A 5 Defects of Flat Roofs

BUILDING MAINTENANCE & ASSET ENHANCEMENT
Chapter 5: Defects of flat roofs
5 DEFECTS OF FLAT ROOFS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this topic you should be able to:
 Review the construction of a concrete flat roof in Singapore and

explain the purpose of each component of the roof.
 Show an understanding of secondary roof system used by HDB.
 Review the typical drainage system for flat roofs.
 Show an understanding of the different types of waterproofing
membranes for flat roofs and their merits and limitations.
 Discuss the common problems associated with flat roofs arising
from design and construction deficiencies as well as a lack of
planned maintenance.
 Describe typical checklists used for the inspection of a flat roof.
TOPICAL SECTIONS
This chapter contains the following sections:
5.1 Design and construction of a flat roof

5.2 Secondary roof system by HDB
5.3 Roof drainage
5.4 Waterproofing systems
5.5 Problems of flat roofs
5.6 Inspection checklists
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1st Edition (April 2019) by George Yuen
88
5.1 Design and construction of a flat roof
Flat roofs are quite rightly regarded as remarkably versatile, and open up design possibilities
unlike any other roof form. Having flat roofs in a high-rise buildings means green roofs can be
incorporated as recreational spaces or landscaped habitats; solar panels added for energy
production; and extra living space created. The flat surface also permits the mounting of
essential installations such as water tanks and cooling towers; as well as easy access for
maintenance purpose. Figure 5.1 illustrates how a concrete flat roof is typically constructed in
Singapore. It comprises the following components.
 Structural slab – Concrete roof slab which is heavily reinforced to carry the various loads
without deformation. The loads include both dead loads and live (superimposed) loads
derived from water tanks and other equipment mounted on the rooftop.
 Screed – Cement sand screed layer (50 mm. thick) to provide a gradient to the roof surface
for effective rainwater drainage. The screed is cast in-situ on top of the structural slab after
the latter has set.
 Waterproofing layer – Available as proprietary systems to prevent water ingress. Both liquid
and membrane type waterproofing systems can be used. Most problems relating to flat roofs
are associated with failure of the waterproofing layer.
 Insulation layer – Necessary in tropical countries to reduce heat penetration into the building
via the roof. HDB uses a secondary roof over the structural roof for this purpose. Any
lightweight material which has heat insulating property can be used, including mineral wool
and polystyrene boards.
 Protective slabs – Usually of precast concrete or lightweight slabs laid over roof surface. The
slabs form the final component which is open to use by maintenance staff. As the name
implies, the slabs protect the other components below them against damage.
Precast concrete slabs to protect against damage

by sunlight and pedestrian traffic movements
Insulation layer against

thermal heating of roof
Waterproofing layer
Screed to provide gradient
(1:100)
Reinforced concrete slab
to carry loads
Figure 5.1 – Components of a concrete flat roof

(Reproduced from ‘Building Maintenance Technology’
By Lee How Son and George Yuen)
89
Picture 5.1
Bird’s eye view of a typical flat roof of a high-rise block in Singapore. Take note of
the various installations, including roof gardens, which the roof has to support.
5.2 Secondary roof system by HDB

Heat penetration through roofs on hot days can be very intense to make the living rooms
uncomfortable. This can increase energy cost when air-conditioning is turned on. Therefore,
high-rise buildings, especially residential blocks, have to be insulated against heat penetration.
This is usually achieved by incorporating a layer of insulating material in the construction of the
roof (see Figure 5.1).
HDB, however, designs a secondary roof system for this purpose. After the waterproofing layer
is cured, precast concrete “stool” are positioned on the roof over the living areas of the units
below. These stools are spaced to support lightweight concrete slabs. The air that is trapped
below the slabs acts as the insulating layer. In this way, heat penetration is reduced. The joints
between the slabs are left open. A wire mesh is usually fixed around the perimeter of the
secondary roof to prevent birds and rodents breeding there.
Pictures 5.2
After waterproofing with SHELLKOTE
precast concrete stools are arranged
and positioned on the roof surface.
The stools support lightweight paving
slabs to form a heat insulating layer of
air.
A wire mesh is fixed around the
perimeter to keep away birds and
rodents.
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5.3 Roof drainage
In old buildings, the roof slab is allowed to project beyond the external walls. This design
removes the need for a proper rainwater discharge system as the rainwater is allowed to flow
off the roof surface at the rear and sides. This system, however, is now obsolete in Singapore.
Modern buildings have the external walls extending above the roof surface as parapet walls.
Parapet walls are about waist-high for safety reason. They also provide drains to be constructed.
Perimeter drains collect the rainwater from the roof and channel it to discharge pipes (see
Figure 5.2).
Parapet wall – external wall above

roof surface
Drain system around perimeter of roof
Slope to drains to remove rainwater
Reinforced concrete roof slab
Roof beam
Figure 5.2 – Perimeter drainage system for high-rise buildings
The perimeter drains must obviously be positioned at the lowest end of the roof slopes. The
drain size depends on the expected rainfall volume and the number of drains designed to
remove the rainfall at any one time. For example, if the roof slopes in two opposite directions,
the drain size can be approximately half that required in a case where the roof slopes in only one
direction because each drain receives half the amount of rainwater.
Important points to consider for flat roof drainage system include the following.
o Roof should slope toward the drains.
o Drain and pipe must be large enough for any volume of water.
o All drain surfaces and the base of parapet walls must be waterproofed adequately.
o A drain strainer must be designed to allow small debris and water to flow freely to the drain.
o The placement of the drain, in relation to other rooftop units, should be carefully determined.
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Picture 5.3
NEA regulations require rainwater
to be collected from flat roofs of
high-rise buildings in Singapore.
Parapet walls and drains are
designed and positioned around the
perimeter of the roof surface for
this purpose.
Rainwater in the drains are
channeled to discharge pipes
mounted on the external walls.
5.4 Waterproofing systems

An extremely watertight waterproofing layer is essential to keep out rainwater. A defective
membrane will encourage water leakage or seepage that often leads to other serious defects.
For a majority of applications, the performance of waterproofing systems on a flat roof must
satisfy three essential parameters: tensile strength, elasticity and fatigue resistance. The
waterproofing material must be able to withstand the various loadings imposed on it without
appreciable damage. The material must be able to accommodate fluctuating thermal
movements by expansion and contraction. Finally, the performance of the material must be
sustained until the next cycle of replacement depending on the system used. There are two
types of waterproofing materials used locally.
5.4.1 Liquid-applied waterproofing membrane

A liquid roofing membrane involves the application on site of a monolithic, fully bonded, liquid-
based coating to a flat roof surface. The coating cures to form a rubber-like elastomeric water-
impermeable coating that is capable of stretching and returning to its original shape without
damage. The total number of coats varies from one to several. Shellkote, for example, specifies
seven coats for a new roof. Such coating systems are usually reinforced with secondary
materials such as glass-reinforced plastic to provide additional tensile strength.
Bituminous-based (except those containing coal tar) and polymeric-based membranes can be
applied when they are cold while those containing coal tar are usually applied when heated.
Liquid-applied membranes are seamless (no joints). When waterproofing is completed
successfully, the coating should provide a continuous layer of water-resistant material over the
roof surface, drains, upstands and bottom parts of parapet walls.
However, careful supervision and control during application is needed, particularly in ensuring
proper curing of concrete, consistent thickness and uniformity.
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Picture 5.4
TREMCO is a bituminous-based liquid
membrane which can be applied cold
over a prepared roof surface in a single
coat.
The compound is viscous by nature, and
therefore easy to work around difficult
and vulnerable areas such as openings,
corners, bends etc.
5.4.2 Preformed sheet membranes

The second group of roofing membranes is factory-produced sheets that are delivered to the
site in standard rolls, usually 1.0 m wide for easy handling. They are bonded to the substrate
with adhesive. Joints are lapped, the top membrane over the bottom one. The two layers are
glued together firmly at the lapped joints. The following are the main types of preformed
membranes.
 Synthetic Rubber (Thermoset) – This type of membrane roofing is made of large, flat pieces
of synthetic rubber or similar materials. These pieces are bonded together at the seams to
form one continuous membrane Thermosets are widely used roofing materials due to their
ability to withstand damaging effects of sun-rays and chemicals found on roofs. The most
commonly used thermoset membrane is ethylene propylene diene monomer (EDPM).
 Thermoplastic Membrane – This is similar to synthetic rubber, but the seams are typically
heat-fused (welded) to form a continuous membrane. The 'lap' seams can also be fused with
solvents instead of heat, and can be as strong as the rest of the membrane. Thermoplastic
membranes include a reinforcement layer that provides more strength and stability. The
most common thermoplastic membranes are PVC (polyvinyl chloride) and TPO (thermoplastic
polyolefin). Although PVC is a hard resin, it is modified with the addition of plasticizers to
make it more flexible and pliable for use as roofing membranes. PVC membranes are also
reinforced with glass fibres to improve their strength and dimensional stability. Like all
thermoplastic membranes, they turn soft when subjected to heat. Some proprietary
membranes are formulated with heat reflective compounds capable of lowering the surface
temperature of the roof membrane by as much as 15%.
 Modified Bitumen – This type of roofing is made from asphalt and a variety of rubber
modifiers and solvents. These modified bituminous products are bonded to a high strength
fabric of polyester or fiberglass and produced into rolls. In a heat application process the
seams are heated to melt the asphalt together and create a seal. Cold-applied adhesives and
self-adhesive membranes are two of the more recent options.
They have elongation and recovery properties which make them suitable to protect against
stresses created by wind, temperature fluctuation and normal structural expansion and
contraction of the building. Some of these products are also modified to increase their
resistance to fire, thus increasing their fire-rating. Styrene-butadiene-styrene (SBS) rolls are
modified with 'rubbers' and compatible with petroleum products.
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Picture 5.5
Sheet waterproofing membranes
are elastic materials that are stuck
onto the concrete slab with or
without adhesive.
Overlapping at the edges and ends
is necessary. Some systems are
burnt at the laps for better
performance against water
penetration.
Synthetic sheet membrane type Liquid membrane type
 Most systems require only one layer of  No joints

the material
 Trapped moisture below membrane can
 Have good elastic properties and breathe through escape easily
easily tolerate movements of roof
 Resistant to atmospheric pollutants
structure
 Initial cost in installing is lower
 Can bridge construction and
movement joints better  Total thickness is built up by multi-layers
of the material
 Resistant to most chemicals
 Poor bridging properties over
 Very durable (20 years) – replacement
construction and movement joints on
cycles are longer
the concrete roof
 Many joints at the sides and ends –
 Produced from petroleum-based
weak points for water leaking
compounds and are flammable
 Skilled workmanship standard in
 Difficult to see faults clearly
laying is required
 Short lifespan – replacement cycles are
 High initial cost in installing
shorter
Proprietary systems Proprietary systems

 UNIROOF  SHELLKOTE
 TEXAPLAS  FLEXIKOTE
 SHELL OLYMPIC  TREMCO
 TRAFFIGARD  BP - AQUASEAL
Table 5.1 – Comparison of waterproofing membranes for roofs
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5.5 Problems of flat roofs
Many roofing problems start off as minor defects. But they could gradually lead to more serious
problems, including the pervasive problem of rainwater penetration. For example, a crack on the
protective slabs or a tear on the membrane itself will allow water to penetrate to the concrete
slab and corrode the steel bars.
When the effectiveness of a waterproofing membrane is compromised in any way, rainwater will
be able to penetrate to the roof structure below the membrane and give rise to many problems
associated with water seepage. The reputation of flat roofs for poor performance is the result of
design and detailing errors, shoddy workmanship or maintenance oversight.
5.5.1 Design and detailing faults

Many problems in flat roofs are due to inaccurate design specifications and detailing errors.
These shortcomings are often translated into potential defects on site. Common defects arising
from design and detailing faults include the following.
 Water ponding – The proper design of falls in a flat roof is an essential consideration in the
overall drainage of the roof. Falls create flow paths to direct the drainage of rain-water away
from the roof to suitable discharge points. To be effective, it is essential to clear surface
water as rapidly as possible from the flat roof to avoid ponding or stagnation of water on the
roof itself. Big roof surfaces are at greater risk of water ponding.
Water ponding on a flat roof is a prime cause of deterioration because variations in
temperature between wet and dry areas of the roof can cause differential thermal
movement. Together with the accumulation of acids left by evaporating rain, this would
cause a breakdown on the roof surface. In general, a minimum fall of 1 in 80 will help to
prevent ponding of water.
Ponding on flat roofs has a number of implications including reduced life expectancy of the
roof, structural damage, leakage and possible vegetation growth. Water on the roof is your
first clue that there is a ponding problem. Dirt, algae and vegetation are other indications.
Picture 5.6
Water ‘ponding’ is a very common
problem on flat roofs which do not
have sufficient gradient for
effective drainage of rain water.
This is often due to an error by the
structural engineer.
Persistent stagnation of water on
roof surface poses a risk of
waterproofing membrane failure
leading to water seepage.
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 Undersized drains – When drains are not sized correctly they will not be able to remove
rainwater speedily and effectively. This is a design error that gives rise to overflowing during
heavy downpours. The signs of overflowing water can be found around the roof perimeter
where the drains are found. Overflowing can also happen when there are obstructions (fallen
leaves, debris) in the drains that impede water flow. In such cases, there is high risk that
water will enter the roof structure in and around the drains.
Deep and narrow drains are better than wide and shallow ones. In the latter case, there is a
real risk of back splash of rainwater to the parapet walls above the waterproofed part. This
problem will give rise eventually to water seepage into the building.
 Roof gardens – Architects are encouraged to have ‘gardens’ on roofs of buildings to save
energy usage by providing a good heat buffer. Plants need a lot of water. The areas around
the plants are prone to prolonged wetting. Excess water may find its way to the
waterproofing layer via many routes such as cracks, crevices, etc. although root barrier
membranes are usually incorporated.
As the plants and creepers grow, their roots will also become bigger in size. Consequently,
serious damage could be caused to affected parts, including damage to parapets, drains,
protective slabs, etc.
Picture 5.7
Roof gardens serve to cushion
the roof surface against the
penetration of solar heat, thus
giving the owner some savings in
energy usage.
However, green roofs are costly
to upkeep. Moreover, water
seepage problems are common
and difficult to resolve.
5.5.1 Construction malpractices

 Blistering of membrane – During construction, precautions must be taken to prevent
excessive moisture from being trapped between the reinforced concrete roof structure and
membrane. This is one of the common causes of flat roof waterproofing failure.
Large amount of water vapour can evaporate from reinforced concrete or a wet screed. Once
the waterproofing membrane is laid, drying out of the structural slab will mostly take place
from the underside of the slab. Cross ventilation beneath the deck is usually quite restricted
due to erected partition walls. Any trapped moisture subjected to increased temperature
from the sun will form vapour which will exert itself directly beneath the waterproofing
membrane. If this vapour pressure is not released or vented sufficiently, the build-up pressure
will begin to form a blister on the membrane itself and residual dampness on the underside
of the roof (see Figure 5.3).
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When the waterproofing membrane has suffered an irreversible stretch, subsequent cooling
will not cause the air pocket to return to its original size. Therefore, if a dry surface cannot be
achieved within a reasonable period of time, direct membrane adhesion should be postponed
or an alternative method of laying should be considered.
Blisters which are not punctured usually do not give much concern. But those that are broken
will allow water to get into the concrete below and must be repaired. To prevent blisters,
keep all materials dry during storage and installation; make sure that surfaces are perfectly
dry too just prior to waterproofing; and minimize delays during installation.
Expansion of trapped air and

Single-ply sheet membrane
moisture lifts membrane to form
blisters
Roof slab
Figure 5.3 – Formation of blisters on waterproofing membrane
Picture 5.8
Blisters are formed when the
waterproofing material is laid
over a damp surface. Subsequent
vaporization of the moisture
beneath it will push the
membrane upward into bubbles.
The picture also shows a defect at
the side laps (circled). Opening up
of joints leads to water seepage.
 Lapped joints – Sheet membranes require jointing at the sides and ends by overlapping the
two layers by about 100 mm. Side and end joints often open up because they are not pressed
down adequately at the time of installation. In this connection, systems that use hot-fused
joints are more effective because the joints are sealed under heat.
Movements experienced by the membrane in service could also lead to joint failure. With the
use of sheet membranes, joints between the sheets are critical, and must be perfectly carried
out to avoid leakage.
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 Services installations –Flat roofs tend to be sensitive to human traffic. Anything which
produces a crack or puncture in the waterproofing membrane can quite readily lead to leaks.
Flat roofs can fail, for example, when subsequent work is carried out on the roof; when new
through-roof service pipes and cables are installed; or when plant such as air conditioning
units are mounted.
Frequently, pipes have to punch through the roof structure. This can crack the concrete or
damage the waterproofing layer around the openings. Leaking distribution pipes on a new
roof is caused by loose joints. On an old roof, however, the problem is due to corroded parts.
A good preventive maintenance regime is essential to obviate these problems before they
become serious to cause leaking.
Picture 5.9
A vent pipe passing through a
concrete roof slab often experiences
cracking around the opening
because of differential rate of
thermal expansion of the pipe and
the opening.
The cracks are a potential source of
water penetration. It is necessary to
take extra precautions with such
installations.
5.5.3 Maintenance issues

There is a tendency for maintenance personnel to treat roofs as “out of sight, out of mind” parts
of a building, probably because of accessibility difficulties. Maintenance staff should be mindful
of essential preventive measures necessary to avoid a major outbreak of serious problems.
Preventive maintenance will be much more cost effective in the long run.
 Blocked drain outlets – One common reason for failure of a flat roof is a lack of regular drain
maintenance where gravel, dead leaves and other debris block water outlets, thus impeding
the effective flow of waste water into the discharge pipes. This problem causes a pressure
head of water which can force more water into the smallest hole or crack.
Picture 5.10
A strainer over a rainwater discharge
pipe on a flat roof can be defective
when it is blocked by any form of
debris.
This problem can cause stagnation of
water and mosquitoes breeding. Water
can be forced into cracks on roof
surface because of the water pressure
head.
98
Preventive maintenance should include regular removal of dirt, stones, leaves and debris from
roof surface and drains. Furthermore, overhanging branches of nearby tress should also be
trimmed. Ponding, if any, caused by blocked drain and outlets should be eradicated after clearing
the blocks. However, signs of mosquitoes breeding should not be ignored.
 Leaking pipework – A flat roof usually houses many pipework installations, for example,
distribution pipes from water tanks to various parts of the roof space. Due to normal wear
and tear some parts of pipes may have corroded, causing water to drip down onto the roof
surface. Over a period of time, signs of moss and vegetation growths could begin to appear
on the damp surfaces. These organisms act as a sponge for water to be held on those
particular spots for a long time.
Picture 5.11
Leaking water distribution pipes on
the flat roof could give rise to the
formation of unsightly moss
growths.
Excessive leaking will cause water
penetration to the roofing
components.
5.6 Roof inspection checklist
A regular schedule of roof assessment and maintenance will ensure that it will hold up to harsh
environment exposure, especially when heavy thunderstorms are encountered. The greatest
concern with flat roofs is that they do not perform to expectations in keeping out rainwater,
resulting in objectionable defects to the space directly below the roof, that is, at the uppermost
floors.
An inspection of flat roofs should logically start with the uppermost floors, covering both
internal and common areas. Keep a watch-out for signs of water penetration which usually
include brown stains on ceilings, paint flaking, cracks and in an extreme situation, even spalling.
If such signs are absent, then the inspection of the roof itself is straightforward and easier
because there are no water penetration problems. However, when signs of leakage are evident,
the inspection process becomes complicated, difficult and costly because it could involve
exposing the waterproofing layer to see the underlying defects contributing to water leaks.
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Whatever the problems, flat roof inspections on high-rise buildings must be systematically
carried out to include all parts of the roof and not to accessible areas only.
The following scope of a routine inspection exercise is suggested every six months.
o In normal circumstances, wait for 48 hours after a rainfall to clean and inspect a roof. Any
water should have evaporated by this time. Water ponding is obvious beyond this time
period.
o If there is water ponding around the drains, then inspect for fallen debris, leaves, twigs, etc.
that could have caused blockages, especially at drainage outlets.
o Look for damp patches above waterproofed parts of parapet walls which are often a source
of water penetration due to back splash.
o Look for moss and plants which are often damp areas supporting their growths and trace the
source of dampness.
o Inspect pipes and other installations to make sure they are in good condition, for example, no
cracking around vent pipes; or leaking in distribution pipes.
If there is an urgent need to do so, inspect the waterproofing membrane after removing the
protective slabs and insulation material.
o Check for water ponding on the membrane itself.

o Check for any damage such as tearing, puncturing, blistering or wrinkling of the
waterproofing membrane.
o Examine all joints to see that they are tightly and firmly bonded.
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REFLECTIVE SUMMARY
 Flat roofs in Singapore use an inverted roof design. This means

that the insulation material is placed on top of the slab to
prevent heat passing through the slab and into the building.
 HDB uses a secondary roof system instead of a separate
insulating layer to reduce heat penetration into the building
interior.
 Flat roofs have parapet walls to accommodate the
construction of drains positioned around the perimeter of the
roof. The drains must be correctly sized to prevent
overflowing and water ponding.
 The most important component in flat roof construction is the
waterproofing layer that may be in the form of a sheet or
liquid. The failure of the waterproofing membrane could lead
to the serious problem of rainwater entering the structure.
Each system of waterproofing has its own merits and
limitations.
 Roofing problems originate from design and workmanship
deficiencies or a lack of proper maintenance of the roof.
Ponding, for example, is caused by inadequate fall provided to
the roof surface. This could be caused by a design or
workmanship deficiency. It may be caused also by a lack of
regular inspection and maintenance of the drainage system.
 Poor construction practices also lead to defects. For example,
blistering of waterproofing membranes is caused when the
material is laid over a damp roof surface.
 A lack of maintenance will lead to defects such as blocked
drains and leaking pipework, both of which could give rise to
water penetration.
 Planned preventive maintenance is necessary to inspect and
assess flat roof performance on a regular basis. Defects should
be rectified as soon as possible before they escalate to
alarming consequences.
101
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. (a) Produce an annotated sketch to show the various components of a concrete flat
roof construction in Singapore.
(b) Describe the function of each component.
2. (a) With the aid of an annotated diagram, explain how rainwater is removed from the
flat roof of a high-rise building.
(b) Briefly explain three important conditions for drains to be effective in removing
rainwater.
3. Explain the principle of a secondary roof constructed on most HDB blocks.
4. (a) Compare the two generic types of waterproofing membranes for concrete flat roofs.
(b) State two important precautions to take when applying each type of membrane.
5. Flat roof defects could be attributed to design or detailing errors.

With the aid of examples, discuss the above statement.
6. Discuss the causes and prevention of the following problems in single-layer

waterproofing systems for flat roofs.
(a) Blistering
(b) Failure of laps
(c) Ponding of water
7. “Many problems of a flat roof are attributed to human errors. “

Support the statement by discussing three major problems in flat roofs caused by human
errors.
8. Prepare a checklist for inspecting the flat roof of an industrial building. Give reasons why
the items are included.
102
9. (a) Identify TWO common problems and explain their causes in the use of synthetic
waterproofing membranes in Singapore flat roofs.
(b) List FOUR “must do” items to be included in a checklist for a routine inspection of a
flat roof by a Property Officer.
10. (a) Discuss, with examples, TWO factors leading to failure of a waterproofing system to
a concrete flat roof.
(b) List FOUR items to be included in an inspection checklist for a flat roof.
11. (a) Give THREE reasons why flat roofs are invariably used for high-rise buildings instead
of pitched roofs.
(b) Discuss THREE ways to reduce heat penetration into flat roofs in a high-rise building.
12. Discuss THREE sources of flat roof problems attributed to human agents. Illustrate with
examples.
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A 5 Defects of Flat Roofs

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BUILDING MAINTENANCE & ASSET ENHANCEMENT

Chapter 5: Defects of flat roofs

5 DEFECTS OF FLAT ROOFS

After studying this topic you should be able to:

 Review the construction of a concrete flat roof in Singapore and

This chapter contains the following sections:

5.1 Design and construction of a flat roof

5.1 Design and construction of a flat roof

Precast concrete slabs to protect against damage

Insulation layer against

Figure 5.1 – Components of a concrete flat roof

5.2 Secondary roof system by HDB

5.3 Roof drainage

Parapet wall – external wall above

Drain system around perimeter of roof

Slope to drains to remove rainwater

Reinforced concrete roof slab

Figure 5.2 – Perimeter drainage system for high-rise buildings

5.4 Waterproofing systems

5.4.1 Liquid-applied waterproofing membrane

5.4.2 Preformed sheet membranes

Synthetic sheet membrane type Liquid membrane type

 Most systems require only one layer of  No joints

Proprietary systems Proprietary systems

Table 5.1 – Comparison of waterproofing membranes for roofs

5.5 Problems of flat roofs

5.5.1 Design and detailing faults

5.5.1 Construction malpractices

Expansion of trapped air and

Figure 5.3 – Formation of blisters on waterproofing membrane

5.5.3 Maintenance issues

5.6 Roof inspection checklist

o Check for water ponding on the membrane itself.

 Flat roofs in Singapore use an inverted roof design. This means

3. Explain the principle of a secondary roof constructed on most HDB blocks.

5. Flat roof defects could be attributed to design or detailing errors.

6. Discuss the causes and prevention of the following problems in single-layer

7. “Many problems of a flat roof are attributed to human errors. “

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