Group 6 - PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATION: THE LEARNER 

The Nature and Fundamental Equipment of a Learner

The principal elements that make teaching and learning possible and

attainable are the teachers, the learners, and a conducive learning

environment. Without one there could be no teaching, nor will there be

learning of a desired objective. Only when a positive relationship exists

among them can teaching and learning occur with precision and predictability.

The teacher serves as the prime mover of the educational wheel while the

learners are the key participants in the learning process. The favorable

environment provides essential features and ingredients that could make a

headway in guiding the processes and methodologies needed for a smooth

linkage among the three. How does each element contribute to learning?

The learner is an embodied spirit. He is a union of a sentient body and a

rational soul. His body experiences sensations and feels pleasure and pain.

His soul is the principle of spiritual acts, the source of intellectual abstraction,

self-reflection, and free rational volition. Body and soul exist in mutual

dependence. (Kelly, 1965) As teachers then, let us care for the embodied

spirit-learner. Let us feed his/her body as well as his/her spirit. “Man does not

leave by bread alone.” The learner is equipped with cognitive as well

as appetitive faculties. His/her cognitive faculties include his/her five senses,

instinct, imagination, memory, and intellect. By his/her senses, the learner is

able to see, hear, feel, taste -and smell whatever is to be learned. By the his/her of

imagination, the learner is able to form representations of material objects which are not

actually present to the senses. By his/her power of memory he is able to retain, recall

and recognize past mental acts. By his/her intellect, s/he can form concepts or ideas,

makes judgment, and reason out. His/her appetitive faculties are his/her feelings and

emotions and rational will. By his/her feelings and emotions, s/he experiences the

pleasantness or unplea-santness, the satisfactoriness or unsatisfactoriness, the pain

any the joy of an object or an activity. His/her will serves as guidance for and the main

integrating force in the learner’s character. By his her will, the learner wills what his/her

intellect presents as good desirable.

For effective and efficient learning, the live senses must function normally. The learner

becomes aware of hisfher objective world through his/her senses. What is the

contribution of the senses to learning? All learners are equipped with the cognitive and

appetitive faculties. They differ however in the degree to which they are utilized and

expressed on account of the learners’ abilities, aptitudes, interests, values and attitudes

and home background. Let us take a look once more at the learner from this point of

view of these five distinguishing elements.

1. Ability - The students’ native ability dictates the prospects of success in any

purposeful activity. It determines their capacity to understand and assimilate information

for their own use and application. As learners they differ in the way they observe and

interpret happenings in their surroundings. Some are more perceptive and discerning

while others are less inquisitive. With such typical reactions and facilit) to learn, they

may. be classified generally into fast, average and slow learners. Others are labeled
high, moderate and slow achievers. Hence, their proficiency in searching for more

knowledge and the motivation in performance skills are contingent on their endowed

potential to learn.  As to their mental ability, students can he categorized into superior,

above average and below average. A wide range in their intelligence is a factor to

consider in planning instruction.

2. Aptitude - Aptitude refers to the students’ innate talent or gift. It indicates a natural

capacity to learn certain skills. Some may exhibit special inclination for the arts such as

painting and designing crafts, propensity for music and flair for dramatics. Talent for

mathematics or literature is likewise noticed among a few.  An early recognition of said

natural adeptness among students is indeed compelling so as not to waste such inborn

learning. Provisions of a formative environment will be of great help in enabling them to

flourish and grow.

Learners vary in activities that arc undertaken due to strong appeal or attraction. A

physically go for athletics, while an artistic and stylish student would pursue hobbies

that  are fascinating, Girls are, strongly attracted to flowering plants and greeneries and

their preoccupations revolve around them. Boys go for hiking and mountain climbing.

Lessons that give them the chance to express their deep feelings for objects or actions

will be more meaningful and easily absorbed. A classroom set-up could offer centers of

interest that make their stay pleasant and enjoyable. Interest clubs organized by

different disciplines serve as outlet of special interests shared by the members.

4. Family & Cultural Background- Students who come from different socioeconomic

background manifest a wide range of behavior due to differences in upbringing

practices. Some families allow their members to express their preferences regarding

self-discipline while others are left to passively follow home regulations. Their

participation classroom activities are influenced by their home training and experiences,

either they become attuned and confident in their ways or inactive and apathetic.  

Beneficial relationships of learners with their mentors and with one another affirm the

kind of bond they enjoy at home. Cooperation, coupled with a willingness to share, is

instilled and is carried over to all associations they join. The tendency to readily affiliate

with a group is most welcomed in a classroom setting where teamwork achieves

desired lesson objectives.

5. Attitudes- Students have a unique way of thinking and reacting. Confronted with the

same situation in the learning environment each one would react differently depending

on their personal characteristics. Attitude refers to an individual’s perspective and

disposition. Some positive attitudes are:

a. Curiousity- Curious students are at all times eager to learn. They are anxious to know

more about an object or event by endlessly questioning until they get the right

information. Children’s attitudes could be positive or negative to a given stimulus,

hence, different interpretations and responses. Inquisitive learners will keep searching

for answers or evidence rather than remain inattentive and disinterested in what is

happening in the learning environment. They observe keenly and use their senses

intelligently. 

b. Responsibility- Responsible students pursue assigned task to completion despite

personal constraints. They are accountable for their actions and decisions. They are

answereable for their conduct in the classroom. They can be depended upon for
learning tasks, which are accomplished in an orderly and systematic manner. As such,

they assume duties, and obligations voluntarily. Responsible students can easily instill

the same trusthworthy attitude among themselves.

c. Creativity- Students with creative minds are capable of generating own ideas of doing

things. Being imaginative they can think of new ways of arriving at solutions to their

problems. They can innovate procedures and techniques instead of sticking to

antiquated and traditional methodologies. Learning is achieved through their own

inventions and novel revisions,.thus producing new and improved products.

d. Persistence- Persistent students sustain interest in a learning acti-vity not mindful of

the extra time and effort being spent. They pursue the task to completion and never give

up when confronted with problems. They develop the attitude of trying alternative

procedures until they obtain satisfac-tory results. They are driven by a never-ending

search for more knowledge and information. These five elements make learners

different from one another. The differences among learners become more

accentuated,with the integration of children with special needs and children from the

indigenous peoples (IP) group in the classroom.

Factors That Affect the Growth and Development of Your Child

As a parent, your child’s growth and development is of prime importance to you. There

are several factors that affect the growth and development of your child and it is

essential to have an understanding of each of the factors, both internal and external. 

While growth and development are terms that are used interchangeably, they are

distinctly different. Growth refers to the changes in physical characteristics such as

height, weight, size, etc., while development refers to qualitative changes to growth, that

result in maturity. Development can be both physical as well as mental.

1. Genetics: Genetics/Hereditary, also known as inheritance or biological inheritance is

the transmission of physical characteristics from you to your children through your

genes (the basic physical and functional unit of inheritance). Genes have an effect on

most of the physical characteristics of your child such as height, weight, body structure,

the colour of their eye, the texture of their hair, and even intelligence and aptitudes. For

example, if you are tall, it is most likely that your child will also inherit this trait and be

tall.

Not only this, various disorders and health conditions such as heart disease, diabetes,

obesity, etc., may also be passed on to your child through your genes, thereby affecting

the growth and development of your child.

2. Sex (gender): The sex of your child is another major factor affecting the physical

growth and development of your child. Boys tend to be taller and physically stronger

than girls. On the contrary, most girls mature faster during adolescence, while boys take

a longer period of time to mature. An adolescent is anyone who is between the age of

10 to 19 years and adolescence is the transition phase of your child from childhood to

adulthood. 

The physical structure of your child’s body also depends on their gender. While boys

are more athletic, girls might not be a fan of sports or rigorous physical activities.

3. Hormones: The endocrine system is composed of many glands which include the

hypothalamus, pituitary, pineal, thyroid, parathyroid, thymus, adrenal, and pancreas.

Hormones are produced and secreted by these glands, that regulate the growth and

development, metabolism, tissue function, sexual function, reproduction, sleep, mood,

etc., of your child's body. The timely functioning of most hormones is required for the

normal physical growth and development of your child.  The main growth hormones in

your child are: Growth hormone (GH) produced by the pituitary gland (a small oval-

shaped gland at the base of the brain) that helps children with overall growth and

development. Thyroid hormone, critical for the growth and development of your child’s

brain. It also regulates your child’s heart rate, blood pressure, and energy levels. Sex

hormones control the development of sex organs. Testosterone is the primary male sex

hormone and estrogen is the primary female sex hormone. 

4. Environment: Environmental factors refer to the external conditions (sum total of

physical and psychological situations) that affect your child’s growth and development.

Some of the environmental factors influencing early childhood development involve the

physical surroundings and geographical conditions of the place the child lives in, as well

his/her social environment and relationships with family and peers.  A peaceful, loving

family and school environment builds strong social and interpersonal skills in your child,

which will enable them to excel in their academics and extracurricular activities. 

Pollutants like lead, manganese, mercury, and pesticides through water or food, can

hamper growth, cause physical abnormalities, and weaken your child’s immune system.

5. Nutrition: Your child’s body needs the right amounts of nutrition to build and repair

itself. Malnutrition (lack of sufficient nutrients in the body) can cause deficiency diseases

that can adversely affect the growth and development of your child. Make sure your
child eats a balanced diet that is rich in vitamins, minerals, proteins, carbohydrates, and

fats. These are required for the development of the brain and the body.

6. Exercises: Exercises or physical activities are very important for the growth and

development of your child. Exercise primarily refers to normal playtime and sports

activities that help the body gain muscular strength and bone mass.  Proper exercise

will help your child grow well, keep him/her healthy and fight off diseases by

strengthening the immune system. Encourage your child to play for about 1 hour every

day, if possible, play outdoors. Exposure to sunlight is also essential during the early

growth and development stages of your child.

7. Socio-economic Factors: The socio-economic status of your family determines the

quality of opportunities that your child gets. Children from financially well-off families

have access to better nutrition and formal education. Poorer families may not have

access to educational resources and good nutrition to reach their full potential. To

summarize, some of the above-mentioned factors are controllable and you can decide

how to manage those for your child’s growth and development. But some factors are

beyond your control and will play their part. Besides nutrition and exercise, pay close

attention to your child’s behaviour, attitude, rest, and sleep patterns too.

A  physically, mentally, and emotionally healthy child is a joy to every parent! Consult

your doctor to know more. At the time of birth, every human baby has limited number of

responses. As s/he grows and matures s/he becomes capable of making different type

of responses – such as identifying mother and father, how to eat food, learn to alphabet,

to write and combine them in to words, observes others doing and imitate them.

Similarly, learning of name for objects such as book, orange, mango, cow etc, drive a
scooter, car, bus etc. These modes of behaviour or responses are the result of certain

experiences, i.e., learning. Therefore learning refers to a spectrum of changes that

takes place as result of one’s experiences. In other words, it may be defined as any

relatively permanent change in behaviour or behavioural potential produced by an

experience. Some Definitions of Learning are shown below; Learning is the acquisition

of new behaviour or strengthening of old behaviour as result of experience - Kingsley

and Garrey. The term learning covers every modification in behaviour to meet

environmental requirements - Gardner Murphy. Learning is the process by which

behaviour is originated or changes through practice or training - Kingsley and Garry.

Constructivism What is meant by constructivism? The term refers to the idea that

learners construct knowledge for themselves-each learner individually (and socially)

constructs meanings he or she learns. Constructing meaning is learning; there is no

other kind. The dramatic consequences of this view are twofold; we have to focus on

the learner in thinking about learning (not on the subject/lesson to be taught): There is

no knowledge independent of the meaning attributed to experience (constructed) by the

learner, or community of learners. Knowledge is dependent to the

experiences/constructions of the learner. However, constructivist theory requires that

we turn our attention by 180 degrees we must turn our back on any idea of an all-

encompassing machine which describes nature and instead look towards all those

wonderful, individual living beings-the learners-each of whom creates his or her own

model to explain nature. If we accept the constructivist position we are inevitably

required to follow a pedagogy which argues that we must provide learners with the

opportunity to: a) interact with sensory data, and b) construct their own world. This
second point is a little harder for us to swallow, and most of us constantly think twice

between faith that our learners will indeed construct meaning which we will find

acceptable (whatever we mean by that) and our need to construct meaning for them;

that is, to structure situations that are not free for learners to carry out their own mental

actions, but "learning" situations which channel them into our ideas about the meaning

of experience. Constructivist Principles of learning What are some guiding principles of

constructivist thinking that we must keep in mind when we consider our role as

educators? Let us outline a few ideas, all predicated on the belief that learning consists

of individuals' constructed meanings and then indicate how they influence education.

Learning is an active process in which the learner uses sensory input and constructs

meaning out of it. People learn to learn as they learn, The crucial action of constructing

meaning is mental, Learning involves language, Learning is a social activity, Learning

is contextual, One needs knowledge to learn, It takes time to learn, Motivation is a key

component in learning, Constructivist Approach to Learning Constructivism is a new

approach in education that claims humans are better able to understand the information

they have constructed by themselves. According to constructivist theories, learning is a

social advancement that involves language, real world situations, and interaction and

collaboration among learners. The learners are considered to be central in the learning

process. Learning is affected by our prejudices, experiences, the time in which we live,

and both physical and mental maturity. When motivated, the learner exercises his will,

determination, and action to gather selective information, convert it, formulate

hypotheses, test these suppositions via applications, interactions or experiences, and to

draw verifiable conclusions. Constructivism transforms today’s classrooms into a

knowledge-construction site where information is absorbed and knowledge is built by

the learner. With the use of the web, the learner can now conduct research, interact with

diverse populations, share ideas, and work on group projects. The assessment tool in a

constructivist classroom is not a test or a quiz, rather it is the learner product; most of

the time this is in a Portfolio format that has been designed by the learner. Jean Piaget

and Lev Vygotsky are two eminent figures in the development of constructivist theories.

They share the common belief that classrooms must be constructivist environments;

however, there are differences in terms of their theories and variations as to how

constructivism should be carried out in classrooms. JEAN PIAGET (1896-1980) Jean

Piaget was born in Newchatel, Switzerland. At an early age he showed a keen interest

in observing animals in their natural environment. At the age of 10 he published his first

article, a description of an albino sparrow which he had observed in the park; before he

was 18 years old, journals had accepted several of his papers on the subject of

molluses (snail). During his adolescent years a second major intellectual interest grew

from his study of philosophy, in particular the branch of philosophy concerned with

knowledge - Epistemology. His undergraduate studies however were in the field of

biology and his doctoral dissertation was on molluses.

Jean Piaget stressed the importance of biological maturation in the thinking process. He
saw human being as an integrated whole and assumed that there must be some
common denominators in biological and mental functioning. One of these, he
suggested, is the concept of adaptation. Most living creatures are capable of adaptation
when they compelled to do so. Adaptation is the act of changing your behaviour to
make it suitable for a new purpose or situation. The human body adapt to its
environment in the process of intellectual growth. The whole sequence of change that
Piaget saw in a child’s cognitive development is the result of a gradual process of
adaptation to experiences. In this way Piaget emphases the role of learning as well as
biology. He viewed the development of cognitive skills as an interaction between the
child’s maturational level and its learning experiences. Piaget’s-Constructivism Jean
Piaget remembered for his extensive research on developmental psychology, explains
the learning process by schemes (the organization of information on how things work),
assimilation (the placing of new information into schemes), and accommodation
(transforming existing schemes or creating new ones). The motivation for learning is the
predisposition of the learner to adapt to his environment, hence to institute equilibrium
between schemes and the environment. Continuous interactions among existing
schemes, assimilation, accommodation, and equilibrium create new learning. Piaget’s
developmental theory of learning and constructivism are based on discovery. According
to his constructivist theory, in order to provide an ideal learning environment, children
should be allowed to construct knowledge that is meaningful for them. Cognitive
learning theory of Piaget Piaget had profound interest in epistemology – branch of
philosophy concerned with nature of knowledge. He asserts that learning is a function of
development. Piaget introduced a number of concepts in order to explain the cognitive
development theory. These include; Schema Piaget used the term ‘schema’ (plural,
‘schemas’ or ‘schemata’) to mean a component of the cognitive structure or the pattern
of behaviour used by individuals while dealing with objects or situations in the
environment. This is the result of the individuals forming a mental image of experiences
and registering it in their cognitive structure. As development proceeds each pattern
enlarges and changes in accordance with the nature of the mental images formed. A
‘schema’ is something like a computer programme that people construct for dealing with
complex problems. Just as a particular programmes in a computer provides the same
response in different situations, each specific schema in the cognitive structure of an
individual leads him to similar responses on different occasions. Babies learn about
objects by sucking on them, biting them, banging them and throwing them. when the
infant encounters a new object how are they to know what the object is all about?
According to Piaget they will use the schema they have developed and will find out
whether it gives milk, whether it moves or makes a loud or soft sound. A schema is a
cognitive framework or concept that helps organize and interpret information. Schemas
can be useful because they allow us to take shortcuts in interpreting the vast amount of
information that is available in our environment. However, these mental frameworks
also cause us to exclude pertinent information to instead focus only on things that
confirm our pre-existing beliefs and ideas. Schemas can contribute to stereotypes and
make it difficult to retain new information that does not conform to our established ideas
about the world. Schemas are mental images developed from experience or
behavioural pattern formed from an experience. Different types of schemas are
Physical schema: Idea of physical object. Object based- Early childhood is the best
stage to develop physical schema. Social schema: Schemas developed from social
experience is through interaction with society. Physiological schemas- bodily related
schemas, Language schema, Cognitive structure is the totality of these all schemas.
Schema - Examples For example, a young child may first develop a schema for a
horse. S/he knows that a horse is large, has hair, four legs and a tail. When the little
boy/girl encounters a cow for the first time, s/he might initially call it a horse. After all, it
fits in with her schema for the characteristics of a horse; it is a large animal that has
hair, four legs and a tail. Once s/he is told that this is a different animal called a cow,
s/he will modify his/her existing schema for a horse and create a new schema for a cow.
Now, let's imagine that this very young boy/girl encounters a miniature horse for the first
time and mistak