i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 4 ( 2 0 1 9 ) 2 3 6 9 9 e2 3 7 0 7

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H2 refueling assessment of composite storage tank

for fuel cell vehicle

Shitanshu Sapre a, Kapil Pareek a,*, Rupesh Rohan b, Pawan Kumar Singh c
a
Centre for Energy and Environment, Malaviya National Institute of Technology, Jaipur, Rajasthan, 302017, India
b
Indian Rubber Manufacturers Research Association, Thane, Maharashtra, 400604, India
c
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Dhanbad, Jharkhand 826004, India

highlights

CFD simulation for refuelling process of Type IV tank is performed.

Investigation of impact of refuelling conditions on storage density of Type IV tank.

Analysis of heat transfer through tank walls based on heat capacity model.

Validation of simulation and experimental results for end temperature and state of charge.

article info abstract

Article history: Hydrogen as compressed gas is a promising option for zero-emission fuel cell vehicle. The
Received 4 April 2019 fast and efficient refueling of high pressure hydrogen can provide a convenient platform
Received in revised form for fuel cell vehicles to compete with conventional gasoline vehicles. This paper reports the
12 June 2019 finding of adiabatic simulation of the refueling process for Type IV tank at nominal working
Accepted 8 July 2019 pressure of 70 MPa with considering the station refueling conditions. The overall heat
Available online 7 August 2019 transfer involved in refueling process was investigated by heat capacity model based on
MC method defined by SAE J2601. The simulation results are validated against experi-
Keywords: mental data of European Commission’s Gas Tank Testing Facility at Joint Research Centre
Hydrogen storage (GasTef JRC), Netherlands. The results confirmed that end temperature and state of charge
Hydrogen refueling significantly depends on refueling parameters mainly supply hydrogen temperature and
Type IV tank filling rate.
Fuel cell vehicle © 2019 Hydrogen Energy Publications LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

carbon dioxide emission than conventional gasoline vehicles

Introduction
Development of clean transportation system is possible with
revolutionary automotive technologies such as battery oper-
ated electric vehicle and hydrogen fuel cell vehicle (H-FCV) [1].
Particularly, hydrogen (H2) fuel cell vehicle has many benefits
such as high energy conversion, efficient drivetrain, and zero
[2e5]. One of the main challenges for commercial acceptance
of H-FCV is the development of an efficient storage system
which can store 5e7 kg of H2 for minimum drive range of 300
miles, set by United States Department of Energy (US DOE)
[6,7]. To meet this criterion, technology of H2 storage in com-
posite tanks at high pressure seems to be promising due to

* Correponding author.
E-mail address: kapil.cee@mnit.ac.in (K. Pareek).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2019.07.044
0360-3199/© 2019 Hydrogen Energy Publications LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
23700 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 4 ( 2 0 1 9 ) 2 3 6 9 9 e2 3 7 0 7
their lightweightness, and compact designs of the tanks, as
well as maturity of the technology [8]. Type IV and Type III
tanks have been used by many automobiles manufactures for
H-FCV in recent years. However, still, research is required to
reduce H2 filling time, improve gravimetric/volumetric H2
density, enhance onboard efficiency, and reduce the overall
system cost [9].
The fast refueling of the storage tank can shorter the
filling time but raises the critical issue of heat accumulation
inside the tank, mainly caused by local thermodynamic and
kinetic conditions during refueling, which depends upon
factors including H2 filling rate (g/s), initial H2 temperature,
tank volume, and tank materials. The low thermal conduc-
tivity of polymer liners and carbon fibers restrict the heat
transfer through the tank’s surfaces and lead to a large
amount of heat trapped inside the tank causing a high tank
temperature, less state of charge (SOC), and degradation of
tank materials.
Numerous modeling and simulation studies have been
carried out on filling process for investigation of filling pa-
rameters [10,11], thermodynamic and kinetics of refueling
[12,13] in association with experimental studies on refueling
process [14]. The experimental studies on Type III and IV tank
have been conducted at the European Commission’s Gas Tank
Testing Facility at Joint Research Centre (GasTef JRC),
Netherlands to investigate the SOC and cooling demand of the
tank and the findings are eventually validated by SAE J2601
look-up table approach [15].
Since, most of the simulation studies were based on pres-
sure and temperature boundary conditions for predicting the
end temperature and SOC [16,17], due to consideration of
adiabatic filling, the reported errors are found up to 6% for end
temperature and 4.5e6% for SOC of the tank [15]. The extent of
error causes serious issues like low storage density, drive
range and degradation of tank materials. One of the possible
way to minimize the error is to consider the heat transfer
during the filling process. Melideo et al. have considered
conjugate heat tranfer from the tank and reported the results
with the error is reduced up to 2e3% [18]. Consideration of
overall heat transfer with refueling conditions mimimize the
error which leads to higher amount of usable H2 inside the
tank.
In the present work, to understand the impact of refueling
conditions on the evolution of vehicle tank temperature,
pressure, and density at slow to high filling rates, the refueling
process of Type IV 29L tank for filling time of 200 s is investi-
gated, followed by implementation of heat capacity model
(HCM) to simulation results to reduce the error. Finally, the
simulation results are validated using experimental results of
GasTef at JRC.
The results confirm that the end temperature and SOC lie
in the desired range of SAE J2601 for 40  C and 20  C H2
supply temperature. The end temperature is reduced to
1.3e2.4  C by implementing HCM in simulation results, lead-
ing to improvement in SOC of the tank. The end temeprature
goes beyond the desired range for H2 supply temprature of
15  C and high fillling rates which also lowers the SOC less
than 90%. The results provide insight for better understanding
of the impact of refuling conditions to end temparature and
SOC of the tank.
Methodology
Structural model of the tank
A 29 L Type IV tank was modeled using similar physical pa-
rameters used in the experimental studies conducted at
GasTef JRC (Table 1) [19]. The dimensions taken are unpres-
surized at a nominal pressure of 70 MPa. The curvatures of
both ends of tanks (end bosses) are assumed to be elliptical.
The diameter of the injector is considered to be 6 mm, and the
injector is either extended 40 mm inside the tank or inserted
in gas space. The role of injector’s dimensions including
diameter was not considered in the simulation. The physical
properties of the tank-materials for simulation are reported
elsewhere [14].
The tank contains solid domain for liner and CFRP layer
and fluid domain for compressed H2. Both the domains have a
hybrid mesh type as shown in Fig. 1. For good convergence
and accurate results, finer mesh size was selected. The solid
domain was composed of hybrid hexahedral and fluid domain
with tetrahedral cells.
Simulation approach
The initial pressure and temperature of the tank were
considered up to 2 MPa and 20  C, respectively. While the
ambient temperature and pressure were assumed up to 20  C
and 0.1 MPa, respectively. The station reservoir pressure was
87.5 MPa which is 1.25 times of nominal working pressure of
the tank. Constant and adiabatic mass filling rates ranging
from 2 g/s to 10 g/s were considered for the filling time of 200 s.
The filling direction was assumed to be uniform along the
central axis. The mass flow inlet boundary condition was
applied at the inlet of the tank.
The Redlich Kwong equation of state was used for the
evaluation of compressibility effect due to its good agreement
with NIST data [20]. The turbulence was predicted by the
realizable k-ε model. This k-ε model provides a better under-
standing of swirling filling, inlet jets, mixing layers and shear
filling [21]. Suryan et al. in their study have suggested realiz-
able k- ε model to be computationally economical, robust and
more accurate than other models of turbulence [21]. The heat
transfer through the out shell of the tank was set to be 6 W/
(m.K) [22]. No slip boundary conditions were specified at inner
Table 1 e Physical parameters of the tank model.
S.No. Parameters Type IV tank (29L)
1 Materials High Density Poly

Liner Ethylene

Composite shell Carbon Fibre Reinforced

End bosses Polymer
Stainless Steel
2 H2 capacity (kg) (with fill density 1.16
40.22 kg/m3)
3 External length (mm) 827
4 Internal diameter (mm) 230
5 External diameter (mm) 279
6 Vessel mass (kg) 32.9
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 4 ( 2 0 1 9 ) 2 3 6 9 9 e2 3 7 0 7
Fig. 1 e Three dimensional model of the Type IV tank.
walls. The effect of buoyancy was considered negligible during
the filling. The H2 supply temperature from the station
reservoir to vehicle tank is based on the SAE J2601 protocol
[23]. The simulation was conducted for transient filling con-
ditions using density based solver of commercially available
CFD package, ANSYS Fluent 16.0 [24].
Heat capacity model (HCM)
For prediction of end temperature of the compressed gas in-
side the tank, various studies on the behavior of gas have been
conducted [25e27]. By considering actual thermodynamics
conditions at the station and vehicle tank, accurate tank filling
results can be achieved. For this, Honda R&D Inc. has devel-
oped the new refueling method applicable to both communi-
cation and non-communication filling stations called MC
method. Where MC stands for mathematical construct or total
heat capacity of the system which includes combined specific
heat and mass capacity of the tank [27,28]. Fig. 2 represents a
schematic of a H2 tank with terminology involves in the
development of the total heat capacity model. The heat ca-
pacity of the tank is a function of energy delivered to the tank
in the form of heat and heat transfer from the tank walls. The
heat capacity will be the deciding factor for the storage density
of compressed H2 tank. Therefore, heat capacity is defined in
terms of initial temperature, pressure, and volume of station
and vehicle tank [29].
Fig. 2 e Schematic representation of the H2 tank during refueling (a) energy transferred in control volume (b) temperature
distribution on a section of wall.
23701
The required parameter for the development of heat ca-
pacity model and estimation of final temperature from station
and vehicle are tabulated in Table 2. Based on the station and
vehicle refueling parameter, total heat transfers, internal en-
ergy and amount of hydrogen transported from the refueling
station to vehicle tank were calculated.
In this study, we have taken an initial pressure of tank
2 MPa, and the initial temperature of tank 20  C which is
similar to ambient temperature. We assumed that the vehicle
is in a hot soak condition where the environment is hotter
than ambient. The hot soak margin of safety to overheat has
taken to be þ7.5  C [27]. So the initial temperature (Tinitial ) is the
sum of ambient (Tambient ) and hot soak temperature ðDThot Þ as
given by Equation (1).
Tinitial ¼ Tambient þ DThot (1)
Before delivering the hydrogen, the station needs initial
information about the vehicle tank based on initial tempera-
ture and pressure. The initial mass (minitial Þ, density ðrinitial Þ and
internal energy (uinital Þ of tank is given by the Equations (2)e(5).
minitial ¼ Vvt  rinitial ðTinitial ; PSinitial Þ (2)
mCV ¼ Vvt  rtarget (3)
madd ¼ mcv  minital (4)
23702 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 4 ( 2 0 1 9 ) 2 3 6 9 9 e2 3 7 0 7

specific heat (Cv Þ, adiabatic temperature (Tadiabatic Þ, mass

Table 2 e Station and vehicle tank parameters.
(mcv ), and heat capacity (MC) for filling time of 200 s given by
Station Vehicle Equation (8).
Ambient temperature Hot soak temperature
Storage pressure, temperature Tank initial pressure, temperature mcv Cv Tadiabatic þ MCTinitial
Tend ¼ (8)
and density ðMC þ mcv Cv Þ
Enthalpy of H2 supplied at Volume of tank
The HCM provides significant advantage by including
storage pressure and
station and vehicle tank conditions during filling event by
temperature
Station type (A,B,C,D) Initial internal energy which accurate estimation of refueling results is possible. It
follows the all field conditions of SAE J2601 protocol for
refueling process. It dynamically measures the refueling
uinitial ¼ uinital ðTinitial ; Pinitial Þ (5) parameters and provides faster vehicle refueling for better
refueling experience of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles.
After estimation of initial conditions of the tank, total heat
transferred to the control volume (CV) is calculated at supply
temperature and pressure of the H2 stream. The average Results and discussion
enthalpy delivered to the vehicle tank is calculated using
Runga-Kutta approximation method as given by Equation (6). Simulation results
Where.
Fig. 3 shows the temperature rise of H2 inside the tank during
Tprecooling Expected precooling temperature the filling process at filling rates ranging from 2 g/s to 10 g/s.
PstationInit Initial pressure at station The H2 supply temperature is as per SAE J2601 at 40  C,
PstationFinal Final pressure at station 20  C, 0  C and 15  C, respectively. Notably, a sharp tem-

2
  3
 PstationFinal  PstationInit
h Tprecooling ; PStationInit þ h Tprecooling ; PStationInit þ
16 4 7
h¼ 6 7þ
44 2 5

2      3
PstationFinal  PstationInit PstationFinal  PstationInit
h Tprecooling ; PStationInit þ þ h Tprecooling ; PStationInit þ 2
6 4 4 7
6 7þ
4 2 5

2      3 (6)
PstationFinal  PstationInit PstationFinal  PstationInit
h Tprecooling ; PStationInit þ þ h Tprecooling ; PStationInit þ 3
6 4 4 7
6 7þ
4 2 5

2      3
PstationFinal  PstationInit PstationFinal  PstationInit
h Tprecooling ; PStationInit þ 3 þ h Tprecooling ; PStationInit þ 4
6 4 4 7
6 7
4 2 5

Based on average enthalpy delivered (h) to tank, adiabatic
internal energy (Uadaibatic Þ , and adiabatic temperature (Tadiabatic Þ
can be obtained for the adiabatic filling condition where no
heat is transferred from the system. The combined mass and
specific heat capacity of characteristic volume (kJ/K) are
calculated using the Equation (7) which represents the total
heat absorbed by the wall.
Uadaibatic
j
MC ¼ C þ A þ g 1  ekDt
Uinitial
The empirical coefficients (C, A, g, e, k, j) used in Equa-
tion (7) for calculation of MC are obtained from the confir-
mation test performed on Type IV tank for fill time longer
3 min [31]. Finally, the end temperature (Tend ) of the gas is
determined using tank parameters initial temperature,
perature rise before 50 s followed by a knee point were
observed in all four H2 supply temperature. The sharp tem-
perature rise occurs mainly due to the real behavior of com-
pressed H2 as it suddenly expands from the injector, in
addition to negative Joule Thomason Coefficient of H2. Beyond
the knee point, the temperature rise is moderate. The tem-
perature of gas is inversely proportional to mass content in-
side the tank. Therefore, in the later stage of filling, the
(7) compressed mass of gas increases and temperature rise rate
decreases, which is similar to the observation reported by
Melideo et al. [16].
It is also observed that the temperature rise is directly
proportional to the filing rates. The slow filling rates result less
irreversibility and low entropy generation than higher filling
rates. Hence, at higher filling rates temperature attained at the
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 4 ( 2 0 1 9 ) 2 3 6 9 9 e2 3 7 0 7
Fig. 3 e Temperature evolution inside the tank at different H2 supply temperatures of a) ¡40  C, b) ¡20  C, c) 0  C and d)
15  C.
Fig. 4 e SOC at a different filling rate and supply
temperatures.
end of filling is higher. The end H2 temperature is above 85  C
during filling rates of 8 and 10 g/s (Fig. 3d), which is not rec-
ommended by SAE J2601. This phenomenon is more signifi-
cant with high H2 supply temperature. The end temperature
of filling is less in 40  C and 20  C (Fig. 3a and b) than in 0  C
and 15  C (Fig. 3c and d).
23703
As a consequence of temperature rise, a decrease in the
density of compressed gas inside the tank is observed. The
SOC is described as a function of density at end temperature
(T) and pressure (P) attained during filling to nominal working
pressure (70 MPa) and temperature (15  CÞ as given by the
Equation (9).
rðP; TÞ
SOC ¼ (9)
rð70MPa; 15 CÞ
Therefore, SOC decreases as the end temperature in-
creases. The SOC of the tank at the end of the filling is depicted
in Fig. 4. It can be also be seen that at high filling rates SOC
decreases, but at low filling rates, it attains an acceptable
peak. However, the dependency of SOC on supply tempera-
ture can not be ignored because at higher supply temperature
it goes below the desired mark of 90%. Cebolla et al. in their
experimental studies have also reported that cooling demand
for supply H2 is highly required for improving the SOC of the
tank [14].
The SOC attained at supply temperature of 0  C is in the
desired range of more than 90% but, at 15  C and higher filling
rates SOC goes below 90% which directly affects storage
density and driving range of the fuel cell vehicle. The density
obtained by filling of precooled H2 is very near to target density
(rtarget Þ of 40.2 kg/m3, and the SOC varies from 95% to 98%.
Although, the SOC could not be achieved the desired mark of
100%, but it is improved by an average of 3e4% at all filling
rates for 40  C and 20  C.
23704 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 4 ( 2 0 1 9 ) 2 3 6 9 9 e2 3 7 0 7

Fig. 5 e End temperature using heat capacity model (MC) at different supply temperature and filling rate (a) ¡40  C (b) ¡20  C
(c) 0  C and (d) 15  C.

Heat capacity model results
The energy transfers to vehicle tank from refueling station are
in the form of average enthalpy supplied to the vehicle tank.
Fig. 5 represents the end temperature as a function of different
H2 supply temperature and filling rates. The higher end tem-
perature is obtained with higher filling rates due to the fact
that compressed gas has lesser time to transfer the generated
heat during refueling. The experimental studies by Liu et al.
have also observed the fact that the heat transfer takes more
time than the heat generation at higher filling rates [30].
Similarly, at low supply temperature less amount of heat is
transferred to the vehicle tank which restricts the end tem-
perature to prescribe limit of 85  C.
Around 1.3e2.4  C decrease in temperature is observed at
different filling rates and supply temperature compared to

Fig. 6 e SOC achieved using heat capacity model of Type IV Fig. 7 e Maximum temperature inside the tank at filling
tank at different H2 supply temperature and filling rates. rate of 10 g/s and different supply temperature.
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 4 ( 2 0 1 9 ) 2 3 6 9 9 e2 3 7 0 7
Fig. 8 e Comparison of state of charge obtained by simulation, heat capacity model and experimental (JRC) at different H2
supply temperature of (a) 0  C (b)15  C (c) ¡20  C and (d) ¡40  C.
adiabatic simulation. However, at higher filling rates and
ambient H2 supply temperature, end temperature still
exceeding the limiting value of 85  C.
Fig. 6 represents the influence of filling rates and supply
temperature on the SOC using the heat capacity model. The
heat transfer from the characteristic volume of tank lowers
the end temperature inside the tank which improves the state
of charge.
Comparison with experimental results
The end temperature reached its peak value at filling rate of
10 g/s. Fig. 7 shows the comparison of maximum temperature
attained at the end of refueling for simulation, HCM and JRC
experimental data for different supply temperature. It can be
noted that the end temperatures of JRC experimental data are
the lowest for all four H2 supply temperatures. Due to overall
heat transfer consideration in HCM, the end temperatures are
falls in the middle of JRC and simulation data. The simulation
data due to adiabatic filling are the highest for all for H2 supply
temperature.
Fig. 8 shows SOC of the tank and calculated errors in SOC
estimation. The SOC has shown a strong dependency on end
temperature of filling, supply temperature and filling rates.
The major contributor in lowering of SOC in the simulation are
adiabatic conditions and target of short filling time. The
adiabatic conditions do not permit any heat transfer from the
23705
system. For a shorter filling time, fast filling rates accumulate
a large amount of heat inside the tank. In both circumstances,
the end temperature of refueling increases and eventually
lowers the SOC.
The HCM considered overall heat transfer through the
walls of tanks or heat absorbed by the tank walls, which lead
to higher SOC of the tank than SOC obtained from simulation
data. On the other hand, in JRC experimental studies, due to
transient heat transfer during filling, the estimated SOC is the
highest. As per SAE J2601, SOC of 90% and above are in
acceptable range. The simulation results for H2 supply tem-
perature of 40  C and 20  C are in the desired range of
more than 90% SOC (Fig. 8c and d). While the SOC drops to
less than 90% for most of the times for H2 supply temperature
of 15  C and very close to the desired range for 0  C at higher
flow rates.
In order to, better evaluate the accuracy of simulation and
heat capacity model standard error and root mean square
error (RMSE) are computed. The smaller the standard error is
better the model performs. The standard error (x, y) in terms
of percentage is presented in Fig. 8 which shows that
maximum error lies between 1 and 2% in simulation and it is
reduced to less than 1% in heat capacity model which can
generally satisfy the precision requirement in engineering
calculations [31]. The initial and boundary conditions applied
in numerical computation are also partially responsible for
such a small deviation in results.
23706 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 4 ( 2 0 1 9 ) 2 3 6 9 9 e2 3 7 0 7
For more sensible comparisons among the results, RMSE is
calculated. The RMSE of simulation found to be in range of
0.857e1.3153 for different supply temperature which is
further reduced to less than 1% by implementing heat capcity
model for all supply temperature. However, critical thermo-
dynamics behavior of H2 during filling is responsible for the
low state of charge. The heat capacity model improves the
level of estimation of the state of charge and provides good
agreement with the experimental results.
Conclusions
A Type IV tank of 29L at operating pressure of 70 MPa and
filling time of 200 s has been investigated for adiabatic filling at
different flow rates. Furthermore, heat capacity model based
on MC method of SAE J2601 is utilized. The results of simu-
lation and analytical heat capacity model are compared with
the experimental results of GasTef at JRC.
Results obtained by refueling simulations show that the
temperature inside the tank gets affected by the boundary
conditions such as filling rates and supply temperature. The
maximum temperature in adiabatic simulation experienced
in H2 supply temperature of 15  C at all filling rates which
exceeds the limit of safety of 85  C. Although, the end tem-
perature of filling significantly lowers by precooled supply
temperature. The higher end temperature also affects the
storage density attained at end filling. From this, it may also be
concluded that Type IV tank needs precooled H2 supply for
higher storage density for automotive applications.
The thermodynamic involved in the refueling process was
investigated by heat capacity model based on the MC method.
The results obtained after considering the in and outflow of
heat through the tank leads to lower the final temperature by
1.3e2.4  C at different filling rates. By this maximum tem-
perature stay within limits defined by international standards
and SOC has also improved. The outcomes have been
compared to experimental results of GasTef at JRC which
shows satisfactory agreement. The difference in simulation
and experimental results may be due to the selection of
boundary conditions, physical models and real behavior of H2.
Finally, the simulation approach proved to be suitable for
predicting the refueling parameters of compressed H2 system.
The deviation in results can be overcome by transient heat
transfer during the refueling process which provides good
insight of heat losses during the refueling. The transient filling
based vehicle tank parameters during refueling will provide
better understanding of end temperature of refueling as well
as exact estimation of storage density of storage system.
Acknowledgment
The authors gratefully acknowledge the support of Early
Carrier Research grant (ECR/2016/1001039) form SERB,
Department of Science and Technology, Government of India
The authors also acknowledge the Centre for Energy and
Environment, Malaviya National Institute of Technology,
Jaipur for providing the facilities for execution of simulation
studies.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2019.07.044.
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