Writers:

Lodyvina G. Angeles, Ph.D.

Florida F. Remolazo
Mariel R. Tapadera, M.A.Ed., LPT
Mark Ren D. Villaflor

Editor:
Alfredo M. Esteban, MA

Compiler:
Christopher G. Francisco, Ph.D

1
 TEACHING LOWER GRADE MATH
UNIT
CURRICULUM WITH PROBLEM
II
SOLVING

OVERVIEW
After knowing the content of the Mathematics in Primary Grades, it is the time
now to discover and learn how you are going to teach those specific contents. In
connection with this, you will encounter here on how you will teach number and algebra,
measurement, space and shapes and data handling. Furthermore, in this unit you will also
use your background knowledge about mathematics that you have gained when you are
in GenEd 4 and also those you studied from Grade 1 to Grade 12.

OBJECTIVES
At the end of the unit, I am able to:

1. discuss ways on how to teach the topics in lower grade math;

2. illustrate the appropriate procedures in teaching topics in lower grade math; and
3. use the learned ways in teaching lower grade math topics in designing a lesson
plan.

ACTIVATING PRIOR KNOWLEDGE

Quick Math Check!

Read carefully each statement and check one box in each row.

To be good at mathematics at school,

Not Somewhat
how important do you think it is for important important
Very important
students to...
a) remember formulas and procedures.
b) think in a sequential and procedural
manner.
c) understand mathematical concepts,
principles, and strategies .
d) be able to think creatively.
e) understand how mathematics is used in
the real world.
To what extent do you agree or disagree Strongly Strongly
Disagree Agree
with each of the following statements? Disagree agree
a) Mathematics is primarily an abstract
subject.
b) Mathematics is primarily a formal way of
representing the real world.
c) Mathematics is primarily a practical and
structured guide for addressing
real situations.
d) If students are having difficulty, an
effective approach is to give them more
practice by themselves during the class.
e) Some students have a natural talent for
mathematics and others do not.
f) More than one representation (picture,

2
concrete material, symbol set, etc.) should be
used in teaching a mathematics topic.
g) Mathematics should be learned as sets of
algorithms or rules that cover all
possibilities.
h) Basic computational skills on the part of
the teacher are sufficient for teaching
elementary school mathematics.
i) A liking for and understanding of students
are essential for teaching mathematics.

How do you see yourself

as a Math Teacher by
your answers a while
ago?

EXPANDING YOUR KNOWLEDGE

There are five main topics in Mathematics and you have learned that on unit 1, so
this time let us know how you are going to teach each topic.

Teaching Numbers and Number Sense

The big ideas or major concepts in Number Sense and Numeration are the
following: counting, operational sense, quantity, relationships and representation.
Counting. The following list of concepts is presented to assist teachers understand
the components embedded in the skill of counting. It is not intended to represent a
lockstep continuum that students must follow faithfully.
a. Stable order – the idea that the counting sequence stays consistent; it is
always 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, . . . , not 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 8.
b. Order irrelevance – the concept that counting objects can begin with any
object in a set and the total will remain constant.
c. Conservation – the concept that the count for a particular collection of
objects remains constant regardless of how far apart they are or how close
they are.
d. Abstraction – the concept that a quantity can be represented by a variety of
objects (e.g., 5 can be represented by 5 like objects, by 5 different objects, by
5 invisible things [5 ideas], or by 5 points on a line). Abstraction is a difficult
subject to grasp, although most students quickly grasp it.
e. One-to-one correspondence - refers to the principle that each object being
counted should only receive one count. It is beneficial for children to tag each
thing as they count it and to move the object out of the way as it is counted in
the early stages.
f. Cardinality - The notion that the last count of a group of objects represents
the total number of objects in the group is known as cardinality. When asked
how many candies are in the set that he or she has just counted, a youngster
who recounts does not grasp cardinality.
g. Movement is magnitude - The idea that as one moves up the counting
sequence, the quantity increases by one (or whatever number is being counted

3
 by), and as one moves down or backwards in the sequence, the quantity
decreases by one (or whatever number is being counted by) (e.g., in skip
counting by tens, the amount goes up by ten each time).
h. Unitizing – the idea that in the base ten system, objects are grouped into tens
once the count exceeds 9 (and tens of tens once the count exceeds 99), and
that this grouping of objects is indicated by a 1 in the tens place of a number
once the count exceeds 9 (and by a 1 in the hundreds place of a number once
the count exceeds 99).
Now here are some instructional strategies we can use in teaching counting:

Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3

providing opportunities to experience counting in engaging and relevant situations in
which the meaning of the numbers is emphasized and a link is established between the
numbers and their visual representation as numerals. Especially important is the
development of an understanding that the numeral in the decades place represents 10 or a
multiple of 10 (e.g., 10, 20, 30, 40, . . . ).
using songs, chants, and stories that emphasize the
counting sequences of 1’s, 2’s, 5’s, and 10’s, both forward
and backwards and from different points within the
sequence, especially beginning at tricky numbers (e.g.,
29);
providing opportunities to providing opportunities to providing opportunities to
engage in play-based engage in problem solving engage in problem solving
problem solving that that involves counting in contexts that encourage
involves counting strategies strategies; students to use grouping as
(e.g., role-playing a bank; a counting strategy (e.g.,
shopping for groceries grouping objects into 2’s,
for a birthday party); 5’s, 10’s, 25’s);
providing opportunities to participate in games that emphasize strategies for counting
(e.g., games that involve moving counters along a line or a path and keeping track of the
counts as one moves forward or backwards). These games should involve numbers in the
decades whenever possible (e.g., games using two-digit numbers on a hundreds carpet);
building counting activities into everyday events (e.g., lining up at the door; getting ready
for home);
using counters and other manipulative materials, hundreds charts or carpets, and number
lines (vertical and horizontal) in meaningful ways, on many different occasions;
continuing to build up their providing support to help students recognize the various
understanding of 5 and 10 counting strategies
as anchors for thinking for counting larger numbers (e.g., counting by 100’s from
about all other numbers; 101, 201, 301, . . . ).
providing support to help providing support to help
students recognize the students sketch a blank
various counting strategies. number line that will
facilitate counting to solve a
problem (e.g., to solve
23+36, they count
23, 33, 43, 53 on the
number line and then add
the remaining 6 from the
36 to make 59).

4
Operational Sense. Addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division are among
operations that students with operational sense understand. They are able to perceive the
connections between these activities and use them successfully in real-life circumstances.

Understanding the Properties of the Operations

Teachers must recognize the properties of operations while teaching them to

pupils, which they may explain with examples and which kids at this grade level
intuitively comprehend. Students in these grades do not need to know the names of the
properties. Rather, these are inherent qualities that youngsters employ when combining
numbers.

The properties of addition include:

• the commutative property (e.g., 1+2=2+1)
• the associative property [e.g., (8+9)+2 is the same as 8+(9+2)]
• the identity rule (e.g., 1+0=1)

The properties of subtraction include:

• the identity rule (1 – 0=1)
The properties of multiplication include:
• the commutative property (e.g., 2 x 3=3 x 2)
• the associative property [e.g., 5 x (2 x 6) is the same as (5 x 2) x 6]
• the identity property of whole-number multiplication (e.g., 3 x 1=3)
• the zero property of multiplication (e.g., 2 x 0=0)
• the distributive property [e.g., (2+2) x 3=(2 x 3)+(2 x 3)]
The properties of division include:
• the identity property (e.g., 5÷1=5)

Now here are some of the strategies you can use in teaching operational sense:

Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3

providing experiences with
part-part-whole
relationships (e.g., using
counters, blocks, number
lines);
providing experiences with
number lines and hundreds
charts, and experiences with
movement on the number
lines and charts to represent
addition and subtraction
questions;
providing opportunities to
use concrete materials to
providing meaningful
experiences with number
lines and hundreds charts –
experiences in which they
use movement and patterns
on the lines and
charts to represent addition
and subtraction questions;
providing opportunities to
identify subtraction as both
a counting-up procedure
(e.g., solving 15 – 11 by
counting up from 11) and a
counting-down procedure.
Counting up is easier for
some students;
promoting the development
of a conceptual
understanding of
multiplication
and division by using story
problems and models with
manipulative materials and
pictures for all of the
operations;
providing experiences
using 0 and 1 in both
addition (0 plus any number
equals that number; 1 plus
any number equals the next
number in the number
sequence) and subtraction
(any number minus 0 equals
that number; any number
minus 1 equals the previous
number in the number
sequence);
providing experiences with
multiplication and division

5
represent problems that using arrays and repeated
involve addition and addition or subtraction;
subtraction;
providing addition and providing opportunities to
subtraction tasks involving develop their own
screened (hidden) groups; algorithms, using both
written and mental methods
to find the answers to
computation questions;
providing opportunities to providing opportunities to
identify subtraction as both discuss and explain their
a counting-up procedure self-generated algorithms in
(counting up is easier for social contexts and to hear
some students) and a the explanations of
counting-down procedure; strategies that other
students use;
providing opportunities to use both vertical and horizontal guiding them in probing
formats for addition and subtraction, so that students rely their own learning, to help
on their own mental strategies and not just the formal them identify and
algorithms; communicate their own
strategies for solving
problems;
having them use the calculator to make predictions and to teaching traditional
self-correct as they work with the operations; algorithms through guided
mathematics, including a
focus on the meaning
behind the algorithms and
the use of models to
demonstrate the algorithms,
with reference back to self-
generated algorithms;
providing opportunities to encouraging the use of
create their own strategies estimating strategies (e.g.,
for adding and taking away ask, “Do you think this
numbers – strategies that cookie jar would hold about
will often involve using 20 cookies or about 100
what they know to cookies?”);
find out what they do not
know (e.g., they may
extrapolate from knowing
that 8+2 is 10 to knowing
that 8+3 is the same as
8+2+1 more=11);
supporting them in identifying some of the useful strategies for using everyday situations as
solving addition and subtraction problems – for example: using contexts for problems or
known facts, using doubles (which are often readily using real-life contexts
remembered), making tens, using compensation, counting up, for problems;
counting down, using a number line or hundreds chart, using the
commutative property of addition, using the inverse relationship
of addition and subtraction, using 0 and 1 in both addition (0
plus any number equals that number; 1 plus any number equals
the next number in the number sequence) and subtraction (any
number minus 0 equals that number; any
number minus 1 equals the previous number in the number
sequence);

using everyday situations as having them use self-

contexts for problems initiated and teacher-

6
(calculating milk money,
taking attendance) and/or
using real-life contexts for
problems (e.g., “How
many players are on your
soccer team? How many
would there be if 5 players
quit?”);
providing opportunities to
discuss their solutions in
social contexts with their
classmates and with the
teacher;
providing opportunities to
write about the problems
and to connect solutions
with the appropriate
algorithms;
presenting traditional
algorithms through guided
mathematics, including a
focus on the meaning
behind the algorithms, the
use of models to
demonstrate
the algorithm, and
instruction that addresses
students’ misunderstandings
of
the equals symbol (e.g., in
the question 2+__=5, the
students may supply 7
as the missing addend);
encouraging them to use
estimating strategies (e.g.,
“Do you think this cookie
jar would hold about 20
cookies or about 100
cookies?”);
encouraging them to use
self-initiated drawings and
representations of the
operations.
7
suggested drawings and
representations of the
operations;
using known facts to derive
new facts. For example, use
5 times 6 is 30 to help
calculate 6 times 6 (just add
one more 6 to the 30);
frequently using strategies
that involve partitioning
(e.g., calculate 8 x 9 by
multiplying 8 x 10 and then
subtracting the extra 8 from
the product to
make 72);
having them link concrete
and pictorial representation
with the written form of an
operation or equation;
providing experiences with
division that involve either
fair sharing (e.g., dividing
24 candies among 4 friends)
or repeated subtraction
(e.g., 24 candies are to be
eaten in equal numbers over
6 days. How many will be
eaten per day?);
using “chunking” strategies,
such as partitioning out 25’s
and 50’s (e.g., to calculate
332+227, they pull out 325
and 225 to make 550, and
then add on the remaining 7
and 2 to make a total of
559);
providing opportunities to
use calculators to explore
the effects of changing
numerals in an operation
and to identify the patterns
 that occur as the numerals
are changed (e.g., add 10,
100, 1000, . . . to a number
and identify the pattern in
the answers: 10+3=13,
100+3=103, 1000+3=1003,
10 000+3=10 003, . . . );
providing opportunities to
build and use multiplication
charts and to identify the
patterns that occur in the
charts;
providing opportunities to
identify multiplication fact
patterns in hundreds
charts;
providing sufficient
opportunities so that, with
experience, they are able to
construct and understand
their own algorithms for
solving two- and three digit
word problems and to
justify and explain their
methods. For example,
in response to the word
problem “Jane collected
203 pop can tabs and Julie
collected 318. How many
did they have altogether?”,
students can use their
own flexible algorithms to
find and share a solution.
One student may give
this method: “I took 18
from the 318 and 3 from the
200; then I added the
200 and the 300 to get 500;
then I added the 18 and 2
(of the 3 ones) to get
20, so my answer is 520
plus the extra 1 (from the
original 3 ones) or 521.”
Another child may respond
by adding 18 and 3 to make
21 and then adding
the 200+300=500 to the 21
to make 521. As long as
students can justify
and explain their methods,
they should be allowed to
use them. By developing
and understanding their
own algorithms first,
students are much more
likely to make sense of
more formal algorithms,

8
 and are able to compare
various methods and see
which method is more
efficient.

Quantity. Quantity represents the “howmuchness” of a number and is a crucial concept in

developing number sense. Understanding the concept of amount is necessary before
learning about place value, operations, and fractions. Students can estimate and reason
with numbers more easily if they have a basic concept of quantity. It's crucial for
comprehending relative size (e.g., few, many) and proportional reasoning (e.g., bigger,
smaller, twice as big, half as big).

Here are some strategies on how you will teach quantity:

Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3

continuing to provide continuing to provide opportunities to estimate, using
opportunities to use their concrete materials and pictures in problem-solving
fingers and hands to build situations;
up the concepts of 5 and 10,
particularly in finger plays
or when doing problem-
solving tasks and singing
songs. Students benefit
from explorations in which
they make comparisons that
help them to think about
how many more fingers
they might need to show
other amounts, such as 13;
providing experiences with providing experiences with
quantities of up to 50 using estimation strategies using
concrete materials and grouping of tens and
pictures in real-life or socio- hundreds. For example, in
dramatic situations: response to a question about
– Set up a store in a socio- how many students are in
dramatic area of the the primary grades, they use
classroom. “Sell” objects in the knowledge that there are
set quantities, assigning about 2 groups of 10 people
prices such as $1, $5, and in each classroom to
$10 for sets of 1, 5, estimate how many students
and 10. there are in 4 classrooms;
– Have children calculate
the cost of items for the
classroom, such as pencils,
erasers, or stickers.
– Play barrier games using
different quantities of
materials and have students
make a conjecture about the
number of items their
partner is holding: “Do you
have 10 objects? Do you
have more than 10? Less
than 50?”, and so on;

providing experiences with providing opportunities to use estimation in mental-math

estimating, using concrete situations (e.g., estimating how many apples the class

9
materials and pictures, and might have in their lunch bags and recognizing that the
opportunities to use number would probably be the same as or less than the
benchmarks to help quantity of students);
determine a range of
numbers (or values).
Teacher- or student-initiated
questions that limit the
range of possibilities for
determining an amount are
helpful with this (e.g., “Is it
less than or more than 10?”;
“Is it closer to 5 or closer to
20?”);
providing experiences that providing experiences with teacher- or student-initiated
repeat the same types of questions that limit the range of possibilities for
estimation activities, so that determining an amount (e.g., “Does the amount seem
students can build up their closer to 5 or to 50? Could you hold this many blocks in
conceptual understanding of your hands?
the amount of something In a cup?”);
familiar. For example, ask
them to estimate the number
of cans in the recycling bin.
Give them a benchmark
(e.g., “Remember that there
were 10 yesterday and it
was full on the bottom”);
providing experiences with using “nice numbers” such as 5, 10, 25, and 50 to make
the numbers 5 and 10 to estimates (e.g., ask, “If this pile has 5 pennies, how many
consolidate an do you think are in that pile? Is it less than or more than
understanding of those 20? Is it closer to 25 or closer to 50?”);
numbers as anchors for the
numbers below and above
them. For example, use ten
frames to show 30:

linking instruction related tousing the “nice” fraction of
the big idea of counting 1⁄2 to help reason through
with the concept of problems. For example,
quantity, so that the two knowing that if half the box
ideas are developed of baseballs contains 5
simultaneously; balls, then 1⁄3, 1⁄4, 1⁄5, and
so on, of the box would
hold fewer than 5 balls;
providing experiences of “divvying up” various amounts,
to give students informal experiences with fractions of sets
before they have to attach such experiences to formal
notation.
providing experiences with
manipulatives and ten
frames to build up an
understanding of 10 as an
anchor for all other numbers
providing experiences with
estimation strategies (e.g.,
grouping in tens and/or
hundreds, rounding to tens
and to hundreds);
providing experiences with
the numbers 10 and 100 to
consolidate an
understanding of the
importance of 10 and 100 in
our place-value system;
providing experiences with
numerals and amounts of
10, 100, and 1000, using
manipulatives and place-
value charts to build up an

10
in our place-value system, understanding of 10, 100,
and linking such grouped and 1000 as anchors for all
quantities with two-digit other numbers in our place-
numbers value system;
using “fair-sharing” problems that relate to students’ prior
personal knowledge – for example, how to share a
chocolate bar among 3 people. Have the students try to
think about what they will call each of the pieces, so that
the pieces can be distinguished from the whole chocolate
bar. Link their suggestions with the traditional symbols for
fractions;
providing experiences with providing opportunities to
games using pattern blocks, use fraction manipulatives –
fraction blocks, and/ or pattern blocks, Cuisenaire
Cuisenaire rods to model rods, and fraction blocks –
fractions and to compare to explore fractions and
fractions as parts of a mixed numbers. The
whole; overuse of any one
representation (e.g., pizza,
pie) may create difficulties
in understanding other types
of models (e.g., number-line
representations,
rectangles);
providing experiences in using fraction problems.
informal problem-solving For example, give this
situations using fractions. problem: Ellen has 2
Ask students how they cupcakes that she wants to
would divide 8 pizzas share with 3 friends. Then
among 6 people. Use probe with questions (e.g.,
manipulatives such as toy “Will each of the friends be
people or drawn people and able to get at least one
8 paper plates as pizzas and whole cupcake? Why or
let why not? Will they be able
students come up with their to get 1⁄2 or more of a
own solutions; cupcake? Why or why
not?”);
providing experiences with using prompts to remind
the number 10 and the students that:
bundling of tens into – fraction portions must be
hundreds to consolidate an of equal size;
understanding of the – a fraction represents a
importance of 10 in our relationship, not a particular
place value system; amount. It is important for
students to know that 1⁄2 of
a small amount may be
much smaller
than 1⁄3 of a large amount;
– a fraction represents part
of the whole. Students often
make the mistake of
comparing a part with the
remaining parts. For
example, when asked,
“What fraction of the grid is
chequered?”, a student
might reply 2⁄4

11

Relationships. An understanding of number depends upon a recognition of how
numbers are related to one another for purposes of comparing or ordering. For instance,
numbers increase as they move up (to the right) on the number line and decrease as they
move down (or to the left).
Let us know how you are going to help your Grade 1 to 3 students to learn
relationships among numbers.
Grade 1
providing multiple
experiences of composing
and decomposing amounts.
For example: decompose
the ten and decade numbers
into their many parts and
look at the relationships of
those parts (e.g., 20 is ten
more than 10 and ten less
than 30);
providing many
opportunities to use five
frames, ten frames,
hundreds charts (or carpets),
number lines, and simple
place-value charts to build
up an understanding of
relationships between
numbers;
providing experiences with
the incidental labelling of
fractional amounts,
especially common
fractions that students are
less likely to hear in their
everyday activity, such as
1⁄3 or 1⁄4 (e.g., say, “I am
going to give each of
these children 1⁄4 of these
balls”).
Grade 2
providing experiences of
composing and
decomposing larger
numbers, especially
numbers with a tens and/or
hundreds digit (e.g., 56 can
be understood
as 5 tens and 6 ones or as 4
tens and 16 ones);
providing experiences with
bundling or grouping
objects into 5’s (e.g., in
tallies) and into 10’s (e.g.,
bundles of 10 craft sticks)
to help students recognize
the relationships between
numbers, especially in
understanding place value;
12
instead of 2⁄6;
using labelled fractions in
the classroom (e.g.,
labelling one of 6 windows
as l⁄6 of the windows in the
room);
encouraging students to
develop a mental image of
fractional amounts, to help
with reasoning in problem-
solving activities that
involve fractions (e.g., ask,
“What does this sheet of
paper look like when it is
divided in halves? In
fourths? In eighths?”).
Grade 3
providing experiences of
composing and
decomposing larger
numbers, especially
numbers with a tens or
hundreds digit (e.g., 56 can
be understood as 5 tens and
6 ones);
providing experiences with
bundling or grouping
objects into 5’s (e.g., in
tallies) and into 10’s (e.g.,
bundles of 10 craft sticks)
to help students recognize
the relationships between
numbers, especially in
understanding place value;
building a hundreds chart providing many using ten frames, hundreds
for the purpose of exploring opportunities to use ten charts, number lines, arrays,
the patterns of the numbers frames, hundreds charts or and place-value charts to
and their relationships. carpets, number lines, build up an understanding
Students can work together arrays, and place-value of relationships between
in groups or can work charts to build up an numbers;
individually to build a chart. understanding of
relationships between
numbers;
working with hundreds working with hundreds
charts to explore patterns in chart to explore patterns in
number. For example, number. For example,
adding by 10’s on a adding by 10’s on a
hundreds chart involves hundreds chart involves
movement from one movement from one
number to the one number to the one
immediately below it; immediately below it;
adding by 9’s involves adding by 9’s involves
movement from one movement from one
number to the number number to the number
immediately below and to immediately below and to
the left of it; adding by the left of it;
11’s involves movement
from one number to the
number immediately below
and to the right of it.
encouraging students to use
an “invisible” number line
(or similar mental image) to
help in developing more
complex strategies for
solving problems involving
an understanding of the
relationships between
numbers. For example, in
adding 50 and 22, they can
move along a blank line,
which represents the
number line, to the decades,
from 50 to 60 to 70, and
then make 2 more
single moves to come to 72.

Representations. A number is a abstract representation of a very complex concept.

Numerical representations of numbers exist, and a numeral can be employed in a variety
of ways. Consider the following sentence: “John, a first-grader, is inviting 15 children to
his seventh birthday party on January 5, 2003, at 2 p.m.” Consider the various ways in
which the word "number" is utilized in the statement.
A numeral represents the number symbol, the number word, placement in a series
of counts, placement on a number line, a place-value position, and a quantity of objects.
The numeral 1, depending on its placement, can mean 1, 10, 100, 1000, and so on.
A very important aspect of understanding number is the connection between the
symbol for a number or part of a number (e.g., a fraction or a decimal) and what that
symbol represents with reference to quantity, position, or magnitude or size.

13
 An important aspect of representation is learning how to read and write numerals
and connect numerals with written and spoken words for numbers. To help the Grade 1 to
3 students learn representations of numbers, here are some of the strategy.

Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3

providing many continuing experiences with numbers in real-world situations, role-
playing situations, games, centre activities, and so on, so that students consolidate their
understanding of the nominal, the cardinal, and the ordinal representations of number;
providing many providing opportunities to providing opportunities to
opportunities to construct represent quantities to 100 estimate quantities to 100 in
and partition numbers and in a variety of problem a variety of problem solving
to make representations of solving situations; situations;
numbers and parts of
numbers using number
lines, ten frames, hundreds
charts, calculators,
computer games, and
manipulatives (e.g., cubes);
providing continuing providing many experiences of writing numerals in
experiences of bundling or authentic writing situations;
grouping objects into 5’s
(e.g., in tallies) and into
10’s (e.g., bundles of 10
craft sticks), to help
students recognize the
relationships between
numbers, especially in
understanding place value;
providing many providing many experiences providing many
opportunities to develop a of making groups of 10 and opportunities to develop
consolidated understanding trading ones for tens, mathematics concepts and
of 10 as a whole with a particularly through games basic facts in engaging
relationship to all other contexts (e.g., use games
numbers (e.g., bundle units that focus on experiences
into tens to represent 20 with trading ones, tens, and
days of school during hundreds);
calendar time);
providing experiences with providing opportunities to providing many continuing
fractions in real-life represent numbers from 1 to opportunities to see models
situations (e.g., cut lunch 100 in various concrete of the numbers from 0 to
sandwiches in half; split a ways (e.g., use base ten 100 and to see charts giving
chocolate bar in half). blocks, interlocking cubes, the corresponding numerals
money, geoboards), so that and number words;
students can observe the
relationship between
numbers;
providing many continuing providing many continuing
opportunities to develop a opportunities to see models
consolidated understanding of the numbers from 100 to
of 10 as a whole with a 1000 and to see charts
relationship to all other giving the corresponding
numbers (e.g., bundle single numerals;
units into tens to represent
20 days of school during
calendar time);
providing experiences of providing opportunities to
representing fractions represent numbers from 1 to

14
 concretely and pictorially as
both parts of a whole object
and parts of a set of objects,
and connecting these parts
to the symbols for
numerator and denominator;
providing experiences of
comparing fractions using
concrete materials
(e.g.,pattern blocks, fraction
blocks, Cuisenaire rods) or
pictures;
providing opportunities to
use calculators to explore
how adding or subtracting
10’s affects the digit in the
tens place (e.g., link the
movement on a number line
or hundreds chart with what
occurs on the calculator as
10 is added to or taken
away from a number)
1000 in various concrete
ways (e.g., using base ten
blocks, interlocking cubes,
money, geoboards);
providing many
opportunities to use number
lines, calculators, hundreds
charts, and so on, to help
students develop an
understanding of how the
movement of a digit to the
right or left significantly
alters its value and to help
students recognize the
patterns that such
movement creates;
providing experiences with
representations of fractions
as both parts of a whole
object and parts of a set of
objects, and connecting
these parts to the symbols
for numerator and
denominator;
providing experiences of
comparing fractions using
visual inspection and
concrete materials (e.g.,
blocks, fraction blocks,
Cuisenaire rods)

Teaching Measurement

Measurement concepts and skills are directly applicable to the world in which
students live. Many of these concepts are also developed in other subject areas, such as
science, social studies, and physical education. (Ontario Ministry of Education, 2005, p. 8)
The major concepts for Measurement are (a) attributes, units, and measurement
sense and (b) measurement relationships. The following instructional principles apply to
teaching Measurement in the primary grades:
 It is critical for students to speak up. Students must converse with one another and
with the teacher about and through mathematical concepts.
 Concept representations aid comprehension and communication. Concepts in
measurement can be expressed in a variety of ways (e.g., through the use of
manipulatives, diagrams, words, symbols).
 Problem solving is how students learn. Students can use problem-solving situations
to provide their thinking about mathematical concepts and ideas a context and a
meaningful purpose.
 Students require frequent exposure to a variety of learning methodologies and
resources (e.g., investigations, problem-solving tasks, games) (e.g., manipulatives,
measurement tools). To address the learning styles of all pupils, a range of learning
strategies should be used in instruction.

15
 Teachers can help students acquire mathematical language by using correct
mathematical vocabulary themselves. Beginning in Kindergarten, teachers should
model appropriate mathematical terminology and encourage students to use
mathematical vocabulary that will allow them to express themselves clearly and
precisely

Attributes, Units, and Measurement Sense

In the primary grades, the following are some crucial points to remember
regarding characteristics, units, and measurement sense:
 Objects and events can be measured for a range of properties.
 Finding the number of non-standard or standard units required to match, cover, or fill
the object being measured is the first step in measuring an attribute.
 Measurement sense involves an understanding of appropriate measurement units in
various situations, of the “howmuchness” of measurement units, of measurement
processes, of the use of measurement tools, and of estimation in measurement.

Measurable attributes are quantifiable characteristics of objects or events.

Students need opportunities to explore how an object or an event can have many different
measurable attributes. For example, students might discuss possible ways to measure an
ice-cream cone.

And we can use this in introducing measurable attributes by this:

How long/wide/high/deep/far is it? Length

Width
Height
Depth
Distance
What is the distance around it? Perimeter
What is the size of its surface? Area
What is its mass? Mass
How much does it hold? Capacity
How much space does it occupy? Volume
How hot/cold is it? Temperature
How long does it take? Time

Now here are the instructional strategies we can use in teaching Attributes, Units,
and Measurement Sense:

16
 Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3
discussing measurable attributes (e.g., length, area, mass, capacity, temperature) of
objects, and having students explain ways to measure them (e.g., discuss ways to measure
the area of a desk);
using children’s literature as a springboard for discussions about measurement concepts
(e.g., discuss the lengths of objects in a picture book);
modelling of measurement language by the teacher (e.g., “We will need to measure the
capacity of the bottle to see if the bottle is large enough to hold the juice”);
providing opportunities to engage in problem-solving activities that involve measuring
(e.g., find the length of a shelf to determine whether the shelf is long enough to hold a
collection of boxes);
providing opportunities to having them measure and record length, height, and
use a variety of non- distance, using nonstandard and standard units (e.g.,
standard units to measure centimetre, metre);
and discussing how some
units are more appropriate
than others in particular
situations (e.g., large sheets
of paper are more
appropriate than index cards
for measuring the area of
the classroom carpet);
discussing and discussing the size of a providing opportunities for
demonstrating how one unit centimetre and of a metre them to draw items of
(e.g., a straw) can be used by relating the units to specific lengths, using a
to benchmarks (e.g., a ruler (e.g., “Draw a
measure length by centimetre is about as wide rectangle that is 10 cm long
repeatedly moving the straw as a paper clip or the tip and 6 cm wide”);
along the length of an of a student’s little finger);
object (unit iteration);
providing opportunities to providing opportunities to providing opportunities to
find objects that are measure the length of an estimate and measure the
approximately one metre object that is longer than a area of shapes, using arrays
long given ruler, so that students and grid paper (e.g.,
(e.g., find objects that have are required to move the centimetre grid paper);
the same length as a metre ruler repeatedly along the
stick); length of the object (unit
iteration);
providing opportunities to providing opportunities to discussing strategies for
estimate and measure area measure and record the finding the number of units
by covering surfaces distance around objects, that cover a surface (e.g.,
with various non-standard using non-standard units; find the number of square
units; tiles that cover a rectangle,
using repeated addition,
skip counting, or
multiplication);
discussing and providing opportunities to discussing the
demonstrating ways to estimate and measure the “howmuchness” of a
avoid gaps and overlays area of objects by covering kilogram and of a litre by
when covering a surface surfaces with various non- relating the units to
with non-standard units; standard units; benchmarks (e.g., find
familiar objects that have a
mass of approximately one
kilogram; find containers
that have a capacity of one

17

providing opportunities to
estimate and measure the
capacity of different
containers, using non-
standard units (e.g., find the
number of scoops of rice
that are needed to fill a
container);
providing opportunities to
estimate and measure the
mass of different objects,
using non-standard units
(e.g., use a balance to find
the number of cubes that
have the same mass as a
book);
having them use
measurement tools (e.g., a
metre stick for measuring
length, a balance for
measuring mass, a (e.g., use a balance to find
sandglass for measuring
time);
having them describe
measurements as
approximations – for
example, “The table is
about 4 straws long. It is a
bit more than 3 straws
wide.”;
having them compare
measurements obtained by
using different units –
for example, “The shelf is
about 4 straws long. It is
exactly 7 markers long.”;
providing opportunities to
estimate measurements, and
to discuss estimation
strategies (e.g., estimate that
a container holds 10 scoops
by observing that 5 scoops
fill half the container);
providing opportunities to
read demonstration
analogue clocks to the hour
and half-hour;
relating daily events to
times of the day (e.g.,
discuss the times of events
in the daily classroom
schedule);
discussing strategies for
finding the number of non-
standard units that cover
a surface (e.g., find the
number of square tiles that
cover a shape by counting
or using repeated addition);
providing opportunities to
estimate and measure the
capacity of different
containers, using non-
standard units (e.g., find the
number of scoops of rice
that are needed to fill a
container);
providing opportunities to
estimate and measure the
mass of different containers,
using non-standard units
the number of cubes that
have the same mass as a
book);
having them use
measurement tools (e.g., a
metre stick for measuring
length, a balance for
measuring mass, a
sandglass for measuring
time);
providing opportunities to
construct measurement
tools (e.g., construct a ruler
by connecting centimetre
cubes in a row);
having them describe
measurements as
approximations – for
example, “The table is
about two metres long. It is
a bit more than one and a
half metres wide.”;
having them compare
measurements obtained by
using different units – for
example, “The shelf is
about 4 straws long. It is
exactly 7 markers long.”;
providing frequent
opportunities to estimate
measurements, and to
discuss estimation strategies
(e.g., estimate that a
18
litre);
providing opportunities to
estimate and measure the
capacity of different
containers, using the litre
and parts of a litre (e.g.,
half, quarter);
providing opportunities to
estimate and measure the
mass of objects, using the
kilogram and parts of a
kilogram (e.g., half,
quarter);
providing frequent
opportunities to estimate
measurements, and to
discuss
estimation strategies (such
strategies as using
benchmarks, using personal
referents, and chunking);
providing opportunities to
measure and record the
daily outdoor temperature;
discussing benchmarks for
freezing, cold, cool, warm,
hot, and boiling
temperatures (e.g., water
boils at 100°C);
providing opportunities to
read and record time in
meaningful contexts;
discussing strategies for
finding precise and accurate
measurements – for
example, using appropriate-
sized units, counting units
carefully, and combining
units (e.g., 3 m and 20 cm).
 container holds 20 scoops
after observing the quantity
represented by 5 scoops);
discussing temperatures in providing opportunities to
everyday contexts (e.g., “It read demonstration
is warm today, so I don’t analogue clocks to the
need to wear a sweater”). quarter-hour;
providing opportunities to
measure time intervals,
using non-standard units
(e.g., count hand claps to
measure the time it takes to
tie a shoelace);
discussing how a
thermometer indicates
changes in temperature.

Then, let us proceed to the next big idea.

Measurement Relationships.According to Clements & Stephan, measurement should not

be taught as a simple skill. It is a complex combination of concepts and skills that
develops slowly over years. Here are the following are key points that can be made about
measurement relationships in the primary grades:
 Objects can be compared and ordered according to measurable attributes.
 Relationships exist between measurement units.

Let us teach measurement relationships with the help of the following

instructional strategies:

Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3

providing opportunities to
sort objects according to a
measurable attribute (e.g.,
sort objects according to
length by organizing them
into groups of short and
long objects);
providing opportunities to
compare and order two or
more objects according to a
measurable attribute (e.g.,
length, height, width, area,
temperature, mass,
capacity);
providing opportunities to
compare and order objects,
using indirect comparison
(e.g., use a string to order
the heights of three chairs);
providing opportunities to
compare and order objects
by their linear dimensions,
using non-standard units
and standard units (i.e.,
centimetre, metre);
providing opportunities to
compare or order objects by
area, mass, or capacity,
using non-standard units;
encouraging them to
develop strategies for
comparing and ordering
objects according to a
measurable attribute (e.g.,
“How could you determine
which of these mats has the
greatest area?”);
providing opportunities to
compare and order objects
by length, perimeter, mass,
and/or capacity, using
standard units (i.e.,
centimetres and/or metres
for length and perimeter;
kilograms for mass; litres
for capacity);
encouraging them to
develop strategies for
comparing and ordering
objects according to a
measurable attribute (e.g.,
“How could you determine
which of these pictures has
the greatest perimeter?”);
having them predict which
of two containers has a
greater capacity, or which
of two surfaces has a
greater area, and then verify
their predictions by
measuring;

19
encouraging them to
develop strategies for
comparing and ordering
objects
according to a measurable
attribute (e.g., “How could
you determine which
of these containers has the
greater capacity?”);
having them predict which
of two containers has a
greater capacity, or which
of two surfaces has a
greater area, and then verify
their predictions by
measuring;
modelling of comparative
language by the teacher
(e.g., “Please put the
heavier pumpkin on the
tallest chair”);
having them use different-
sized non-standard units to
measure length, and
discussing why more small
units than large units are
needed (e.g., “It takes more
toothpicks than markers to
measure the length of the
table, because toothpicks
are shorter than markers”);
providing opportunities to
construct measurement
tools (e.g., connect 10
paper clips to create a tool
for measuring length);
having them use
measurement tools (e.g.,
rulers, balances) to compare
and order objects according
to a measurable attribute.
having them predict which having them compare and
of two containers has a order various shapes by
greater capacity, or which area, using non-standard
of two surfaces has a units (e.g., square tiles,
greater area, and then verify cubes) and grid paper;
their predictions by
measuring;
having them use different- discussing the relationship
sized non-standard units to between the size of a unit of
measure area, and area and the number of
discussing why more small units needed to cover a
units than large units are surface (e.g., “It takes more
needed (e.g., “It takes more square tiles than sticky
square tiles than sticky notes to measure the area of
notes to measure the area of the table, because square
the table, because square tiles are smaller than
tiles are smaller than sticky sticky notes”);
notes”);
providing opportunities to having them use
construct measurement measurement tools (e.g.,
tools (e.g., create paper rulers, balances) to compare
rulers by gluing same-sized and order objects according
squares in a row on a strip to a measurable attribute;
of paper);
having them use providing opportunities to
measurement tools (e.g., investigate the relationships
rulers, balances) to compare between centimetres and
and order objects according metres and between metres
to a measurable attribute; and kilometres;
providing opportunities to having them measure and
investigate the relationship report length in terms of
between centimetres and metres and centimetres
metres; (e.g., “The width of the
room is 4 m and 30 cm, or
430 cm”);
providing opportunities to providing opportunities to
investigate the relationships solve problems involving
between days and weeks the relationships between
and between months and minutes and hours, hours
years. and days, days and weeks,
and weeks and years.

Teaching Geometry. Preschoolers learn to distinguish between two-dimensional and

three-dimensional objects and figures based on their appearance. When asked to identify
a rectangle, youngsters may respond, "It's a rectangle because it looks like a door."
Children's grasp of geometric qualities – the characteristics that identify a form or figure
– is limited early in their geometric thinking development. They do not reason that the
shape is a rectangle because it has four sides and four right angles, for example.
According to research (Clements et al., 1999), children as young as four years old
begin to recognize and characterize shape features. Their descriptions of shapes are

20
sketchy at best, but they have some ideas about them. Children may, for example, explain
that a form is a square because it "has four sides."
Children as young as four years old may perceive and characterize shape aspects,
according to studies (Clements et al., 1999). Their explanations of shapes are hazy at best,
yet they have some concepts. For example, children may explain that a shape is a square
because it "has four sides." Students begin to think about the attributes that make a
rectangle a rectangle, or a cylinder a cylinder, when they are taught geometric features of
two-dimensional forms and three-dimensional figures in the elementary grades. However,
rather than learning definitions, the emphasis in instruction is on increasing students'
abilities to analyze and articulate the geometric features of forms and figures.
In the primary grades, the following key points about properties of two-
dimensional forms and three-dimensional figures can be made:
 The qualities of two-dimensional forms and three-dimensional figures allow them to
be identified, compared, sorted, and classed.
 Students can comprehend such properties by working with two-dimensional shapes
and three-dimensional figures in a range of forms, sizes, and orientations.
Pierre van Hiele and Dina van Hiele-Geldof investigated the more complicated
degrees of knowledge that kids might achieve as they learn more geometric concepts.
These researchers suggested a model of geometric reasoning with five stages (van Hiele,
1959/1985):
Level 0: Visualization. Students recognize and identify two-dimensional shapes
and three-dimensional figures by their appearance as a whole. Students do not describe
properties (defining characteristics) of shapes and figures. Level 0 represents the
geometric thinking of many students in the early primary grades.
Level 1: Analysis. Students recognize the properties of two-dimensional shapes
and three-dimensional figures. They understand that all shapes or figures within a class
share common properties (e.g., all rectangles have four sides, with opposite sides parallel
and congruent). Level 1 represents the geometric thinking of many students in the later
primary and the junior grades.
Level 2: Informal deduction. Students use informal, logical reasoning to deduce
properties of two-dimensional shapes and three-dimensional figures (e.g., if one pair of
opposite sides of a quadrilateral is parallel and congruent, then the other pair of opposite
sides must be parallel and congruent). Level 2 represents the geometric thinking required
in mathematics programs at the intermediate and secondary levels.
Level 3: Deduction. Students use deductive reasoning to make conclusions about
abstract geometric principles. Level 3 represents the geometric thinking required in
secondary and post-secondary mathematics courses.
Level 4: Rigour. Students compare different geometric theories and hypotheses.
Level 4 represents the geometric thinking required in advanced mathematics courses.

Now here are the instructional strategies we can use in teaching them the
properties of two and three dimensional shapes and figures:

Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3

providing opportunities to manipulate, draw, construct, and represent (e.g., on a
geoboard) two-dimensional shapes;

21
discussing examples and having them identify
non-examples of two- triangles, quadrilaterals,
dimensional shapes. pentagons, hexagons,
Discussions of such heptagons, and octagons by
questions as the following counting the number of
encourage students to focus sides or the number of
on the properties of two- vertices. Examples should
dimensional shapes and include regular and
promote the development of irregular polygons;
appropriate geometry
language:
Why are these rectangles?

Why are these not

rectangles? What could be
done to each shape to make
it a rectangle?

discussing the discussing characteristics of two-dimensional shapes and

characteristics of two- three-dimensional figures so that students develop the
dimensional shapes so that concepts and language related to geometric
students develop the properties;
concepts and language that
allow them to explain why a
shape belongs to a certain
category (e.g., “All of these
shapes are rectangles
because they all have four
sides and four square
corners”);
using games that focus providing opportunities to providing many
students’ attention on the locate and describe experiences in sorting and
properties of two- examples of two- classifying two-dimensional
dimensional shapes and dimensional shapes and shapes and three-
three-dimensional figures. three-dimensional figures in dimensional figures
For example, students might the environment; according to two or more
play “Guess My properties. Venn diagrams
Shape/Figure” in which allow students to sort
students listen to a shapes and figures and to
description of a two- find shared properties. The
dimensional shape or a following Venn diagram
three-dimensional figure shows a way to sort some
and try to identify it. For shapes;
example, the teacher might
say, “My figure has a
square on it. It has a point
on it. Guess my figure!”;

22
providing opportunities to providing many experiences having them describe the
measure, fold, and cut two- in sorting and classifying similarities and differences
dimensional shapes totwo-dimensional shapes between two two
investigate and identify (e.g., according to number dimensional shapes or two
their properties (e.g., fold aof sides or vertices) and three-dimensional figures;
square to observe that all three-dimensional
sides are equal); figures (e.g., according to
the shapes of faces), and in
discussing why a shape
or figure belongs or does
not belong to a certain
category;
providing experiences in constructing and manipulating shapes on a computer (e.g., using
the drawing tools in educational software/applications);
providing opportunities to having them describe the providing experiences in
locate and describe similarities and differences constructing and taking
examples of two- between two two apart three-dimensional
dimensional shapes and dimensional shapes or two figures (e.g., using
three-dimensional figures in three-dimensional figures; cardboard cut-outs,
the environment; connecting plastic shapes),
and in
describing the faces and
surfaces of the three-
dimensional figures;
providing many experiences providing experiences in providing experiences in
in sorting and classifying constructing models of constructing rectangular
two-dimensional shapes and three-dimensional figures prisms from nets;
three-dimensional figures using materials (e.g.,
according to a variety of modelling clay, cardboard
observable attributes, and in cut-outs, and Polydron
discussing why a shape or pieces), and in describing
figure belongs or does not the two-dimensional faces
belong to a certain category; of three-dimensional
figures;
having them describe the providing experiences in providing opportunities to
similarities and differences constructing the skeletons describe and compare
between two two of prisms and pyramids angles in two-dimensional
dimensional shapes or two using such materials as shapes (e.g., “This triangle
three-dimensional figures; drinking straws and has a right angle and has
toothpicks; two angles that are smaller
than a right angle”).

23
discussing the properties using games that focus
and attributes of three- students’ attention on the
dimensional figures. For properties of two-
example, students can dimensional shapes and
explain that a cone has a three-dimensional figures.
circular face (property) and Examples of games include:
that it rolls on its curved  Guess My
surface (attribute); Shape/Figure. In this
game, students listen to
a description of a two-
dimensional shape or a
three-dimensional
figure and try to
identify it. For
example, a teacher
might use this
description: “My figure
has two circular faces
and a curved surface.
What is my figure?”
 Guess My Rule. After
the teacher or a student
has sorted a collection
of two-dimensional
shapes or three-
dimensional figures,
students observe the
sorted shapes or figures
and try to determine the
sorting rule
providing experiences in
building structures using
concrete materials (e.g.,
building blocks,
construction sets) and in
discussing the two-
dimensional shapes and
three-dimensional figures in
the structure;
providing experiences in
constructing models of
three-dimensional figures
(e.g., making a cube using
modelling clay);
allowing them to hear
teachers use and explain
correct geometric
terminology,
even if students are not
expected to use the
vocabulary themselves. For
example, the teacher might
say, “Yoko called this shape
a squished rectangle. This
shape is a quadrilateral
because it is a shape with
four sides.”

24
 Aside from the properties, it is also essential to teach to our students the
Geometric Relationships.

Geonetric Relationships. The following are some key points concerning geometric
relationships that can be made in primary school:

 Two-dimensional shapes and three-dimensional figures can be composed from or

decomposed into other shapes and figures.
 Relationships exist between two-dimensional and three-dimensional geometry (e.g.,
the two-dimensional faces of three-dimensional figures).
 Relationships exist between categories of two-dimensional shapes (e.g., rectangles
are also quadrilaterals, squares are also rectangles).
 Congruence is a special geometric relationship that is shared by shapes having the
same shape and the same size.

In composing and decomposing two-dimensional shapes and three-dimensional

figures, more than only identifying isolated examples of two-dimensional forms and
three-dimensional figures should be emphasized in classroom education. Instead, training
should focus on assisting students in comprehending the physical relationships that exist
between forms and figures whether they are combined (composed) or disassembled
(decomposed). Students can comprehend how shapes and figures can be constructed or
decomposed to generate new shapes and figures by creating structures using geometric
forms, arranging shapes (e.g., pattern blocks, tangram pieces) to create pictures and
designs, and splitting shapes and figures into components. These experiences let students
to consider how shapes and figures fit together for both utilitarian and aesthetic
objectives (e.g., designing a machine) (e.g., creating a design).

Combining forms to create pictures is an effective way to encourage student

thought and conversation about two-dimensional geometry. Young children progress
through different degrees of skill (described below) when it comes to mixing shapes to
create composite shapes (Clements, 2004b). Although each level is given an approximate
age, development through these stages is mostly based on experience. Teachers are
crucial in presenting children with picture-making activities and demonstrating to them
how shapes may be combined in increasingly complicated ways.

Precomposer (approximate age: 3 years). Children use individual shapes to represent

objects or persons but are unable to combine them to compose a larger shape. For
example, children might use three separate shapes to represent the sun, a slide, and a
sandbox.

Piece assembler (approximate age: 4 years). Children combine shapes to make a picture
in which each shape represents a part of an object or person (e.g., a rhombus is used for a
leg). Like the precomposer, the piece assembler perceives shapes only as wholes and sees
few geometric relationships between shapes or parts of shapes.

25
Picture maker (approximate age: 5 years). Children combine shapes to form pictures in
which several pieces are used to represent parts of an object (e.g., three squares for a
body). Children use trial and error to create new shapes.

Shape composer (approximate age: 5 years). Children combine shapes intentionally,

knowing how shapes will fit together.

Substitution composer (approximate age: 6 years). Children form composite units of

shapes and are able to substitute some shapes for others (e.g., six green triangles for a
yellow hexagon when using pattern blocks).

26
Shape composite repeater (approximate age: 7 years). Children construct a composite
unit of shapes and intentionally repeat the unit.

Here are the strategies which can be used in teaching geometric relationships:

Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3

providing opportunities to discussing and demonstrating relationships among
create pictures using two- quadrilaterals, rectangles, and squares (e.g., a rectangle
dimensional shapes (e.g., is a quadrilateral because a rectangle has four sides; a
paper cut-outs, stickers, square is a rectangle because a square has four sides and
pattern blocks); four square corners);
providing experiences in providing experiences in providing opportunities to
creating designs and patterns creating pictures and create designs and patterns
using two-dimensional shapes designs using two- using two-dimensional
(e.g., pattern blocks), and in dimensional shapes (e.g., shapes (e.g., pattern
discussing how the shapes are pattern blocks, paper cut- blocks), including patterns
put together; outs, stickers); in which units (shapes
composed of other shapes)
are repeated;
providing puzzles in which providing opportunities providing experiences in
students cover an outline with to create patterns using decomposing two-
shapes (e.g., pattern blocks, two-dimensional shapes dimensional shapes to make
tangram pieces, attribute (e.g., pattern blocks), other shapes (e.g.,
blocks) without leaving gaps; including patterns in decomposing a triangle into
which units (shapes two triangles or into a
composed of other triangle and a trapezoid);
shapes) are repeated
(e.g., repeated units made
from hexagons and
squares);

having them respond to “What providing experiences in providing experiences in

do you see?” activities. composing larger shapes composing shapes by
Teachers show a by putting together putting together other
simple design (e.g., the shape smaller shapes (e.g., shapes (e.g., using pattern
shown below) for a few using pattern blocks to blocks to make
seconds and then ask students make a hexagon in parallelograms in different
to describe or draw what they different ways); ways);
saw;

discussing how smaller shapes having them respond to providing puzzles in which
have been put together to “What do you see?” students cover an outline

27
make larger shapes and how activities. Teachers show with different combinations
larger shapes have been taken a simple design (e.g., the of shapes;
apart to make smaller shapes; shape shown below) for a
few seconds and then
ask students to describe
or draw what they saw;

providing experiences in providing experiences in providing opportunities to

composing larger shapes by decomposing two- build structures using
putting together smaller dimensional shapes into materials (e.g., cardboard
shapes (e.g., using pattern other shapes (e.g., containers, building blocks,
blocks to make a hexagon in decomposing a rectangle construction sets) and to
different ways); into two triangles; discuss two-dimensional
decomposing a square shapes and three-
into two rectangles); dimensional figures in the
structures;

providing opportunities to compose shapes on a computer;

providing opportunities to providing puzzles in providing experiences in
build structures using which students cover an composing and
materials (e.g., cardboard outline with shapes (e.g., decomposing three-
containers, building blocks, pattern blocks, tangram dimensional figures (e.g.,
construction sets), and to pieces, attribute blocks); using cardboard cut-outs,
discuss the twodimensional construction sets) and in
shapes and three-dimensional describing the faces and
figures in the structure. surfaces of three-
dimensional figures;
providing opportunities providing opportunities to
to build structures using construct rectangular prisms
materials (e.g., cardboard from nets;
containers, building
blocks, construction sets)
and to discuss two-
dimensional shapes and
three-dimensional figures
in the structures;
providing opportunities having them identify
to construct models of congruent two-dimensional
three-dimensional figures shapes and show
using materials (e.g., congruence by matching
modelling clay, sides and angles or
cardboard cut-outs, superimposing shapes;
drinking straws, pipe
cleaners) and to describe
the two-dimensional
faces of the figures.
having them identify
congruent three-
dimensional figures and
show congruence by
matching parts of the

28
 figures.

In geometry, teaching location and movement is also important.

Location and Movement. Teachers urge pupils to use spatial language to describe their
own location and movement, as well as the locations and movements of other people or
objects, in the elementary grades. Teachers also demonstrate how to use rectangular grids
to illustrate places and motions. As students learn about transformations, such as
translations (slides), rotations (turns), and reflections, their understanding of movement
expands (flips).
The following are key points that can be made about location and movement in
the primary years:
 The location of an object can be described in terms of its spatial relationship to
another object or in terms of its position on a grid.
 Transformational geometry involves translations (slides), reflections (flips), and
rotations (turns).
 Symmetry can be used to analyse and create shapes in which one half is a reflection
of the other.

Here are the instructional strategies in teaching location and movement:

Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3

providing instructions (e.g., giving directions on how to draw or construct simple
classroom routines) shapes;
involving positional
language (e.g., “Empty
cubes from the container
onto your desk”);
asking them to describe the
having them locate and providing opportunities to
relative positions of objects
discuss examples of solve geometric puzzles
and people (e.g., “The symmetry in the (e.g., creating a squares
books are on the shelf that
environment, including with tangram pieces) and to
is next to the closet”); shapes with non-vertical describe what they did
symmetry and shapes with using geometric language;
more than one line of
symmetry;
giving oral directions on providing opportunities to having them locate and
how to print numerals and create symmetrical designs discuss examples of
letters and draw simple and pictures; symmetry in the
shapes; environment, including
shapes with vertical,
horizontal, and diagonal
symmetry and shapes with
more than one line of
symmetry;
using games involving position and movement (e.g., providing opportunities to
Simon Says); create symmetrical designs
and pictures;
providing puzzles in which having them find the line of symmetry of simple shapes by
students manipulate pieces using paper folding and reflections in a transparent mirror
to fit them into frames; (a Mira);
providing puzzles in which students cover simple outlines providing opportunities to
with shapes (e.g., pattern blocks, tangram pieces, attribute perform and describe
blocks); rotations (e.g., quarter turn,
half turn, three-quarter turn,

29
 full turn);
having them locate and using games that involve having them identify the
discuss examples of describing the location of movement (translation,
symmetry in the objects on grids and maps reflection, rotation) that was
environment; (e.g., finding a hidden performed on a shape to
treasure on a map by asking move it from one position
such questions as “Is the to another;
treasure in the top left
corner?” and “Is the
treasure beside the pond?”);
providing opportunities to providing opportunities to perform translations,
create symmetrical designs reflections, and rotations of simple figures using concrete
and pictures; materials and computer programs
providing opportunities to having them identify and asking them to predict the
create simple physical maps describe translations (to the outcome of translations,
of familiar places (e.g., left, to the right, up, down); reflections, and rotations on
making a concrete map of two-dimensional shapes;
the classroom by using
small objects, such as
cubes or tiles, to represent
furniture).
providing opportunities to providing problems using
draw simple maps of maps and grids, including
familiar settings (e.g., the how to get from one
classroom, the student’s location to another on a grid
bedroom); (e.g., two squares right then
two squares up) and
describing the specific
locations of objects;
providing opportunities to providing opportunities to
describe the locations of draw simple maps of
objects on a grid or map familiar settings (e.g.,
(e.g., “The pet store is to the classroom).
right of the park”).

Teaching Patterns and Algebra

The big ideas or major concepts in Patterning and Algebra are the following: (a)
patterns and relationships and (b) expressions and equality.

Let us start with the the patterns and relationship. Learning mathematics
necessitates the development of a knowledge of patterns and relationships. Students in
the elementary grades use objects, movements, sounds, drawings, letters, and numbers
to detect, expand, and create a variety of patterns. Young pupils learn to form
conjectures and generalizations about mathematical relationships as a result of their
experiences investigating and discussing patterns. Later grades provide opportunity for
pupils to analyze and depict increasingly complicated mathematical relationships
algebraically.

Students develop an awareness and understanding of patterns and pattern

relationships through experiences with patterns in a variety of forms.

People patterns: boy – girl – boy – girl – boy – girl

30
Patterns involving actions: jump – jump – hop – jump – jump – hop – jump – jump –
hop

Patterns with sounds: snap – clap – clap – snap – clap – clap – snap – clap – clap

Patterns with objects:

Patterns with geometric shapes:

Patterns with pictures or symbols:

Patterns in designs:

Number patterns: 11, 22, 33, 44, 55, . . .

Patterns with letters: ABCCC, ABCCC, ABCCC

The complexity of a repeating pattern depends on the following factors:

The nature of the attribute(s) in the pattern. Certain attributes of patterns are clear and
noticeable (e.g., colour). A pattern is said to increase in complexity if it involves changes
to one or more attributes that are less obvious (e.g., size, shape, texture, thickness,
orientation, or material).

The number of changing attributes in a pattern. Simple patterns involve changes to one
attribute. For example, in the repeating pattern illustrated below, shape is the changing
attribute; size and colour remain constant.

31
 More complex patterns involve changes to two or more attributes. In the
following example, the pattern involves changes to both shape (square, triangle) and
colour (orange, green).

The number of elements in the core of the pattern. The core (also called stem) refers to
the part of the pattern that continuously recurs. It is composed of elements, that is, the
specific items within a pattern. The patterns in the two preceding illustrations involve a
core with two elements (square, triangle). The following pattern is more complex: it
involves a core with three elements (i.e., square, square, triangle).

The number of changing attributes within the core. The following pattern is more
complex than those illustrated above because of the changes to the attributes (i.e., colour,
size, orientation) within the pattern core.

Students learn about patterns and pattern relationships through the following
experiences:
Pattern recognition. Patterns may be found almost anywhere, and teachers should
encourage students to look for them in their surroundings, in nature, in literature, in
classroom procedures, and so on. Allowing young pupils to express patterns in their own
words (e.g., "It's the same two colors every time" or "This portion keeps repeating over
and over") helps them comprehend how patterns repeat.
Reading patterns. For young students, reading a pattern involves pointing at and
naming each element (e.g., “orange square, orange square, green triangle, orange square,
orange square, green triangle, . . . ”). Reading a pattern helps students recognize the
changing attributes within the pattern, as well as the number and kinds of elements in the
pattern core.
Describing patterns. After reading a pattern, students are better able to describe it.
Describing patterns involves identifying the changing attributes, the number of elements
in the pattern core, and the kinds of elements in the core. Teachers should encourage
students to use appropriate mathematical language (e.g., core, position, repeating) to
describe patterns.
Extending patterns. Students learn that patterns can be extended because they are
repetitive by nature. Having students extend patterns (e.g., continue a given pattern, using
pattern blocks) helps them focus on the core of the pattern and the way in which the core
repeats as the pattern continues.
Determining pattern rules. Experiences in describing and extending patterns
help students make generalizations about the composition of different patterns. Students
can express these generalizations as pattern rules, that is, concise descriptions of how a
pattern repeats. In the primary grades, students express pattern rules informally (e.g., “In
this pattern, there are two green triangles and an orange square, and that part of the
pattern keeps repeating”).
Translating patterns. Given many opportunities to identify, read, describe, and
extend patterns, students learn that they can represent the same pattern structure in a

32
variety of ways. For example, students might observe that the following patterns involve
the same structure:

– step – hop – hop – step – hop – hop – step – hop – hop

– triangle – square – square – triangle – square – square – triangle – square – square
– up – down – down – up – down – down – up – down – down

Finding missing elements in patterns. A worthwhile task for students is to

identify a missing element in a pattern. For example, students might determine the
missing element in the following pattern:

Let us now discuss the Growing and Shrinking Patterns, in growing and
shrinking patterns, the number of elements increases or decreases from one term to the
next.

Students in grades 2 and 3 depict growing and decreasing patterns in a number of

ways. Students can detect the constant change that occurs from term to term by
translating a pattern from one form to another. Students could, for example, generate the
following pattern with counters and then express it in several ways:

Using a different concrete material. Using a different concrete material (e.g.,

colour tiles) to recreate a pattern helps students recognize how the pattern grows (or
shrinks) and recognize the physical arrangement of the pattern.

33
 Using a different mode (e.g., actions, colours, sounds, letters). Translating a
pattern into another mode focuses students’ attention on the number of elements in each
new term.
jump – jump
jump – jump – jump – jump
jump – jump – jump – jump – jump – jump
jump – jump – jump – jump – jump – jump – jump – jump

Using a number line. A number line illustrates the rate of increase (or decrease)
in a pattern.

Using a number sequence. Students can relate patterns that involve addition and
subtraction to skip-counting sequences.
2, 4, 6, 8

Using a bar graph. By constructing simple bar graphs that represent growing or
shrinking patterns, students can observe the increase or decrease in the number of
elements from term to term.

Using a table. Information about the pattern can be recorded in a table. The
arithmetic relationship between terms (e.g., + 2) can be indicated at the side of the table.

34
 Number Patterns. The following are among the many number patterns that
students explore in the primary grades:

1. Counting patterns. Students learn that there is a repetitive pattern of the count 1 to 9
that extends through the number system. Knowing this pattern allows students to count
forwards and backwards.
2. Skip-counting patterns. Students recognize patterns in skip counting. For example,
they see that counting by 2’s from 2 involves even numbers, and that counting by 2’s
from 1 involves odd numbers. They also learn to recognize other skip-counting patterns
(e.g., counting by 5’s from 5 involves numbers that have 0 or 5 in the ones place;
counting by 10’s from 10 involves numbers that have 0 in the ones place).

Skip-counting sequences can be represented on a number line.

3. Patterns in a hundreds chart. Work with a hundreds chart allows students to

recognize many numeric patterns. For example, a hundreds chart reveals the repetitive
pattern of the digits of 1 to 9 in each decade, and of these digits in the tens place (e.g.,
10, 20, 30, 40, . . . ). Representing growing and shrinking patterns also results in visual
patterns in a hundreds chart. The hundreds chart on the next page shows the patterns
that result from beginning at 2 and repeatedly adding 2.

4. Base ten patterns. Experiences with base ten materials help students recognize patterns
in our number system (e.g., 1 tens rod represents 10, 2 tens rods represent 20, 3 tens
rods represent 30, and so on).

5. Place-value patterns. Work with place-value patterns allows students to represent

numbers in different ways. For example, they can represent a two-digit number as
different numbers of tens and ones.
37=3 tens+7 ones
37=2 tens+17 ones
37=1 ten+27 ones
37=37 ones

6. Patterns in addition and subtraction. Students learn to recognize patterns in basic

addition and subtraction facts, for example, patterns in facts for 7:

35
7. Patterns in multiplication and division. As students learn basic multiplication and
division facts, they observe patterns (e.g., the products of 5 have either 0 or 5 in the
ones place).

Now here are the strategies that we can use in teaching patterns:

Grade 1 Grade 2
providing multiple experiences, on an ongoing basis, with repeating patterns in a variety
of forms. Such experiences include reading pattern stories, reciting chants, creating
physical patterns (e.g., have students create a circle involving a sit-stand-sit-stand-sit-
stand pattern), using concrete materials to build patterns, and discussing geometric
patterns in fabrics and in art;
providing many providing opportunities to create patterns involving two
opportunities to create the attributes (e.g., size and texture), using a variety of
same pattern, using concrete materials (e.g., attribute blocks);
different materials, and
having students compare
the patterns. For example,
students might create a
pattern, using attribute
blocks (e.g., thick triangle,
thin triangle, thick triangle,
thin triangle, thick triangle,
thin triangle); create a
pattern that has the same
structure as the pattern
using attribute blocks (e.g.,
large circle, small circle,
large circle, small circle,
large circle, small circle);
and then compare the two
patterns;
discussing patterns and discussing patterns and having them represent
pattern relationships (e.g., pattern relationships (e.g., growing or shrinking
discuss the core of a discuss the core of the patterns, using number
pattern; identify the pattern; identify elements sequences, charts, number
elements within the core); within the core); lines, and bar graphs;
providing many providing many opportunities to explore simple growing
opportunities to explore and shrinking patterns before investigating more complex
simple patterns before patterns (e.g., have students
investigating more complex describe and extend growing patterns that involve
patterns (e.g., have students increases of one element at each new term before they
describe and extend simple explore growing patterns that involve increases of two or
AB patterns before they more elements at each new term);
explore patterns with
structures such as ABB or
AABB);
exploring number patterns providing many discussing strategies for
and relationships in a opportunities to create the finding recursive
hundreds chart (e.g., count same repeating, growing, or relationships (e.g., examine
by 2’s 5’s, 10’s in a shrinking pattern, using how a growing or shrinking

36
hundreds chart and discuss different materials, and to
skip-counting patterns); compare the various
patterns created;
encouraging them to encouraging students to
explain their patterning explain their patterning
rules (e.g., “My rule is 2 red rules (e.g., “My rule is that
cubes, 1 blue cube, and 1 I start at 2 and then skip to
green cube, and that part of every second number”);
the pattern keeps
repeating”);
having them create providing opportunities to
patterns, given oral or extend repeating, growing,
written descriptions of the and shrinking patterns and
pattern (e.g., “Create an to justify how they extended
ABB pattern, using pattern the patterns;
blocks”).
representing geometric
growing and shrinking
patterns as a number
sequence (e.g., represent the
following geometric pattern
as 8, 6, 4, 2);
providing opportunities to
examine growing and
shrinking patterns, and to
explain the change that
occurs between terms, using
informal language (e.g., “In
this pattern, 2 triangles are
taken away each time”);
having them predict the
number of elements in a
later term of a growing or
shrinking pattern (e.g.,
examine the number of
cubes in the first four terms
of a pattern and predict the
number of cubes at the sixth
term);
exploring number patterns
and relationships in a
hundreds chart (e.g., find
skip-counting patterns; find
the multiples of a number),
in addition charts, and on
number lines.
37
pattern changes from term
to term);
providing opportunities to
examine growing and
shrinking patterns, and to
explain the change that
occurs between terms, using
informal language (e.g., “In
this pattern, 3 counters are
taken away each time”);
providing students with
number sequences (e.g., 1,
3, 5, 7, . . . ), and asking
them to represent the
sequence, using concrete
materials (e.g., counters,
square tiles);
providing many
opportunities to create the
same growing or shrinking
pattern, using different
materials, and to compare
the various patterns created;
providing opportunities to
solve problems that involve
finding a pattern (e.g.,
“How many wheels will a
bicycle manufacturer need
to make 1 bicycle? . . .
2 bicycles? . . . 3
bicycles? . . . 5
bicycles? . . . 10
bicycles?”);
providing opportunities to
solve problems that involve
growing or shrinking
patterns – for example, “In
a tile pattern on a wall, the
first row of tiles has
12 tiles, the second row has
10 tiles, and the third row
has 8 tiles. How many tiles
are there in the fourth row?
In the sixth row?”;
providing opportunities to
make predictions based on
patterns (e.g., record the
times for sunsets or sunrises
in the past 5 days, and then
predict times for the next 3
days);
exploring number patterns,
using a calculator (e.g., the
pattern created by
repeatedly adding 75);
playing games, such as
 Guess My Rule, in which
students try to determine the
rule used by classmates to
create a geometric or
numeric pattern;
exploring patterns in a
hundreds chart, in addition
and multiplication charts,
and on number lines (e.g.,
cover several numbers in a
hundreds chart, and have
students determine the
covered numbers by
looking at patterns in the
hundreds chart).

After tackling the patterns, it is now time to learn about Expressions and
Equality.

The following key points can be made about expressions and equality in the
primary grades:

 Equations express the equality between quantities.

 Variables are used to represent unknown quantities, to represent quantities that vary,
and to generalize number properties.

Equations. Equations are mathematical statements that have equivalent

expressions on both sides of an equal sign. Developing an understanding of equations and
of the appropriate use of the equal sign is critical for expressing generalizations about
numbers and for developing algebraic reasoning (Carpenter, Loef Franke, & Levi, 2003).
= Interpreting an equation depends on an understanding of the equal sign as a symbol that
separates two expressions that are the same or of equal value (5=5, 5=3+2, 3+2=4+1). An
understanding of the equal sign is essential in higher grades, where students manipulate
numbers in equations to solve problems. If these students lack a solid understanding of
equality, they become dependent on memorizing algebraic rules and procedures that may
have little meaning or relevance to them.
Children require several opportunities to recognize, define, create, and preserve
equality (Taylor-Cox, 2003). Students can use experiences with a balance to examine
ideas about equality and inequality in a concrete way. Students can see that when both
sides have the same amount of cubes, they are balanced, and when one side has more
cubes than the other, they are not balanced.

Variables. A variable is a letter or symbol that is used to represent an unknown

quantity (e.g., ■ +4=12), a value that can vary (e.g., 4+ = ), or a generalized number

38
property (e.g., a+b=b+a). In the primary grades, geometric shapes, rather than letters, are
often used as variables, since in the early stages of learning to read, students identify
letters as sounds, rather than as quantities.
Variables representing unknown quantities. Variables can be used to represent
unknown quantities that have a fixed value. In the following equations, each variable
represents one and only one value.

Variables representing quantities that vary. Variables can represent quantities

that have no fixed value. In these equations, the value of one variable depends on the
value of the other. In the following example, substituting any number for the triangle
affects the value of the square.

Variables used to generalize properties. In the primary grades, students begin to

understand the regularities in number operations, and begin to make generalizations about
number properties. They also learn that number expressions with variables can be used to
represent these properties. The following chart outlines number properties learned by
students in the primary grades, and shows how variables might be used to express each
property.

To teach students about equation and variables, these strategies can be used:

Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3

providing opportunities to explore concepts related to providing many experiences
equality and inequality. For example, students might in demonstrating equality,
investigate how adding the same quantity to (or removing using concrete materials
the same quantity from) both sides of a balance maintains (e.g., show that a 3 x 4 array
equality; of tiles is equal to a 2 x 6
array of tiles);
providing many experiences in demonstrating equality, having them generate a
using concrete materials (e.g., create different number variety of equations for a
combinations for 8, such as 1 and 7, 2 and 6, 4 and 4, and given number
so on, using two colours of interlocking cubes); (e.g.,8=2+2+2+2, 8=4 x 2,
8=2 x 4, 8=8 x 1, and so
on);
providing experiences in providing opportunities to discussing and
exploring the concept of 0 discuss the meaning of demonstrating number
(e.g., identify objects of equations (e.g., have properties (e.g., use

39
which there are 0 in the students explain whether counters to demonstrate the
classroom; take away given number sentences, associative property of
objects from a set to show such as 2+3=5+1 and 7– addition);
the concept of 0); 7=0+7, are true or false);
prompting students to make discussing and providing experiences in
generalizations about demonstrating number using the associative
number properties (e.g., “If properties (e.g., useproperty to facilitate mental
you add 0 to a number, the counters to demonstrate the computations with whole
number stays the same”); commutative property of numbers (e.g., to find
addition); 5+4+16, add 4+16 to get 20,
and then add 5+20);
providing opportunities to view and discuss equations written in a variety of formats
(e.g., 3=3, 4=3+1, 4+1=5).
providing experiences in exploring the concept of 0 (e.g.,
subtract objects from a set to show the concept of 0; use a
calculator to perform operations involving 0, such as 6 –
6);
providing opportunities to solve problems involving
unknown quantities in addition and subtraction situations;
providing opportunities to find the missing number in
equations involving addition and subtraction to 18 (e.g.,
find the missing number in 6+3=4+ ,using counters).

Teaching Statistics and Probability

In teaching statistics and probability, it is right to introduce it as Data

Management and Probability. The big ideas or major concepts in Data Management and
Probability are the following:
• collection and organization of data
• data relationships
• probability

Collection and Organization of Data. The following are key points that can be
made about collecting and organizing data in the primary grades:

 The main purpose for collecting and organizing data is to answer questions.
 Early experiences in sorting and classifying objects help students understand how
data can be organized.
 Organizing data in graphs, tables, charts, and other graphic organizers helps students
make sense of the data.
 Various kinds of graphs display data and communicate information in different ways.

40
 Organizing data in graphs, charts, and tables. Data organization aids in the
discovery of information that might otherwise be hidden if the data were placed randomly.
It is easier to comprehend information and identify links, trends, and patterns when data

41
is organized into groups or categories. The answers to the queries that triggered the data
collecting are frequently found in the information revealed in organized data.

1. Organizing data in graphs: The skills and concepts that students develop through
experiences in sorting objects help them understand how data can be organized in graphs.
Students learn that data, like objects, can be sorted into groups and categories.

People Graph. In a people graph, the data is represented by the students

themselves. They arrange themselves into rows based on the graph's classifications.
Students compare the data in different categories by looking at the length of the rows.
Concrete graph. Objects are used to represent data in a tangible graph. Students
can quickly count and compare the number of items in different categories by placing
each object on a graph template (e.g., a graphing mat).
Pictograph. Pictures or symbols are used to represent the data in pictographs.
Teachers can create templates that allow students to organize the data they obtain as their
expertise and independence in acquiring data grows.

42
2. Organizing data in charts and tables: In the primary grades, students learn that
information can be organized in charts. As the following examples show, charts may or
may not contain numeric data.

Tally charts are especially effective for data collection and organization.

Tables often display data that are arranged in a systematic or an ordered way.

3. Organizing data in other graphic organizers: Students can use various other graphic
organizers to display data. Commonly used graphic organizers in the primary grades
include Venn diagrams, Carroll diagrams, and glyphs.

Venn Diagram

Carroll Diagram

43
Glyph

These are the instructional strategies you can use in teaching data management:
Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3
providing opportunities to sort the same collection of providing opportunities to
objects in a variety of ways; sort and classify objects
using two or more attributes
simultaneously;
discussing ways to sort providing opportunities to sort and classify objects using
objects using obvious Venn diagrams, and discussing how objects can belong to
attributes (e.g., colour, size more than one category;
shape), and encouraging
students to sort objects
using less obvious attributes
(e.g., texture, mass,
thickness);
asking students to explain asking students to explain how they sorted a collection of
how they sorted a collection objects;
of objects;
playing games in which playing games in which having students design and
students determine a students determine a conduct surveys about
“secret” rule that was used “secret” rule that was used themselves, their
to sort a collection of to sort a collection of environment, issues in their
objects; objects; school or community, or
topics in various subject
areas;
having students generate having students design and discussing and
questions about their conduct surveys involving demonstrating different
classmates that can be questions that have a methods for collecting,
answered using simple limited number of organizing, and recording
methods for collecting data; responses; data (e.g., using a line plot,
making a tally);
providing opportunities to having students collect and organize data that are
create and discuss people categorical (i.e., that can be organized into topic
graphs, concrete graphs, categories) or discrete (i.e., that can be counted and
and pictographs; represented by a number);
providing graphing mats to discussing and providing opportunities to

44
help students organize data demonstrating different create charts, tables, and
in people graphs, concrete methods for collecting data graphs (e.g., pictographs,
graphs, and pictographs; (e.g., using a line plot, horizontal and vertical bar
making a tally); graphs), and discussing how
they can be used to organize
and display data;
having students create providing opportunities to discussing how data in tally
graphs using prepared graph create concrete graphs, charts can be represented in
templates; pictographs, and simple bar bar graphs;
graphs, and discussing how
the different graphs can be
used to organize and display
data;
having them design and providing opportunities to create graphs and graphic
conduct simple surveys displays, using software programs (e.g., Graphers);
involving questions that
have a limited number of
possible responses;
discussing and discussing how data in tally discussing many-to-one
demonstrating different charts can be represented in correspondence in
methods for collecting data bar graphs; pictographs and bar graphs
(e.g., placing a sticky note (e.g., in a bar graph, one
in the appropriate section of square represents two
a graph, making a tally); students);
providing opportunities for discussing the importance and function of titles, labels,
students to vote in order to and symbols in graphs.
make class decisions (e.g.,
by showing raised hands, by
putting check marks in a
chart, by placing cubes in
bowls that are labelled with
possible choices).

Data Relationships. The following are key points that can be made about data
relationships in the primary grades:
 Reading data involves different levels of comprehension.
 Analysing data provides a sense of the shape of the data, including how the
 data are spread out, grouped, and centred.

Curcio (2001) identifies three levels of graph comprehension:

• Reading the data involves finding information that is explicitly stated in the graph. No
interpretation of the data is required.
• Reading between the data involves interpreting mathematical relationships expressed in
the graph. It requires the ability to compare quantities (e.g., most, greater, fewest) and to
apply other mathematical concepts and skills (e.g., addition, subtraction).
• Reading beyond the data involves making inferences about the data. It requires the
student to apply background knowledge to interpret information that is not explicitly
stated in the graph.

To further understand this, see the example below:

45
Analysing data. Examining the shape of data on a graph is one technique to analyze it.
Students can look at how the data is divided over the categories or numeric scale in a
graph and use informal language to describe the distribution (e.g., "spread out," "bunched
together," "at the high end"). The way data is spread and arranged provides information
about the full group of people or things represented in the graph in a holistic fashion.
By looking at the shape of the data in a graph, students can see relationships
between pieces of data and the entire data set. For example, they can observe not only
which category has “the most” but also whether that category has “a lot more” than other
categories. Students can also surmise why the display of data looks the way it does (e.g.,
why the data are spread out, or why they are bunched together).

Here are the ways we can teach children the data relationship:

Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3

having them compare the posing questions that require students to examine and
size of groups, following describe information in graphs and other graphic
sorting activities (e.g., organizers (e.g., tally charts, Venn diagrams);
“There are more big lids
than small lids”);
discussing how each object asking them to compare (e.g., more, less, equal, most,
in a graph corresponds to fewest) the number of items in different categories of a
one student (e.g., discussing graph;
how each picture card in a
pictograph about favourite
fruits represents a student’s
choice of a favourite fruit);
posing questions that discussing the meaning of providing opportunities for
require students to examine numbers in graphs, and students to pose questions
and describe information in having students distinguish about information presented
graph; between numbers that in a graph (e.g., “What
represent data values (e.g., question could you ask a
“There are 4 pockets on my classmate about this
clothes”), and numbers that graph?”);
represent frequency (e.g.,
“There are 5 students who
have 4 pockets”);
asking them to count and providing opportunities for students to pose questions
compare the number of about information presented in a graph (e.g., “What
items in different categories question could you ask a friend about this graph?”);
in a graph (e.g., “Five fewer
students chose winter than

46
chose summer as their
favourite season”);
providing opportunities for
students to pose questions
about information presented
in a graph (e.g., “What
question could you ask a
classmate about this
graph?”);
discussing what a specific
graph shows and does not
show, for example, by
asking them, “What does
the graph tell us about our
pets? What does the graph
not tell us?”
posing questions that discussing the shape of the
encourage students to make data (the distribution of the
simple conclusions about data) in graphs (e.g., “Most
information presented in of the data are at the high
graphs (e.g., “What does the end”);
graph tell us about the
favourite game of most
students in our class?”);
discussing what a specific graph shows and does not
show, for example, by asking them, “What does the graph
tell us about our favourite animals? What does the graph
not tell us?”
having students find and
discuss the mode (i.e., the
value that occurs most
often) in a set of data;
having students judge
whether certain statements
about information in a
graph are correct or
incorrect (e.g., “Is this
statement true or false?
Most students chose milk as
their favourite drink.”).

Probability. The following are some significant points concerning probability that can be
made in primary school:
 The probability of an event happening can be described on a scale ranging from
impossible to certain.
 Probability can be used as a foundation for making predictions.
These are the instructional strategies we can use in teaching probability:

Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3

discussing the likelihood of everyday events, using mathematical language (e.g.,
impossible, unlikely, less likely, more likely, certain);
modelling by teachers of analysing the likelihood that an event will occur (e.g., “It
language that describes the is unlikely that it will rain, because it is warm outside”);
likelihood of events (e.g.,
“It is unlikely that we will
all agree on the storybook
we like best”);
participating in simple probability experiments (e.g., conducting simple experiments with
spinners);
playing simple games with dice or spinners, and explaining why games are fair or unfair.
discussing probability as a
continuum from impossible
to certain, and determining
the approximate position of
events along this continuum
(e.g., “The probability of
rain in Philippines in May is

47
 close to impossible”);

You finally reached the end of

this module. Let us now
proceed to the activities.

SYNTHESIZING YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Activity 3. Teach Me How?

As a future teacher, lesson plan will be your Bible, let us make an outline first. Given the
objectives, fill out the necessary information to complete your Lesson Plan Outline.

OUTLINE LESSON PLAN in MATH 3

(until the Part 3)

I. OBJECTIVE

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

 construct squares, rectangles, triangles, circles, half-circles, and quarter circles using
cutouts and square grids.

II. SUBJECT MATTER

Topic: Basic Shapes (Square, Rectangle, and Circle)

Skills:
Materials:
Reference/s:

III. LEARNING PROCEDURE

A. Routine Activities
B. Preparatory Activities
1. Drill
2. Review
3. Motivation

C. Developmental Activities
1. Presentation
2. Discussion
3. Practice Exercise
4. Generalization
5. Application

48
Activity 4. Sing It!

I. Given the following topics under Measurement, Algebra and Statistics, choose one and
create a song about it.

 Likelihood of an Event
 Telling and Writing the Time in Minutes Using Digital Clock
 Reading and Constructing a Pictograph
 Interpreting Data in a Bar Graph
 Collecting Data on One Variable

II. Sing it and video yourself. Upload it on your YouTube Account and send the link to
the email, mrtapadera12@ineust.ph.education.

See the rubrics below as your guide for scoring.

49
REFERENCES

A Guide To Effective Instruction to Matematics Kindergarten to 3. (2007). Ministry of

Education. Queen’s Printer for Ontario

Bolanos, A. (1997). Probability and Statistics An Introduction. Rex book Store.

Marcelino, D. D. et. al. (2011). Contemporary Mathematics. Lorimar Publishing, Inc.

Miller, C. D. et. al. (2004). Mathematical Ideas Expanded Tenth Edition. Pearson
Education, Inc.

Musser, G. L. et. al. (2003).Mathematics for Elementary Teachers, 6th Ed. A

Contemporary Approach. John Wiley and Sons.

Utuzzurum, J. et. al. (1997) College Statistics.

50