44

Fluid Measurement Techniques

S. A. Sherif
University of Florida, Gainesville

44.1 Fundamental Principles 44.2 Basic Equations

Differential Pressure Meters Thermal Anemometers Laser Doppler Anemometers Volume and Mass Flow Measurements

The subject of uid measurements covers a broad spectrum of applications. Examples include windtunnel experiments, turbomachinery studies, water tunnel and ume investigations, erosion studies, and meteorological research, to name a few. Many wind-tunnel investigations call for determining forces on scale models of large systems. Similarity analysis is then performed to permit generalization of the experimental results obtained on the laboratory model. Techniques for measuring uid ow parameters are extremely diverse and include thermal anemometers, laser velocimeters, volume and mass ow devices, ow visualization by direction injection, and optical diagnostics. Measurements can be carried out in liquids and gases, incompressible and compressible uids, two-phase and single-phase ows, and Newtonian and non-Newtonian uids. Types of quantities measured vary greatly and include velocity, temperature, turbulence, vorticity, Reynolds stresses, turbulent heat ux, higher-order turbulence moments, volume and mass ow rates, and differential pressure. Topics covered in this chapter will be limited to differential pressure measurements, thermal anemometry, laser velocimetry, and volume and mass ow measurements. Coverage of these topics will take the form of providing a summary of fundamental principles followed by a summary of the basic equations used.

44.1 Fundamental Principles

The purpose of this section is to provide an overview of the fundamental principles involved in uid measurements employing the most common and widely used techniques. These techniques include using differential pressure-based instruments, hot-wire and hot-lm anemometers, laser Doppler velocimeters, and volume and mass ow devices. These topics will be discussed in some detail in this section. Differential pressures may be thought of as differences between time-averaged pressures at two points in a uid ow or between a time-averaged and an instantaneous value of pressure evaluated at a point in the ow [Blake, 1983]. This type of measurement provides an alternative to thermal anemometry for determining velocity magnitude and direction as well as turbulence intensity of a uid ow. The Pitotstatic tube is one of the most reliable differential pressure probes for ow measurement (see Figure 44.1). Special forms of Preston tubes have been used for measurement of wall shear stress in boundary layers of smooth walls. Preston tubes are hypodermic needles that respond to the mean velocity prole in the vicinity of the wall.

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STATIC PRESSURE

STATIC PRESSURE TAPS, PS

STAGNATION POINT, PT

STAGNATION PRESSURE

STATIC PRESSURE

FIGURE 44.1 Typical installation of a Pitot-static tube in a duct. (Source: Blake, W. K. 1983. Differential pressure measurement. In Fluid Mechanics Measurements, R. J. Goldstein, Ed., Hemisphere, Washington, DC. pp. 6197. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved.)

Thermal anemometry refers to the use of a wire or lm sensor for velocity, temperature, concentration, and turbulence measurements. This technique started in the late 1800s in the form of employing homemade constant-current anemometers (CCA) for velocity measurement. Three categories of anemometers now exist. The constant-temperature anemometer (CTA) supplies a sensor with heating current that changes with the ow velocity to maintain constant sensor resistance. This type is primarily used for velocity, turbulence, Reynolds stress, and vorticity measurements. The constant-current anemometer, on the other hand, supplies a constant heating current to the sensor. This can either be used for velocity measurements or for temperature and temperature uctuation measurements. This choice is dictated by the magnitude of the probe sensor current, where the probe sensitivity to velocity uctuations diminishes for low values of current. The third type of anemometer is the pulsed wire anemometer, which is capable of measuring the uid velocity by momentarily heating the sensor. This causes heating of the uid around the sensor and a subsequent convection of that uid segment downstream to a second wire that acts as a temperature sensor. The time of ight of the heated uid segment is inversely proportional to the uid velocity. Typical block diagrams representing the constant-temperature and constant-current anemometers are shown in Figure 44.2 and Figure 44.3, respectively. Thermal anemometers are always connected to a probe via a probe cable. The sensor of a typical probe can either be made of wire or lm. Wire probes are made of tungsten or platinum and are about 1 mm long and 5 mm in diameter. Film probes, on the other hand, are made of nickel or platinum deposited in a thin layer onto a backing material (such as quartz) and connected to the anemometer employing leads attached to the ends of the lm. A thin protective coating is usually deposited over the lm to prevent damage by chemical reaction or abrasion. Typical thicknesses of lm probes are 70 mm. Laser Doppler anemometry (LDA), or laser Doppler velocimetry (LDV), deals with measuring uid velocities and higher-order turbulence quantities by detecting the Doppler frequency shift of laser light that has been scattered by small particles moving with the uid [Adrian, 1983]. Three different types of LDA optical systems exist. These are the reference-beam system, the dual-beam system, and the dualscatter system. The dual-beam LDA produces two types of signals coherent and incoherent. The coherent signal occurs when at least two particles simultaneously reside in the measurement volume.

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Anemometer output voltage measured here

Probe

Feedback Amplifier Bridge unbalance sensed here

FIGURE 44.2 Block diagram of a constant-temperature anemometer.

Constant Current Source

Shaping Network

Output Amplifier Anemometer output voltage measured here

Probe

FIGURE 44.3 Block diagram of a constant-current anemometer.

The incoherent signal occurs when a single particle scatters two light waves, one from each illuminating beam. The reference-beam LDA mixes light scattered from an illuminating beam with a reference beam to detect the frequency difference. Both the reference-beam LDA and the dual-beam LDA have the disadvantage of having to satisfy a coherent aperture condition. The amplitude of the reference-beam Doppler signal is proportional to the square root of the reference-beam power, thus allowing an unlimited increase of the signal amplitude by the simple expedient of increasing the power. This feature is particularly useful when the scattered light ux is small compared to a background radiation level. A typical LDA system consists of a laser, a beam waist adjuster, a beamsplitter, a bragg cell, a backscatter section, a photomultiplier tube, photomultiplier optics, an interference lter, a pinhole section, a beam translator, a beam expander, and a front lens (see Figure 44.4). Other components include a signal processor and a frequency tracker or a frequency counter. Fluid meters may be classied into those that determine uid quantity and those that determine uid ow rate. Quantity meter may be classied as weighing meters (such as weighers or tilting traps) or volumetric meters (such as calibrated tanks, reciprocating pistons, rotating disks and pistons, sliding and rotating vanes, gear and lobed impellers, bellows, and liquid sealed drums). Rate meters, on the other hand, can be classied as differential pressure meters (such as orice, venturi, nozzle, centrifugal, Pitottube, or linear resistance meters), momentum meters (such as turbine, propeller, or cup anemometers), variable-area meters (such as gate, cones, oats-in-tubes, or slotted cylinder and piston meters), force meters (such as target or hydrometric pendulum meters), thermal meters (such as hot-wire and hot-lm anemometers), uid surface height or head meters (such as weirs and umes), and miscellaneous meters (such as electromagnetic, tracers, acoustic, vortex-shedding, laser, and Coriolis meters) [Mattingly, 1983]. A typical orice meter (see Figure 44.5) consists of four parts:

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The Engineering Handbook, Second Edition

Laser Beam Waist Adjuster

Backscatter Section Interference Filter Photomultiplier PM Optics Beam Translator Beam Expander Front Lens

Beamsplitter

Cover and Retarder Pinhole Section

Bragg Cell

FIGURE 44.4 Typical laser Doppler anemometer system. (Courtesy of Dantec Measurement Technology A/S.)
UPSTREAM FLANGE TAP DOWNSTREAM FLANGE TAP PLANE OF VENA CONTRACTA DOWNSTREAM FULL FLOW TAP

FIGURE 44.5 Orice meter. (Source: Mattingly, G. E. 1983. Volume ow measurements. In Fluid Mechanics Measurements, R. J. Goldstein, Ed., Hemisphere, Washington, DC. pp. 245306. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved.)

1. 2. 3. 4.

The upstream section including ow-conditioning devices The orice xture and plate assembly The downstream meter-tube section The secondary element (not shown)

A venturi tube typically has a shape that closely approximates the streamline pattern of the ow through a reduced cross-sectional area (see Figure 44.6). Elbow meters are considered nonintrusive since they do
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ROUND TO 0 TO 1.375 D RADIUS ROUND TO 3.5 d TO 3.75 d RADIUS d FLOW D 1923 d 5 15 D

d/6 X1 d/2

FIGURE 44.6 Venturi tube. (Source: Mattingly, G. E. 1983. Volume ow measurements. In Fluid Mechanics Measurements, R. J. Goldstein, Ed., Hemisphere, Washington, DC. pp. 245306. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved.)

not interfere with the ow pattern in the pipe and do not introduce structural elements in the ow [Mattingly, 1983]. Laminar ow meters are based on establishing laminar ow between the pressure taps and using the laminar ow rate relationships through a tube of a known area and with a specied pressure drop across its length. Turbine meters enable the uid ow to spin a propeller wheel whose angular speed is related to the average ow rate in the duct. The angular speed is typically detected by the passage of the blade tips past a coil pickup in the pipe. Rotameters are vertically installed devices that operate by balancing the upward uid drag on the oat with the weight of the oat in the upwardly diverging tube (see Figure 44.7). Appropriate choice of the conguration of the metering tube can allow the position of the oat to be linearly proportional to the ow rate. Target meters (see Figure 44.8) operate on the principle that the average ow rate in a pipe ow is related to the uid drag on a disk supported in the pipe. The uid drag can be measured using secondary devices such as strain gauges and uid-activated bellows. Target meters are particularly useful in ow metering applications involving dirty uids so long as the suspended particles do not alter the critical geometrical arrangement. Thermal ow meters operate on the principle of sensing the increase in uid temperature between two thermometers placed in the ow when heat is added between the thermometers. Thermal ow meters may be made to be nonintrusive and are also capable of operating on the basis of cooling rather than heating.

44.2 Basic Equations

Differential Pressure Meters
The velocity in a one-dimensional laminar ow using a Pitot tube may be expressed as
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EXTENSION WELL

TYPICAL FLOAT EXTENSION ARMATURE

EXTENSION ADAPTER FLANGE METER ADAPTER FLANGE (WHEN REQUIRED) UPPER FLOAT STOP

OUTLET UPPER FLOAT EXTENSION TAPERED METAL METERING TUBE

TYPICAL METERING FLOAT

LOWER FLOAT EXTENSION

LOWER FLOAT STOP AND GUIDE INLET

FIGURE 44.7 Rotameter. (Source: Mattingly, G. E. 1983. Volume ow measurements. In Fluid Mechanics Measurements, R. J. Goldstein, Ed., Hemisphere, Washington, DC. pp. 245306. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved.)

STRAIN GAGE FORCE TRANSDUCER FORCE LEVER ARM

PIPE FLEXURE DRAG DISK FLOW (FORCE)

FIGURE 44.8 Target meter. (Source: Mattingly, G. E. 1983. Volume ow measurements. In Fluid Mechanics Measurements, R. J. Goldstein, Ed., Hemisphere, Washington, DC. pp. 245306. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved.)

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44-7

a
SPHERICAL PROBE

FRONTAL VIEW OF HOLE ARRANGEMENT

CYLINDRICAL PROBE

FIGURE 44.9 Some ve-hole Pitot-tube geometries. (Source: Blake, W. K. 1983. Differential pressure measurement. In Fluid Mechanics Measurements, R. J. Goldstein, Ed., Hemisphere, Washington, DC. pp. 6197. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved.)

U=

2( pT - ps ) r

(44.1)

The most widely used method for measuring mean velocity in multidimensional ows is a ve-hole pressure probe, which is a streamlined axisymmetric body that points into the ow (see Figure 44.9). The vector decomposition of the ow velocity U*, which is incident on the ve pressure taps a, b, c, a, and b of a spherical probe, is shown in Figure 44.10. Pien [1958] has shown the following: pa - pb sin 2a = tan 2bh 2 pc - pa - pb 1 - cos 2a pa - pb 9 = sin 2a sin 2bh 2 1 4 2 rVh (44.2)

(44.3)

Thermal Anemometers
The overheat ratio and resistance difference ratio may be expressed as Rs Rf Rs - Rf Rf

a1 =

and

a2 =

(44.4)

The yaw, pitch, and roll sensitivities (Figure 44.11) may be expressed by the partial derivatives E/q, E/f, and E/y, respectively. The effective cooling velocity, on the other hand, may be expressed in either of the following forms:

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z U

a b c b x

Uv v H UH U x

FIGURE 44.10 Vector decomposition of hole geometry and ow direction for spherical-head Pitot tube. (Source: Blake, W. K. 1983. Differential pressure measurement. In Fluid Mechanics Measurements, R. J. Goldstein, Ed., Hemisphere, Washington, DC. pp. 6197. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved.)
y U Uy

Ux

FIGURE 44.11 Yaw and pitch angles of a standard hot-wire probe.

2 2 2 U eff = U x + k 2U y + h 2U z2

(44.5) (44.6)

2 U eff = U 2 (cos 2 q cos 2 f + k 2 sin 2 q cos 2 f + h 2 sin 2 f)

The resistancetemperature relationships may be expressed by R = rr l A and Rs = Ro[1 + a(Ts - To ) + a 1(Ts - To )2 + L] (44.7)

w h e r e a = 3.5 10 -3 C -1 a n d a 1 = -5.5 10 -7 C -2 f o r p l a t i n u m a n d a = 5.2 10 -3 C -1 a n d a 1 = 7.0 10 -7 C -2 for tungsten.

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A number of cooling laws are commonly used in thermal anemometry. The most common of these cooling laws is Kings [1914]: I 2 Rs = Ao + Bo Re Ts - Tf Siddall and Davies [1972] expressed Kings law in a modied form given by
2 E b = A + BU 0.5 + CU

(44.8)

(44.9)

where A = 1.273, B = 0.860, and C = -0.017. Collis and Williams [1959], on the other hand, derived the following cooling law: T Nu m Tf
-0.17

= A1 + B1 Re n1

(44.10)

where A1, B1, and n1 take the values 0.24, 0.56, and 0.45, respectively, when the Reynolds number is between 0.02 and 44, while their values become 0, 0.48, and 0.51, respectively, for a Reynolds number larger than 44 and smaller than 140. The quantity Tm is the arithmetic average of Ts and Tf. Kramers cooling law [Hinze, 1959] can be expressed by Nu = 0.42Pr 0.20 + 0.57Pr 0.33Re 0.50 (44.11)

This equation is valid over the Reynolds number range of 0.1 < Re < 10,000. Other cooling laws include that of Van der Hegge Zijnen [1956], who derived the following equation: Nu = 0.38Pr 0.2 + (0.56Re 0.5 + 0.001Re)Pr 0.333 (44.12)

The effect of ambient temperature changes may be expressed in terms of the velocity and temperature sensitivities as follows: e s = S velU + S tempt f
n 0.97-1.76n1 n plk R r Ud (Ts - Tf ) 1 (Ts + Tf ) S vel = 1.971 o s0.80 o (2To )1.76 B1 0.17 Tf 2 E sUTo m o

(44.13)

(44.14)

Ts - Tf 1 1 1.76n plk R r Ud S temp = - 0.97 1 0o.80 s o (2To )1.76 B1 0.17 2 2 E s To Tf (Ts + Tf )0.03+1.76n1 mo 0.17 1 0.97 E s + Tf Ts - Tf Ts + Tf The corrected bridge voltage is:

(44.15)

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T -T E bc ~ E b 1 - 01 02 2(Ts - T01)

(44.16)

The frequency response of a constant-current anemometer may be expressed by the following differential equation: drs aRo plk f + dt rcAl aRo
0.5 0.20 0.33 Ud 0.42Pr + 0.57Pr - I 2 rs n

pk f 0.33 Ud = 0.57Pr n (Rs - Rf )u 2rcAU whose time constant is rCAl(Rs - Rf ) I 2 aRf Ro

0.5

(44.17)

t cca =

(44.18)

while the frequency response of a constant-temperature anemometer may be expressed by the following equation:
2 2 di s aRo I s [2gRs (Rs - Rf ) + Rf ] Ud plk f (Rs - Rf ) + i s = 0.57Pr 0.33 u rcAl(Rs - Rf ) n dt 2aRoU

(44.19)

whose time constant is rcAl(Rs - Rf ) aR I [2gRs (Rs - Rf ) + R2 ] f

2 o s

t cta =

(44.20)

The mean velocity vector may be computed using the following set of equations:
2 U effx = U 2 (cos 2 a + k 2 sin 2 a)

(44.21) (44.22)

2 U effy = U 2 (cos 2 b + k 2 sin 2 b)

2 U effz = U 2 (cos 2 g + k 2 sin 2 g )

(44.23)

2 2 2 1 U effx - k U cosa = U 1- k 2

(44.24)

2 2 2 1 U effy - k U cosb = U 1- k 2

(44.25)

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cos g =

2 2 2 1 U effz - k U U 1- k 2

(44.26)

cos 2 a + cos 2 b + cos 2 g = 1

2 2 2 U effx + U effy + U effz

(44.27)

U=

1 + 2k 2

(44.28)

Laser Doppler Anemometers

The Doppler frequency may be expressed in terms of half the angle between two identical laser beams with frequency f (wavelength l) and the ow velocity component Vq perpendicular to the two-beam bisector, as follows: 2sinq Vq l

fD =

(44.29)

A major advantage of this equation is the fact that it is linear and does not contain any undetermined constants, thus eliminating the need for calibration. The width of the measuring volume may be expressed in terms of the transmitting length focal distance, fT, and the diameter of the beam waist before the transmitting lens, D: 4 fTl pD

d=

(44.30)

The length and height, on the other hand, may be expressed by d sin q d cos q

l=

and

h=

(44.31)

The spacing of the nearly parallel fringes (produced by the interference of the two light beams in the measuring volume) as well as the number of fringes can be expressed by l 2 sin q 4D pD

d=

and

n=

(44.32)

The Doppler frequency can be determined using frequency counters that time a xed number, N, of zero crossings. This allows computing of the particle velocity by simply using the following relationship: Nd Dt

Vq =

(44.33)

Frequency counters are extremely accurate and have a wide dynamic range; however, their output is provided at irregular intervals. This necessitates using special statistical procedures to perform proper counting. Furthermore, the performance of frequency counters may be compromised at higher particle concentrations, when multiple particles are likely to coexist in the measuring volume.

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Volume and Mass Flow Measurements

Tanks may be used to determine the ow rate for steady liquid ows by measuring the mass of liquid collected in a known period of time. For gas volume ow rate measurements, compressibility must be taken into account. Positive displacement ow meters may be used for specialized applications. Volume or mass ow measurements may also be performed using restriction ow meters for ow in ducts. This may include ow nozzles, orice plates, and venturis. These restriction ow meters typically produce a differential pressure across the meter. The equations describing the ideal performance characteristics of differential pressure meters for incompressible uids can be expressed by 2g( p1 - p2 ) V2 = 4 x(1 - b )
1/2

and

2r( p1 - p2 ) M I = A2 4 (1 - b )

1/2

(44.34)

where the quantity 1/(1 b4) is a velocity correction factor, while b is the ratio of restriction hole to pipe diameter. The corresponding equations for compressible uids are: 2g p1(1 - r 1-1/g ) V2 = 4 2 /g (g - 1)r1(1 - b r )
1/2 1/2

and (44.35)
1/2

A p r 2/g (r 2/g - r 1+1/g ) g 2g M I = 21/21 T1 1 - b 4r 2/g R g - 1

The equations describing the performance of a real compressible orice ow, on the other hand, are: Qh = C hw p f and C = Fb FrYF pg Ftb Ftf Fg F pv Fm Fa Fl (44.36)

The differential pressure across a paddle-type orice plate is related to the uid ow rate by 2Dp Q = A2C D 4 r(1 - b )
1/4

(44.37)

The orice plate may be clamped between pipe anges. Its main advantages include simplicity and low cost. Disadvantages include its limited capacity and a high permanent head loss due to uncontrolled expansion downstream from the metering element. Venturi meters can also be used to perform volume or mass ow measurements. They are typically made from castings machine to close tolerances. As a consequence, they are generally bulky, heavy, and expensive.

Dening Terms
Beam translator Used in LDV systems to adjust the intersection angle by reducing the standard beam distance. Beam waist adjuster Used in LDV systems with long focal lengths to optimize the fringe pattern quality in the measuring volume. Bragg cell A module in LDV systems capable of providing a positive or negative optical frequency shift of the laser light.
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Frequency tracker A device capable of measuring the instantaneous frequency of the LDV signal. Two types of trackers are used in LDV: the phase-locked loop (PLL) and the frequency-locked loop (FLL). Frequency counter A device used in LDV systems capable of measuring the frequency of a signal by accurately timing the duration of an integral number of cycles of the signal. Non-Newtonian uids Fluids in which the coefcient of viscosity is not independent of the velocity gradient. Photomultiplier tube (PMT) A device in LDV systems capable of using the photoelectric effect, wherein photons striking a coating of photoemissive material on the photocathode cause electrons to be emitted from the material. Pinhole translator Used in LDV backscatter measurements. The device can image the measuring volume on a pinhole, thereby constituting an efcient additional spatial lter, thus eliminating undesirable reections from window surfaces and walls in the vicinity of the measuring volume. Signal processor A device in LDV systems designed to measure the Doppler frequency in addition to any other relevant data coming from the photomultiplier tube (PMT) signal. Similarity analysis One of the most powerful tools in uid mechanics, which permits a wide generalization of experimental results. Thermal anemometer A device that measures uid velocity by sensing the changes in heat transfer from a small electrically heated sensor exposed to the uid ow.

References
Adrian, R. J. 1983. Laser velocimetry. In Fluid Mechanics Measurements, ed. R. J. Goldstein, Hemisphere, Washington, DC. pp. 155244. Blake, W. K. 1983. Differential pressure measurement. In Fluid Mechanics Measurements, ed. R. J. Goldstein, Hemisphere, Washington, DC. pp. 6197. Collis, D. C. and Williams, M. J. 1959. Two-dimensional convection from heated wires at low Reynolds numbers. J. Fluid Mech. 6:357384. Hinze, J. O. 1959. Turbulence, McGraw-Hill, New York. King, L. V. 1914. On the convection of heat from small cylinders in a stream of uid: Determination of the convection constants of small platinum wires with applications to hot-wire anemometry. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. (London) A. 214:373432. Lomas, C. G. 1986. Fundamentals of Hot Wire Anemometry. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K. Mattingly, G. E. 1983. Volume ow measurements. In Fluid Mechanics Measurements, R. J. Goldstein, Ed., Hemisphere, Washington, DC. pp. 245306. Pien, P. C. 1958. Five-Hole Spherical Pitot Tube, DTMB Report 1229. Siddall, R. G. and Davies, T. W. 1972. An improved response equation for hot-wire anemometry. Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer. 15:367368. Van der Hegge Zijnen, B. G. 1956. Modied correlation formulate for the heat transfer by natural and by forced convection from horizontal cylinders. Appl. Sci. Res. A. 6:129140.

Further Information
A good discussion of the principles of hot-wire/lm anemometry may be found in Hot-Wire Anemometry by A. E. Perry. The author covers all aspects of this measuring technique. A good introduction to the principles of laser Doppler velocimetry can be found in Laser Doppler Measurements by B. M. Watrasiewicz and M. J. Rudd. Volume ow measurements include several diverse topics, but the book by H. S. Bean on Fluid Meters Their Theory and Applications may provide a good starting point for the interested reader. Other measurement techniques may be found in Fluid Mechanics Measurements by R. J. Goldstein. This book is an excellent reference for a broad spectrum of measurement techniques commonly used in uid mechanics.
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Fluid Measurements
List of Symbols a A b c C CD, Cd cp cv d D e E f F Fb Fr Fpb Ftb Ftf Fg Fpv Fm Fa Fl g h I I k K l
m, M

n Nu p Pr q
Q

R Re S t T u

overheat area yaw parameter specic heat orice ow constant dimensionless discharge coefcients specic heat at constant pressure specic heat at constant volume diameter inside pipe diameter uctuating component of voltage voltage frequency meter factor basic orice factor Reynolds-number factor pressure-base factor temperature-base factor owing-temperature factor specic-gravity factor supercompressibility factor mercury-manometer factor orice thermal-expansion factor gauge-location factor acceleration of gravity coefcient of convective heat transfer, height, differential pressure uctuating component of current electrical current thermal conductivity, yaw factor ow coefcient, owmeter constant length mass rate of ow exponent used in Kings law Nusselt number steady or time-averaged pressure Prandtl number heat transfer rate volume ow rate uctuating component of electrical resistance, radius, recovery factor, correlation coefcient, pressure ratio electrical resistance, gas constant Reynolds number sensitivity uctuating component of temperature, time temperature, absolute temperature uctuating component of velocity

U V
W

x y Y a

g D q m n r rr t f y x Subscripts 1,2 a b c cca cta eff f F g I i l m M n o p s t

x-component of velocity, uid velocity average uid velocity in conduit, point uid velocity weight ow rate characteristic length, horizontal distance vertical distance expansion factor temperature coefcient of resistivity, thermal diffusivity, angle of inclination of the velocity vector volume coefcient of expansion, angle of inclination of the velocity vector, ratio of orice hole to pipe diameter angle of inclination of the velocity vector, specic heat ratio parallel beam separation yaw angle absolute viscosity kinematic viscosity density resistivity time constant phase angle, pitch angle roll angel specic weight

position along conduit, specic meters in same pipe air, orice thermal expansion bridge, basic cable, corrected, convection, collected constant-current anemometer constant-temperature anemometer effective cooling uid facility in which meter is tested gas, specic gravity ideal sample number gage location mean, measured, mixture, manometer specic owmeter arbitrary orthogonal coordinate reference or stagnation conditions probe, constant pressure systematic, static, sensor, streamwise arbitrary orthogonal coordinate, total

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T temp v w

total, temperature temperature constant volume wall free stream conditions

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