appears on P-sidc of the diode Dis V - V1. For positive half of input
wave, there exist 2 cases. '"

v. ,

v. ~.--4----
. T/2

case I : when Vtn < V1 i.e. (V;n - V1) is negative

T
for O< t < t1 and t2 <t <-
2
Since, negative voltage ( V;,, - V1) is applied at P-side of diode thus, diode is reverse biased or open.

r~
vi
V

7
R Vo
rv,
vi
7
R V0

_J _J
(a)
Fig. 1.35

Case II : When V;n > Vi or (V;n - Vi) is positive.

for ti< t < t2
The positive voltage (V;- V1) this forward bias the diode. The circuit is obtained as shown in Fig.
l .35(b).
Step 2 : The output voltage VOis obtained as,
V0 =0 for case I

and Vo= V; -Vi for case II

Step 3: For negative half of the input wave. Vtn <Vi. This condition is same as case I in step 1.
Step 4 : Thus VO = 0 for negative half of input.
 \tq, .. II·, ,.,,,,,111 \\ l\ (h•111111. u111,, 11 11 ,; , hD'' 11 in Fig. 1.J 6(0) fron, step "<. tl11c1
\ ,, • ,h,,,,11111 Iii,! I 1f•(Pl
1 <l Q'1ct

lh~
ltq.
·,-

I I

'· I
•
I
\ \ I I • v, < v,
I
V0 =0
T

( l
o ) r,nuf an d. m 1lput wava1rom /Or
L _ f I,•,aseJ naga t;·ve series clipper (/,) Trans/er u,ave J<'or /, ·as~J
1
r ne9cit; .
-C•
rig. ]
· 36 ""se ,.,••c/-
·

Consider another biased clipper which uses series connection of diode anct batt . 'PP,,

theload. Th is circuit is called parallel biased

· · . an d sh own m
c1rcu1t, . fi'g. 1.3 7(a). ery tn Paou, ,
Voltage 1·
R

V1 I /. -~71----

(a)
(/,)

Fig. 1.37: Parallel biased negative clipper

The above circuit is analyzed by following the same steps. The diode is given V volts on psid
Thus, diode will be ON only when its n-side is supplied with vo ltage less than V • I e.
1
Step 1 : Consider the positive halfof the input wave. The diode will be ON when its n-side isgise,
a voltage less than V1• This happens during O< t < ,, and t2 < t < T 12 as is c Iear from fig. l.J J(b)
Case I : < Vi i.e. 0 < t < t1 and t < t <T I 2
2
Diode is ON thus short.

Case II : f; > Vi i.e. t1 < t < t

2
Diode is OFF thus open.
 (1.?~)
rhe circuit thus obtained arc us shown below :
I{
+ o - - - - - vv

v,

- 0-0---------.-,_T.L-Y
.:.'---oo
Y,

-0-0-------___,J"--"_ __
1TY1 0

(a) For Case I

(b) For Case II
Step 2: Finding output voltages:
for case I :

for case Il : V0 = V;
Step 3 : For negative half of input voltage, voltage at n-sidas always less than voltage on P-side.

~r----r-T-1
Thus diode is ON (short)

-o
R l_ Y
0

+o
Ty'
- o

Step 4 : The output voltage VO for negative cycle of input ~s VO =V •

1
Step 5 : The output wavefrom is thus obtained as in fig. I.38(a) with the transfer curve in fig.
1.38(b).

voltage

V
VI I
I

~I
I
T
I
I
I
I
V0 1
I
V . • L. -
I
I

(a} Output Wt'ive /onn

(b) Trans/er Curve
A"g. 1.38
 [r.,~-, l
l'-::., w.!Nplr I~ : J>errnttlne ,,,,. o utpul wm,e/i-0111 for lit e c ircuit s/10-..,n
'''n
~I
<• I .s,,.,.- 11 v.1 1v ,,,./'H'"-'A ""'p/lllule l .fV. ,11ul •.3~,'(fJ
f l, } .4 ., q,Ntrt' u v.1 1"<' " ·' · .,·1tow11 /11 fig. / .J9(h). •~,
"'~
.-4.'"3 Nlffi,v.• diode 1,1 /J1.• it/e a/.

20

- 10

(b)
(a)
Fig. 1 .39

S11/111it111: II i s c lear from figure 3 . 16(a) that P-side of the diode is sup P 11ed
. -
lfrl,is vo ltnge i s positive, diode is ON else OFF. With (v.l i- S)
(a) .For Sinusoidal wave : vo1~.
Step 1 : Consider positive half of the input wave. Since V; is + Ve so the volt
diode is ON. age at P-sicJ e IS-j.~
.
e&~Q
+ 0 - - - --,1 +
5V

(a)

Step 2 : The output voltage Vo = v; + 5V.

Step 3 : Consider negative half of input wave
Case I : v; < - 5 volts.
The voltage on P-side, v; + 5 is positive
==> Diode ON or shorted.
Casell: p;n > - 5 Volts

The voltage on P-side, (Y; + 5) goes negative

==> Diode is OFF or open.
·-------------
- · A""' t••rrtt1 h •- - -- - - -- --CI1D

. . .l \
-
l\
l\j,
--o-o

\.
•.-: 11.

)
' ..,,.,~
+
R

(l,J fl,.r .,.,_.., I (c) l1or cM<> ll

Sh~I, 4 : Output voltn~e Is :
ror case l : v0 = - v1 + s
fo r caase n : v0 = O
S(tl' 5 : The output wavefonn is
V,

ISV
SV t - t - - - + - - - - - - - - - - - -

I
I
-SY -- -------{- • I
I I
Yo I
I
I
I
I I
20V I I
I I
I I
I I
I
I
I I

-SV

(b) for wave shown in fig. 3.16(b)

Step 1 : For positive part of input wave, the voltage at p-side is (20+5) volts.
Diode is ON (shorted)

Step 2: For above circuit, V0 = 25V

 ff ,,,.
,, ~J
"1'

25

£ramp!£' u: A 1ritmgt1lnr voltage s/rown in Fig. 1.40 (n) is applied to

,,,ave s/it/ie biased c1'P.
rw111i (conrbti1ntio11 clipper) giJ!e11 i11 Fig. J.40(h). Determine tlle ...,
mltoge. ape of lite ~e1
ourpl//

- 15 \' ·····

VI
12 V :

-25 V I ..... ..... .. •

(a)
('1)
l
Fig.l.40
 s,,/11ti11n : l\. c,, is seen frmu lhc ci rcuit .
bill(• (!,,"_rc ,-;t,
-~-
••---------- -0:ID
1) 1 is supplied whh 12V nl n-sidc.

,:::,, 1) 1 is
ON when V111 (vo ltngc on p side) > 12V.
o 2 is supplied wi1h - 8V at p side
1) 2 Is ON when V111 ( voltnge on n-sidc) < - 8V
v.

following the steps as discussed in section 3.1

Step 1 : Consider the positive half of the input.
The positive half is divided into three cases.
Case I: Vin< 12V

D1 OFF and D2 OFF (': Vin >-8V)

Case II : Vin> 12V

Di ON and D2 OFF (': Vin >-8V)

Case ID: Vin< 12V

Same as case I.
Step 2: Finding the output voltage:
v.,
ll VI
25V
12V l --}L---'\c---'-~-7---

v,

12V

- 8V

Output voltage
 t )i,,,, I .~ ( 'm1e Ill : D 1 off. D2 OFF

Cust' JI : 0 1 on. D2 OFF

l'o= l 1V
Step 3 : Cosnider negative part of input cycle.
Again three reg ions are observed

For Case IV: V;n >-8V

D1 OFF (V;n < 12V)

and D2 OFF

For Case V: V;n <-8V

B 1 OFF (V;n < 12V)

and D 2 ON

For Case VI: V;n > -8V

D 1 OFF (V;n < 12V)

and D2 OFF
Step 4 : Finding output voltage:

Case IV and VI : V0 = V;

Case V : V0 = - 8V
Step 5 : Plotting the waveform and transfer curve,
v.
12V
,,,,,.-----------------· l>i,,(• t!,,"rt1,1it:, ..._ _ _ _ _ _ __ _,{ 1.10
J.lO CLAMPERS
The circuits which are used to add a d.c . level ns per the requirement, to the a.c. output signal
arc called clam~r circuits. The capacitor, diode and resistance are the basic elements of a clamper
circuit.
Basically clamper circuits are of three types:
(i) Negative clamper
(ii) Positive clamper
(iii) Biased clamper
(i) Negative Clamper Circuit :

Clampers are better understood with square wave (constant voltage) at input. For the analysis of
a clamper. we have to follow few steps as under.
S
Step 1 : tart th e analysis of a clamper circuit by considering that part of the input signal which
will forward bias the diode.
Let us take the example of the negative clamper circuit given in figure \ .41

'
0
vi + +

V
Vi R Vo•

t
-v --
(a) lnp"utwave/onn (1,) Negative clamper circuit
Fig. 1.41
So here in this example We will consider positive half cycle first, because it is forward biasing tht
diode.
Step 2: Draw the circuit again replacing the diode by a short circuit as in fig. l.4l(a).

Vc=V
0 +\ -
+ C +
VI

J short R Vo

Fig. 1.41 (a)

 @D • ,,,,,
- ;UN./ ~/"111&.f

N<h' ,w
. dctcmrmc
" ,II . ' " o p:m1111erers
. . in this
·
cycle.
. .
. . voltage to which the capacitor cha
{1) n,e tin t pam111crers is the ma,-;111111111 . ' "neously to the voltage I rge a11cl .
3.S'.\un11118 . w1·11 c IIarge up mstanw
. 1/1.11 the cnp11c1tor eve/ detel'ftt•ts
. p
'-·1'n·ui1. ' 11 e<!111 ~1, ,
1
fo find the voltage level we apply K VL towards input
. in the circuit.
. ~t\
. h
Apply mg KVL we get, Ve = V and t e po /arity w,11 be as shown m the fi gure abo

(i,) TIie stx·ond parameters is the output voltage. This is to be found by app/yin g l<.vlve.
ourpur in r.he circuit. 1o11,,&tq

Here wo have v0 = O ·. · R in parallel w,t. h as hart wil/ be a short.

Step J : S ketch the output against the input as in fig. l .4 l (b)

I
I
I

I
I
F;9 . 1.41 (l,)
Step 4 : Now considering the next half cycle where the diode will. be re_ve:se bi~s. Here we \Vil]
assume that during this period the capacitor will not discharge and will remam on it~ voltage level
e stablished in first halfcycle. -:
Again draw the circuit making diode reverse biased i.e., open as in fig 1.41 (c).

V
0 +/ -
I +

V open R Vo

?
+

Fi9 . 1.41 (c)

Step 5: Apply KVL to f'md the output voltage in this cycle and sketch the complete output
waveform.
Here - V- V- v0 = 0
v0 =-2 V
The complete clamped output is shown in the figure below
 I
I
. J.41 (b) .
f,g. h re the diode will be reverse b·
. le w e
t halfcy~
d ·11
t discharge an w1 remain
ias
. · lie
. nsidering the JJ:p'.citor w1// no on •ts Vo1'.'. •,
f,10 1r ,o · d the c '<Ill
'ileP .J : I is per10 • ti ~e
-"rh11rd11rinctl'~cvcfe.
a;..-.um . first ha i . .., • diode reve rsebiased i.e., open as m ig l.41(c) .
I esrablished JIJ • cuit maJang
. dfall' the C!Ji V

-
Al!ain
o----1-/ '·."=----,--r---~
:'
-
+

+
Fig. 1.41 (c)

Steps : Apply KVL to find the output voltage in this cycle and sketch
waveform.
the cornpf
Here - V_ V_ v, = 0 ete Ou~
0
io=-2v
The comp/ell i.
ecalllpedoutputisshown in the figure be/ow
 - - -@
\

.v -

·2V _

Fi9. 1.ti 1 {dJ

' "'': I<> w,·,Jr tltt• tUl,\'ll'(•r II'(• ' 11
.~· M,1 I .~II'in~• (!,,t I,~
- -
- l "" .ve a general rute that the total swing of the output must be equal to ,
1 1tlf)/1/ l'IRna/.

i) positive clamper circuit :

positive clamper is a circuit wh· h . . .. F" 3 20 shows

. . clamper. ic c1amps the mput signal wavefonn pos1twely. 1g. ·
,ccircmt. of a pos1t1ve
vi

0 r--i---r--~

-V

(a) Input Wavefonn

l l
{1,) Positive Clamper Circuit
Fig. 1.42 ·
Step 1 : Following the same steps as for negative clamper, positive clamper is analyzed. Since
negative half of the input square wave forward biases the diode, so, starting with negative half of input.
Step 2 : Replace diode with short circuit as in figure 1.43 to obtain Vc = V with polarity as
shown. The output voltage v0 = 0. The capacitor charges to voltage V.
V =V
+ <>-------i-1'I-+---.---.----<>

V R v,

Fig. 1.43
 _ ' t"' f1t.1Siii, c Jmlfo f"thc input. diode is re verse b .
',("l'f' . t ' •'" i:> .,1 •l'UL"f"ll lits
. , .. ~ \' eqt/
, .,,/Jlf""v A•

·~-- ~,-
, , ... • - · 1• tl,r, t - llJs
. . _, V 'll~

~\
'1

The nxttplctc n·avcfonn is shown as in fig ure I .44.

F,g. I. 44: Output wavefann far positive clatnpercircuit

It is seen from the output wa~efonn that it has been clamped positively.
{iii) Biased Clamper
In a Biased biased clamper clamping may be done at any_voltage level other than zero. Bias
clampers are oftwo types: (i)Biased positive clamper, (ii) Biased negative clamper ed

Let us take the example ofa biased positive clamper.

0-0---1,I C
+

V, R v.

V,

(a) Input f/:{zvefann (b) Biased.Ebsitive Clamper Curcuit

Fig. l.45
 • ,"-...Ji.
-"P' , •·- - - ~ - - - -r;:-F"'
.-.rr1t1h • • \,,,!,;!LJ
11 1 111 1811
~1 " " \, - llw 011.eh,1, hum 11~galln h11tr tytlc, t«au~ ,t make~ th.i d,(l(kl forwll.td biits.
~•' i
1
\\ h~,, dlotlf 1~ r,.,.""''' bia"«I. thti rncu11 rcdut"5 to
V
•
-
V ) R v,

I·
v,

Pig. J.46 {a)

(i) To find the charging of capac,·to KVL
. r app Iy we get,
- V + Vc- V, == o
Vc == V+V 1
(ii) To find the output voltage by apply KVL.
we get v0 == V1
Step 3 : Sketch the output against the input

V
._-+---
v 1 ------- t
-V

Fig. 1.46 {b)

Step 4 : Now consider the next half cycle i.e. positive half cycle in this case. Now the diode
becomes reverse bias and hence open circuit.
V,
r l'I-'+·_-.----,------0+
V R v,

Fig. 1.46 (c)

 \
\
I
I
I

Ul
I I I

r,, 1.tJO(t/1

'., ... \ ' "' V< .

PiJ"1flS the ,vt;;: ot'\t,. l\ c !lCI V • V+V = 2V + V,
0 1
Th~ compJcr~ourpiu is
Let U$ .xc th.: fM~/ output swing
Output~~,ins = 2\1 + \/ - V = 2V
1 1
Input SUfog = V + V == 2V

Tht inpur sn ing is nlso 2 V. Hence verified that the output is correct.
'.!).. KEY POINTS
1.
A depletion
charge region is developed across the P N junction due to concentration difference of
carriers.

Dep/e,ion region is so called because there is no mobile charge in the region.

Depletion region is also called space charge region and potential barrier.
diode is under forward bias it conducts. The forward current is constituted by
When acarriers.
majority

When a diode is reverse bias, a very small amount of current due to minority carriers is
1ere ca/Jed reverse saturation current.

,verse saturation current is not dependent on applied reverse voltage but it is temperature
,endent. For every J0°C rise in temperature this current doubles.
diode current is J =1a (e"'1r;Yr -1)