01 - Fundamentals of Metalworking

Lecture 1
Fundamentals of metal
forming
Subjects of interest
• Introduction/objectives
• Classification of metal processes
• Mechanics of metal forming
• Flow curves
• Effects of temperature on metal foeming
- Hot working
- Cold working
• Effects of metallurgical structure on forming processes
• Effects of speed of deformation on forming processes
• Effects of friction and lubricant
University of Technology Materials Eng. Oct. 2021

Objectives
•This chapter provides classification of metal forming

processes based on types of deformation and based on
types of forces applied onto metals.
•Mechanics of metal forming will be outlined to understand
stress criterion for plastic deformation.
•Differences between hot and cold working will be highlighted
and advantages-disadvantages of hot and cold working will be
given.
•Effects of deformation speed and friction on metal working
process will be included.

Introduction
University of Technology Oct. 2021

Introduction
Limit of proportionality (A)
Up to this point stress is proportional to strain.
Elastic limit (A′)
This is slightly above A and up to this point the elasticity is maintained or
the strain disappears completely and the original length is regained, when
it is unloaded below this point.
Upper yield point (B)
When this point is reached stress starts reducing and extension increases or yielding
of the material takes place.
Lower yield point(C)
At this point stress and strain increases again.
Ultimate stress (D)
This is the maximum stress the material can resist. After this point cross sectional
area reduces at a section (necking). Stress again reduces and strain increases.
Breaking point (E)
Stress at this point is called fracture stress. This is the point at which the specimen
breaks. The region C to D is called work hardening or strain hardening region.

Classification of metal forming
processes
(based on the type of force applied on to the work piece as

it is formed into shape).
• Direct-compression-type processes
• Indirect-compression processes
• Tension type processes
• Bending processes
• Shearing processes

•Direct-compression
type processes :
the applied force is normal to
the direction of the metal flow
in compression, i.e., forging
and rolling processes.
• Indirect-compression type processes :

the primary forces are frequently tensile, with indirect compressive
forces developed by the reaction of the work piece. The metal flow is
therefore under the combined stress state, i.e., extrusion, wiredrawing,
tube drawing.

• Tension type processes :
the applied force is tensile, i.e.,
stretching forming.
• Bending processes :
the applied force involves the
application of bending moments
to the sheet.
• Shearing processes :
the applied force involves the
application of shearing forces of
sufficient magnitude to rupture the
metal in the plane of shear.

Classification of metal forming by subgroups
Metal forming
Com pressive Combined tensile Tensile Forming by Forming by

forming and compressive form ing bending shearing
forming
• Rolling • Pulling through a die • Stretching •Bending with • Joggling

linear tool
• Open die forming • Deep drawing • Expanding • Twisting
motion
• Closed die forming • Flange forming • Recessing • Blanking
•Bending with
• Indenting • Spinning rotary tool • Coining
• Pushing through a die • Upset bulging motion

Mechanics of metal working
•Metal working occurs due to plastic deformation which is
associated with analysis of complex stress distribution.
 require simplification.
Only (large) plastic strain is considered while elastic strain is
very small and can be neglected.
Strain hardening is often neglected.
Metal is considered to be isotropic and homogeneous.
Normally plastic deformation is not uniform and also have

frictions, but we need to simplify the stress analysis in order
to determine the force required to produce a given amount of
deformation to obtain a product in a required geometry.

𝐸𝑛𝑔. 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜎 𝑜 = 𝑃Τ𝐴𝑜
𝐸𝑛𝑔. 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 e 𝑜 = ∆𝐿Τ𝐿𝑜
True 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜎 = 𝑃Τ𝐴

𝐿 𝑑𝐿
True 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝜖 = ‫𝐿 𝐿׬‬
𝑜
𝐿
𝜖= 𝑙𝑛
𝐿𝑜
P: load, 𝐴𝑜 : initial cross section area, 𝐿𝑜 : initial length,

𝐴: instantaneous cross section area, L: instantaneous length

Relationship between engineering and
true stress-strain
From the constant-volume relation

𝐴𝑜 𝐿
𝐴𝐿 = 𝐴𝑜 𝐿𝑜 ⟹ =
𝐴 𝐿𝑜
𝐿 − 𝐿𝑜 𝐿 𝐴𝑜
𝑒𝑜 = = −1= −1⟹
𝐿𝑜 𝐿𝑜 𝐴
𝐴𝑜
= 𝑒𝑜 + 1
𝐴
𝐿 𝐴𝑜
𝜖 = 𝑙𝑛 = 𝑙𝑛 = ln 𝑒𝑜 + 1
𝐿𝑜 𝐴
𝑃 𝑃 𝐿 𝑃
𝜎= = . = 𝑒𝑜 + 1
𝐴 𝐴𝑜 𝐿𝑜 𝐴𝑜
= 𝜎𝑜 𝑒𝑜 + 1
Relationship between engineering and
true stress-strain
And the fractional reduction

(reduction of area) in metal working
deformation is given by
From the constant-volume relation Ao A1
r
Ao
A1L1  Ao Lo
A1
Ao r  1 or A1  1 r
Lo
Ao Ao
L1 Ao 1
 A1 L1    ln  ln  ln
Lo A1 1 r
Elastic and plastic region laws
At elastic region : Hook’s law 𝜎 = Eϵ

At plastic region Power’s law 𝜎 = Kϵ 𝑛
K: is strength coefficient of material

n: is coefficient of strain hardening
At necking point (max. load point or ultimate
stress):
ϵ=n and 𝑒𝑜 = 𝑒 𝜀 + 1
𝜎 = 𝜎𝑢𝑡𝑠 𝑒 𝑛

Example: Determine the engineering strain, true strain, and
reduction for (a) a bar which is doubled in length and (b) a bar
which is halved in length.
(a) For a bar which L2  L1 2L1  L1

e  1.0
is double in length, L1 L1
L2 = 2L1
  ln L2  ln 2L1  0.693
L1 L1
A1 A2 A L L
r  1 2  1 1  1 1  0.5
A1 A1 L2 2L1
(b) For a bar L1 / 2 L1 L  L /2
which is halved in e  0.5 or ec  1 1  0.5
L1 L1
length, L 2 = L 1/2
  ln L1 / 2  ln 1   ln 2  0.693
L1 2
L1
r  1  1.0
L1 / 2

Ex: the results of a tensile test of metal sample are as the
following; true strain=0.08 at stress=265 MPa; and true strain
=0.27 when stress= 327MPa. Determine the strength
coefficient and the strain hardening exponent in power law
equation.
𝜎 = Kϵ 𝑛
265= Kϵ(0,08)𝑛 (1)
325= Kϵ(0,27)𝑛 (2)
By dividing 2 on 1
𝑛
325 0.27
= ⟹ 1.2264 = 3.375 𝑛
265 0.08
⟹ 𝑛𝑙𝑛 3.375 = ln(1.2264 ⟹ 𝑛 = 0.1678
Sub. Value n in the power law eq. to obtain K
265
𝐾= 0.1678
= 404.85𝑀𝑃𝑎
0.08

Ex: a material has a true stress-strain curve obey the
relationship 𝜎 = 690𝜖 0.5 . Determine the true and engineering
ultimate tensile stress of this material.
At necking point or max. load point 𝜖 = 𝑛 = 0.5

, ∴ 𝜎 = 𝐾𝑛𝑛 = 690 0.5 0.5 = 488𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐿 𝐴𝑜
𝜖 = 𝑛 = ln = 𝑙𝑛 = 0.5 ⟹ 𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑘
𝐿𝑜 𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑘
= 𝐴𝑜 𝑒 −0.5
Max. load 𝑃 = 𝜎𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑘 = 𝜎𝐴𝑜 𝑒 −0.5 = 488
× 0.606𝐴𝑜 = 290𝐴𝑜
𝑃 290𝐴𝑜
∴ 𝜎𝑜 = = = 290𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐴𝑜 𝐴𝑜

Flow curves
•Flow curve indicates whether metal is readily deformed at given
conditions, i.e., strain rate, temperature.
•Flow curve is strongly dependent on strain rate and
temperature.
Flow curves of some metals at room temperature

Determination of flow curve
Stress-strain curve
 = Kn
 A
 is ture stress
 is true strain
K is constant
 n is work hardening exponent
(this is valid from the beginning of plastic
flow to the maximum load at which the
specimen begins to neck down.)
  
Ture stress-strain curve of a ductile
metal under uniaxial tensile loading.
• Hook’s law is followed up to the yield point,  o.

• Beyond  o, metal deforms plastically (strain hardening).
• Unloading from A immediately decreases the strain from

1 to 2 = /E the strain decrease 1-2 is the recoverable
elastic strain.
Flow curve
Flow curve
y
True stress, 
True stress
0 10 20 30 40 50
Reduction of area by drawing, % True strain,  f
Flow curve constructed from stress- Method of using average flow
strain curves after different amounts of stress to compensate for strain
reduction. hardening.
Temperature Flow stress

Effects of strain rate and temperature
Flow stress of aluminium as a function of Flow curves of Cu Zn28

strain at different temperature
Temp Flow stress Strain rate Flow stress

Flow curve
•Strain hardening occurred when an iron wire had been
drawn to a specific true strain.
True stress-strain curve for iron wire deformed by

wiredrawing at room temperature.
Working processes
•The methods used to mechanically shape metals into other
product forms are called Working Processes.
Hot working T ~ Tm
Working processes
Cold working T  Tm
Hot working (0.6-0.8Tm)

Definition : deformation under conditions of temperature and
strain rate such that recrystallisation process take place
simultaneously with the deformation.
Examples : rolling, forging, extrusion
Cold working (< 0.3Tm)
Definition : deformation carried out under conditions where
recovery processes are not effective.
Examples : rolling, forging, extrusion, wire/tube drawing,
swaging, coining
www.magnesiumextrusions.com
•The products resulting from the working of
metals are called Wrought Products. such as
sheet, plate, bar, forging.
• Plastic working processes can also
divided into:
Primary mechanical working process
Magnesium bars
Designed to reduce an ingot or billet to

a standard mill product of simple
shape, i.e., sheet, plate, bar.
Secondary mechanical working process Steel plates
Primary sheets, plates or

bars are formed into final
finished shapes, i.e., wire &
tube drawing, sheet metal
forming operation.
Drawn wires

Hot working
•Hot working involves deformation at temperatures where
recrystallisation can occur (0.6-0.8 Tm).
Examples of hot working temperatures for each metal
Recrystallisation Hot working

Melting point
Metal temperature range
(oC)
(oC) (oC)
Iron 1535 450 900-1200
Copper 1083 200 650-900
Aluminium (alloys) 660 150 350-500
Zinc 420 20 110-170

Effects of temperature on metal forming
processes
Ductility
Strength
Properties
Hardness
Cold worked and New grains Temperature

recovered
Recovery Recrystallisation Grain growth

~0.3Tm ~0.5Tm
Annealing mechanisms in cold worked metals

Recrystallisation during hot working
Deformed in
direction of work
Nuclei form at grain boundaries at

points of max stress
Nuclei grow into new grains
•The minimum temperature at which reformation of the crystals

occurs is called Recrystallisation Temperature.
•Above the recrystallisation temperature the kinetic energy of atoms
increases and therefore they are able to attach themselves to the
newly formed nuclei which in turn begin to grow into crystals. This
process continues until all the distorted crystals have been
transformed.
• Hot working results in grain refining.
www.msm.cam.ac.uk
Recrystallisation
Deformed matrix
•Recrystallisation takes place at higher
temperatures than recovery which leads to
a new formation of grains.
•The process includes 1) primary
Recrystallised grains with
recystallisation and 2) secondary annealing twins
recrystallisation and grain growth.
Recrystallised grain with annealing twins
surrounded by deformed matrix with high
Primary recrystallisation density of dislocations.
-Primary recrystallisation occurs at the beginning of the

new grain formation process.
-Recrystallisation temperature does not depend on the
metal alone, but on a whole number of variables
temperature, strain and minimum dislocation density
available (amount of deformation)
-Small impurities in pure metals can considerably
increase the recrystallisation temperature.
Recrystallised grain size and prior plastic strain
Recrystallised grain size, mm

10
Aluminium sheet
Critical
deformation
5 10 15 20 25
Plastic deformation, %
The greater the driving force (greater prior plastic deformation),

the greater the number of nuclei that will form and the finer will
be the final grain size.

Effects of grain size on properties
Ductility
Properties
Strength
Grain size
• Small grains make dislocations more difficult to move
• More slip plane, therefore, greater ductility

Advantages and disadvantages of
hot working
Advantages
• Higher ductility –Since there is no strain hardening any amount of
working can be imparted. i.e more deformation without cracking.
• Lower flow stress –Only lesser force is required for hot working. i.e
less mechanical energy required for deformation.
• Even brittle materials can be hot worked.
• Pores seal up- Blow holes and porosities are eliminated by welding
action at high temperature and pressure.
• Smaller grain size- A favourable grain size can be attained, at controlled
working conditions. So better mechanical properties can be achieved.
• Microsegregation is much reduced or removed due to atomic diffusion,
which is higher at high temperatures.
• Stronger, tougher and more ductile than as-cast metals due to breaking
down and refinement of coarse columnar grains in the cast ingot.

hot working
Disdvantages
• Surface reactions between the metal and the furnace atmosphere, i.e.,
oxidation (oxide scales), decaburisation in steels.
• Hot shortness, when the working temperature exceeds the melting
temperature of constituent at grain boundaries such as FeS.
• Dimension tolerance is poor due to thermal expansion at high
temperatures.
• Handling is more difficult (from furnace to machine).

Cold working
•Normally performed at room temperature but in general < 0.3Tm,
where recovery is limited and recrystallisation does not occur.
• Work hardening occurs (strength and hardness increase but
ductility decreases).
• The extent of deformation is rather limited if cracks are to be
avoid, therefore intermediate anneals that enable recrystallisation
are frequently used afterwards.
•The materials suitable for cold working should have a relatively
low yield stress and a relatively high work hardening rate
(determined primarily by its tensile properties). i.e only the
ductile matels are cold worked. The materials commonly used
for cold working include: low and medium carbon steel (0,25 to
0.45 )%C, low alloy steel, copper and light alloys like Al, Mg, and
Ti.

Cold working
•The tool material must have a mechanical strength greater than
that of the material to be cold worked. Also, the tool (die, roller,
etc.) must have a reasonable working life.
• Max. possible deformation of material should be obtained in a
single working operation.
• Both cold ductility and cold flow-ability of a material depend on its
chemical composition. As for steel, with an increase in the
percentage of carbon or alloying constituents, its deformability
secreases and the resistance to deformation increases.
•The max. limit is usually 0.45% C for steels used in cold
extrusion and i.6% for other cold forging operation. Imputers like
S, P, O, and N also impair the cold workability of the steel.
•The grain size is important factor. Large grain is easier to cold
work, while the parts made from fine grained material are
stronger.

cold working
Advantages
• Provide work hardening, materials are stronger.
• Provide fine grain size and good surface finish.
• Dimension tolerance is better than in hot working.
• Easier handling (low operating temperatures).
• Surface defects are removed.
• No oxidation and scalling of the worked material occurs. This results in
reduced material loss.
• Thin gauge sheets can be produced by cold working.

cold working
Disadvantages
• At low temp. the strength of a metal is very high. So large forces are
needed for deformation . For this high capacity equipment is required which
is costly.
• Equipment (rolls, dies, presses) is big and expensive.
• The ductility / formability of metal is low at low temp. hence for large
deformation cold working requires several stages with interstage annealing,
which increase the cost of production.
• Due to limited ductility at low temp., the complexity of the shapes that can
be produced is limited.
• Due to very high forces, tool pressures and power requirements are high
too. So the tooling must be specially designed, which increase the tool cost.
• Severe stresses are set up in the metal during cold working this requires
stress relieving which again increase the cost.
Properties of steels (C10) after hot-cold working
Mechanical
Hot rolled Cold rolled
properties
Ultimate tensile
strength, TS 427 558
(MPa)
Yield stress,  y
220 345
(MPa)
Brinell hardness
94 174
(HB)

Design the deformation process
By controlling the amount of deformation, we control strain

hardening. We normally measure the amount of deformation by
defining the percent cold work:
𝐴𝑜 − 𝐴𝑓
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 = × 100
𝐴𝑜
where 𝐴𝑜 is the original cross-sectional area of the metal and 𝐴𝑓 is
the final cross-sectional area after deformation. For the case of cold
rolling, the percent reduction in thickness is used as the measure of
cold work according to:
𝑡𝑜 − 𝑡𝑓
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 = × 100
𝑡𝑜
where 𝑡𝑜 is the initial sheet thickness and 𝑡𝑓 is the final thickness

The effect of cold work on the mechanical
properties of commercially pure copper is shown in
Figure

Ex: A 1-cm-thick copper plate is cold-reduced to 0.50 cm and
later further reduced to 0.16 cm. Determine the total percent
cold work and the tensile strength of the 0.16 cm plate.
because the width of the plate does not change during rolling, the
cold work can be expressed as the percent reduction in the
thickness t.
𝑡𝑜 − 𝑡𝑓
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 = × 100
𝑡𝑜
1 𝑐𝑚 − 0.16 𝑐𝑚
= × 100 = 84%
1 𝑐𝑚

from Figure , the tensile strength is about 570 MPa.
We can predict the properties of a metal or an alloy if we

know the amount of cold work during processing. We can
then decide whether the component has adequate strength
at critical locations.
When we wish to select a material for a component that

requires certain minimum mechanical properties, we can
design the deformation process. We first determine the
necessary percent cold work and then, using the final
dimensions we desire, calculate the original dimensions from
the cold work equation.

Ex: calculate the percent cold work when
(1*6*20)cm plate is deformed by rolling to a
0.5 cm plate.
The width does not change during rolling

1 × 6 × 20
∴ 𝐴𝑜 𝐿𝑜 = 𝐴𝑓 𝐿𝑓 ⟹ 𝐿𝑓 = = 40𝑐𝑚
0.5 × 6
∴ the final dimension of the plate are 0.5*6*40 cm
𝐴𝑜 − 𝐴𝑓
∴ 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 = × 100 = 50%
𝐴𝑜

Ex: Establish a manufacturing process to produce a 1 mm-
thick copper plate having at least 430 MPa tensile strength,
400 MPa yield strength, and 5% elongation.
From Figure, we need at least 35% cold work to produce tensile

strength of 430 MPa and 40% cold work to produce a yield
strength of 400 MPa, but we need less than 45% cold work to
meet the 5% elongation requirement. Therefore, any cold work
between 40% and 45% gives the required mechanical properties.
To produce the plate, a cold-rolling process would be appropriate.
Assuming that the width of the plate does not change. Because
there is a range of allowable cold work -between 40% and 45% -
there is a range of initial plate thicknesses:
𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛 − 1
𝐶𝑊𝑚𝑖𝑛 % = 40% = × 100 ⟹ 𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 1.67𝑚𝑚
𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 1
𝐶𝑊𝑚𝑎𝑥 % = 45% = × 100 ⟹ 𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1.82𝑚𝑚
𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥

Effects of metallurgical structure
on working processes
Deformation
Increasing reduction
bands Rolling direction

associated
with plastic
instability.
Schematic representation of shear band Fibrous texture in rolled plate.

formation in compression of a cylinder.
•The presence of preferred orientation causes anisotropy of

mechanical properties, especially in rolled sheets.
•The development of texture is the formation of deformation
bands or shear bands, which are regions of distortion wherea
portion of grains have rotated towards another orientation to
accommodate the applied strain.
Effects of speed of deformation
High deformation speed • High flow stress.
(high strain rate) • Increased the temperature of the workpiece.
• improved lubrication at the tool-metal interface.
Flow stress dependence on strain rate and temperature
Note: • If the speed of deformation is too high, metal cracking is possible.

• Can cause plastic instability in cold working
• Can cause hot shortness in hot working
Effects of friction and lubrication
Friction at tool-workpiece interface depends on geometryof
the tooling and the geometry of the deformation, temperature,
nature of metal, speed of deformation.
Die-workpiece interface (a) on the macroscale, (b) on the microscale.

Effects of friction and lubrication
When two surfaces are brought into contact, the high spot (asperities)
will come into contact.
•As we increase the load, the metal
at the asperities deform plastically
and produce sub-shear zone.
• The coefficient of friction is given by
  F   i Ar   i
P pAr p …Eq.15
Where
 = frictional coefficient
 = the shearing stress at the interface
P = the load normal to the interface
F = the shearing force
(a) Contact at asperities (b) overlap of Ar= summation of asperity areas in contact
deformation zones to produce subsurface
shear zone.
p = the stress normal to the interface
Effect of residual stresses
•Residual stresses is generated by non-uniform plastic
deformation when external stresses are removed.
• Ex: in rolling process, the surface grains in the sheet are

deformed and tend to elongate, while the grain in the centre
are unaffected.
• Due to continuity of the
sheet, the central fibres tend to
restrain the surface fibres from
elongating while the surface
fibres tend to stretch the
central fibres.
•Residual stress pattern

consisting of high
compressive stress at
(a) Inhomogeneous deformation in rolling of
sheet, (b) resulting distribution of longitudinal the surface and tensile
residual stress over thickness of sheet. stress in the centre.
Effect of residual stresses
•Residual stresses are only elastic stresses. The maximum

value which a residual stress can reach is the yield stress of
the material.
•Residual stresses can be considered the same as ordinary
applied stresses.
•Compressive residual stress can effectively subtracts from
the applied tensile stresses.
•Metals containing residual stresses can be stress relieved
by heating to a temperature where the yield strength of the
material is the same or lower than the value of the residual
stress such that the material can deform and release stress.
•However slow cooling is required otherwise residual stress
can again develop during cooling.

Workability
•Workability is concerned with the extent to which a material
can be deformed in a specific metal working process without
the formation of cracks.
1. Cracks at a free surface
•Cracks which occur in metal
2. Cracks that develop in asurface
working processes can be
where interface friction is high
grouped into three broad
3. Internal cracks.
categories:
Examples of cracks in metalworking (a) free

Dependence of forming limit of surface crack (b) surface crack from heavy die
mean normal stress  m. friction in extrusion, (c) centre burst or chevron
cracks in a drawn rod.

01 - Fundamentals of Metalworking

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01 - Fundamentals of Metalworking

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Lecture 1

University of Technology Materials Eng. Oct. 2021

•This chapter provides classification of metal forming

University of Technology Materials Eng. Oct. 2021

University of Technology Oct. 2021

University of Technology Oct. 2021

(based on the type of force applied on to the work piece as

University of Technology Materials Eng. Oct. 2021

• Indirect-compression type processes :

University of Technology Materials Eng. Oct. 2021

University of Technology Materials Eng. Oct. 2021

Com pressive Combined tensile Tensile Forming by Forming by

• Rolling • Pulling through a die • Stretching •Bending with • Joggling

University of Technology Materials Eng. Oct. 2021

Strain hardening is often neglected.

Metal is considered to be isotropic and homogeneous.

Normally plastic deformation is not uniform and also have

University of Technology Materials Eng. Oct. 2021

𝐸𝑛𝑔. 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 e 𝑜 = ∆𝐿Τ𝐿𝑜

True 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜎 = 𝑃Τ𝐴

P: load, 𝐴𝑜 : initial cross section area, 𝐿𝑜 : initial length,

University of Technology Oct. 2021

From the constant-volume relation

And the fractional reduction

At elastic region : Hook’s law 𝜎 = Eϵ

K: is strength coefficient of material

University of Technology Oct. 2021

(a) For a bar which L2  L1 2L1  L1

University of Technology Materials Eng. Oct. 2021

University of Technology Oct. 2021

At necking point or max. load point 𝜖 = 𝑛 = 0.5

University of Technology Oct. 2021

Flow curves of some metals at room temperature

University of Technology Materials Eng. Oct. 2021

• Hook’s law is followed up to the yield point,  o.

• Unloading from A immediately decreases the strain from

Temperature Flow stress

University of Technology Materials Eng. Oct. 2021

Flow stress of aluminium as a function of Flow curves of Cu Zn28

Temp Flow stress Strain rate Flow stress

University of Technology Materials Eng. Oct. 2021

True stress-strain curve for iron wire deformed by

Hot working (0.6-0.8Tm)

Designed to reduce an ingot or billet to

Secondary mechanical working process Steel plates

Primary sheets, plates or

University of Technology Materials Eng. Oct. 2021

Examples of hot working temperatures for each metal

Recrystallisation Hot working

Iron 1535 450 900-1200

Copper 1083 200 650-900

Aluminium (alloys) 660 150 350-500

Zinc 420 20 110-170

University of Technology Materials Eng. Oct. 2021

Cold worked and New grains Temperature

Recovery Recrystallisation Grain growth

University of Technology Materials Eng. Oct. 2021

Nuclei form at grain boundaries at

Nuclei grow into new grains

•The minimum temperature at which reformation of the crystals

-Primary recrystallisation occurs at the beginning of the

Recrystallised grain size, mm