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Differential models for math anxiety I male and female college students

Article  in  Sociological Spectrum · May 2004

DOI: 10.1080/02732170490431304

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 Differential Models for Math Anxiety in Male and Female College Students

Ada F. Haynes, Anita G. Mullins and Barry S. Stein

Tennessee Technological University
Cookeville, TN 38505

Please direct correspondence to:

Dr. Ada Haynes

Box 5052
Department of Sociology
Tennessee Technological University
Cookeville, TN 38505
(931)372-3815
(931) 372-6395
Ahaynes@tntech.edu
Differential Models for Math Anxiety in Male and Female College Students 2

ABSTRACT

The relative importance of several predictors of math anxiety were examined in

multiple regression models. The predictors were test anxiety, ACT math scores, student

perceptions of high-school math teachers’ teaching ability (PHAM), student perceptions

of college math teachers’ teaching ability (PCAM), parental support for math skills

(PSM), the length of time since completing high-school, number of college math classes

taken, perceived math ability (PMA), and gender.

No significant difference was found between the genders for amount of math

anxiety. However, when separate analyses were conducted for males and females,

different factors were significant for each gender. Specifically, males’ math anxiety was

most strongly related to general test anxiety and ACT math scores. Predictably, males’

math anxiety increased as ACT math scores declined and test anxiety increased.

In contrast, females’ math anxiety was most strongly affected by students’ PMA,

PHAM, ACT, and general test anxiety. Females’ math anxiety increased as PMA and

PHAM declined. General test anxiety was positively related to math anxiety.

Surprisingly, females’ math anxiety increased as ACT math scores increased in the

model. Explanations for the latter finding and recommendations for reducing math

anxiety are discussed.

Differential Models for Math Anxiety in Male and Female College Students 3

Despite the growth of women’s participation in the U.S. labor force, they are still

underrepresented in math, science, and engineering professions (Berryman 1983;

Campbell and Evans 1997; Hanson 1996; Levi 2000; National Center for Education

Statistics 2000; National Science Foundation 1999; O’Brien Kopala and Martinez-Pons

1999: Oswald and Harvey 2000; Quinn and Spencer 2001). Despite women’s

underrepresentation in math related fields, research has shown that females through the

high school years students take similar mathematics classes and achievement similar

scores on standardized tests (Kimball 1989; Levi 2000; National Science Board 1998).

However, males continue to participate in mathematics at a greater rate beyond high

school. “Among college math majors, women leave the field at a rate two and a half

times that of their male counterparts” (Oswald and Harvey 2000: p.338). Since

mathematics is often critical in higher paying, more prestigious positions, women have an

economic disadvantage in the labor market.

In 1983 Berryman developed the notion of a “science pipeline” with one end

beginning in elementary school and the other ending at the scientific pool from which

scientists can be drawn. According to Berryman (1983), students all begin in this science

pipeline but many students drop out along the way due to lack of aptitude, not taking

required courses, and lack of achievement. It is important to ask when girls drop out

from the pipeline. Recent studies have shown that girls on average have higher math

scores than boys until they are approximately 11 years old. The gender gap between

males and females in mathematical performance at its widest, the high school years, is

only about 1.5 percent (American Society of Agricultural Engineers 2002). According to
Differential Models for Math Anxiety in Male and Female College Students 4

Kerr (1985) the “gender differences in math scores generally begin at the point at which

girls stop taking advanced math and science courses” (p. 405).

Therefore, rather than innate differences in ability, research has attributed the low

number of women at the end of the science and engineering pipeline to low levels of self-

efficacy or perceived ability to do math and gender typed stereotypes regarding

mathematics (Hackett and Campbell 1987; National Center for Education Statistics

2000;O’Brien Kopala and Martinez-Pons1999). Math anxiety, which is related to self-

efficacy, has also often been cited as a reason why people try to avoid math courses and

perform poorly in math (Bessant 1992; Tobias 1978) and thus are removed from the

science pipeline. According to Zaslavsky (1994) many people begin to see math as

punishment or a stress inducer. Eccles and Jacobs (1986) found that math anxiety,

stereotypical beliefs of parents about math and the value attached to mathematics were

the three primary factors related to mathematical course enrollment. Many researchers

also have found a negative relationship between math anxiety and math achievement

(Cooper and Robinson 1989; Eccles and Jacobs 1986; Engelhard 1990; Hembree 1990;

Osborne 2001; Tocci and Engelhard 1991). For example, Ho, Senturk and Lam (2000)

found that across three national samples math anxiety was negatively related to

mathematics achievement. Math anxiety has also been found to limit career choices of

college students, especially women (Chipman et al. 1992; Zettle and Raines 2000).

GENDER DIFFERENCES

Conflicting evidence has been found in regard to gender differences in math

anxiety. Numerous studies have found that females are more likely to have math anxiety

than males (Benson 1989; Betz 1978; Cook 1998; Dew and Galassi 1983; Ho Senturk
Differential Models for Math Anxiety in Male and Female College Students 5

and Lam 2000; Hyde et al. 1990; Pajares and Kranzler 1995; Ruben 1998; Zettle and

Raines 2000). By contrast other studies (Cooper and Robinson 1989; Hendershot 2000;

Segal 1987) did not find a significant difference in the level of math anxiety between

males and females. Llabre and Suarez (1985) found that math anxiety is less specific in

men than women. Males with math anxiety often have generalized test anxiety rather

than just a specific anxiety related to math.

GENERAL TEST ANXIETY

Since math anxiety has been shown to limit career choices of women, it is

imperative that research be conducted to understand the factors that are related to math

anxiety in order to alleviate this problem. Previous research has shown links between

math anxiety and other factors. Betz (1978) found a positive relationship between math

anxiety and test anxiety. She argued that anxiety about evaluation (testing) is one

component of math anxiety. This was supported by the findings of Bandalos, Yates, and

Thorndike-Christ (1995) and Benson (1989) who also found a positive relationship

between math anxiety and test anxiety. Research based upon confirmatory factor

analysis has shown that although math and test anxiety are related they are clearly distinct

measures (Kazelskis et.al. 2000).

MATH PREPARATION AND MATH ABILITY

The early research in math anxiety examined the relationship between math

anxiety and math preparation or math ability. In predicting math anxiety, Betz (1978) and

Llabre and Suarez (1985) revealed that the more math preparation students had, the less

likely they were to report high levels of math anxiety. Several other studies have also

demonstrated an inverse relationship between the number of math courses taken and math
Differential Models for Math Anxiety in Male and Female College Students 6

anxiety (Bandalos, Yates, and Thorndike-Christ 1995; Benson 1989; Burton 1979;

Resnick Viehe, and Segal 1982). In addition, higher achievement in math as measured by

the ACT math subset has been found to be related to lower reported levels of math

anxiety (Betz 1978).

More recent studies have shown that the relationship between math skills and

math anxiety for males and females is actually more complex than was first believed.

Stage and Kloosterman (1995) found that previous mathematics skills but not beliefs

about mathematics were predictors for course grades for males but beliefs were

significant predictors for females.

Males and females take similar mathematics classes through the high school years

(Levi 2000). Thus, if differences in math anxiety exist for males and females, these

cannot be attributed solely to math preparation. In addition, it is difficult to determine the

direction of the relationship between math preparedness and math anxiety since anxiety

about math would reduce the number of math classes taken and the lack of preparation in

math would increase the amount of math anxiety.

PERCEIVED MATH ABILITY OR MATH SELF-EFFICACY

Previous studies have explored the relationship between math self-concept or self-

efficacy and math anxiety (Bandalos Yates and Thorndike-Christ 1995; Benson Bandalos

and Hutchinson 1994; O’Brian Kopala and Martinez-Pons; Pajares and Kranzler 1995;

Stuart 2000). According to Bandura, self-efficacy is an individual’s belief in his/her

ability to accomplish a task (Bandura 1977). Even when controlling for general mental

ability, Pajares and Kranzler (1995) found that students’ self-efficacy affected their level

of math anxiety. Numerous studies have found that women have lower math self-
Differential Models for Math Anxiety in Male and Female College Students 7

efficacy than men (Campbell and Beaudry 1998; Eccles 1987; Gutbezahl 1995; Lenney

1977; Malpass O’Neil and Hocevar 1999; Skaalvik and Rankin 1994). More

specifically, Marsh (1989) argues that “high school girls have lower mathematical self-

concepts and achievement levels than boys but that sex differences in mathematics self-

concepts seem to be larger and begin earlier than achievement differences” (p. 193). .

Interestingly, Campbell and Beaudry (1998) found a relationship between math self-

concept and mathematics achievement for boys but not for girls. Math self-concept for

girls was unstable. They found that “the high-achieving girls had lower levels of

confidence in their mathematics ability and received more dysfunctional help from their

parents” (Campbell and Beaudry 1998: 150).

FAMILY ENVIRONMENT

If beliefs about their math skills are impacting female students, it is important to

explore the sources of these beliefs. Parents’ and teachers’ expectations are some of the

most basic ways in which stereotypes regarding women’s math abilities are promulgated

(Lazarus 1974; Quinn and Spencer 2001). Many parents themselves fear math or fail to

see why math is important, while other parents exhibit positive attitudes toward math and

encourage their children to develop strong math skills (Lazarus 1974; Zaslavsky 1994).

Research has demonstrated that mothers overestimate their sons’ math ability and

underestimate the math ability of their daughters (Frome and Eccles 1998; Hyde et. al

1990). Parsons, Adler, and Kaczala (1982) and Jacobs and Eccles (1992) found that

parents’ perceptions of their children’s ability to do math and their expectations of their

children were more important predictors of children’s math self-concepts than were the
Differential Models for Math Anxiety in Male and Female College Students 8

children’s past math performance. By contrast, Stuart (2000) did not find a relationship

between parents’ perception of mathematics and math anxiety.

TEACHERS’ ATTITUDE AND TEACHING METHODS

In addition to parents’ attitude, there is some indication that teachers’ attitudes

toward math can also affect students’ math anxiety (Fiore 1999; Jackson and Leffingwell

1999). High levels of mathematics anxiety have been found in the pre-service teacher

population (Sloan Daane and Giesen 2002; Hembree 1990). This mathematics anxiety

can then be passed on to students (Wood 1988). Burton (1979) notes that elementary

school teachers often are victims of math anxiety due to the lack of preparation in

mathematics during their professional training.

Burton argues that teachers can create math anxiety (1) by their own negative

attitudes toward math, (2) lack of presentation skills, (3) by presenting information

incorrectly and (4) by failing to relate math to the real world. Teachers can also foster

math anxiety by using destructive criticism, embarrassing students, and failing to provide

additional assistance (Zaslavsky 1994).

Gender inequities in the classroom may also create math anxiety for female

students. Studies have shown that teachers interact with boys more than girls during math

classes (Leinhardt Seewald and Engel 1979). Both Fennema et al. (1990) and Hyde et

al. (1990) found that teachers’ perceived traits related to success in mathematics as more

descriptive of male students than female students. Li (1999) demonstrated that teachers

tended to overrate males’ math ability, stereotype math as male, and have higher

expectations for males.

Differential Models for Math Anxiety in Male and Female College Students 9

Keller (2001) found that the more teachers stereotyped mathematics as a male

domain the more students held similar stereotypes thus impacting female math self-

efficacy. Research (Quinn and Spencer 2001;Oswald and Harvey 2000) has also shown a

relationship between stereotype threat in the classroom and women’s ability to solve

math problems. “Stereotype threat is a situational threat that refers to the stigmatized

individual’s concern with either conforming to, confirming, or being evaluated in terms

of a negative group stereotype” (Oswald and Harvey 2000: 339). Merton’s (1968) theory

of self-fulfilling prophecy may be at work in this situation whereas female students

internalize the negative stereotypes of the teachers regarding females’ math ability and

thus these beliefs become reality.

Similarly, girls are more likely than boys to mention teachers as the most

important factor that discouraged them from taking math classes (Sherman 1982).

Furthermore, there is evidence that high-school guidance counselors direct female

students away from math and science college prep classes (Marini and Brinton 1984).

Despite the fact that this study was conducted in 1984, it is unfortunate that teacher

stereotypes about women and mathematics do not appear to be a thing of the past. For

instance, after carefully reviewing the literature, Fennema (2000) found that only

moderate change has occurred in terms of equity in mathematics education. Numerous

other studies support her findings that inequity and stereotypes are still prevalent in math

classrooms (Governali 1999; Gutbezahl 1995; Jewett 1996; Li 1999).

NON-TRADITIONAL STUDENTS

If, contrary to the research above, major changes have taken place in terms of

gender equity in math classrooms, non-traditional females (students older than those
Differential Models for Math Anxiety in Male and Female College Students 10

entering college directly from high school) would more likely have been socialized to

believe that women are just not good at math and would thus exhibit more math anxiety

than younger females. The research in this area has been contradictory. Cook (1998) did

not find a difference in math anxiety by age of student. However in previous research,

older women reported higher levels of math anxiety than did younger women (Betz

1978). If both non-traditional male and female students exhibit higher math anxiety it

can be attributed to the fact that more time has passed since the non-traditional students

has taken high-school mathematics.

CURRENT STUDY

While many studies have explored issues related to math anxiety (e.g., Bandalos

and Yates and Thorndike-Christ 1995; Benson 1989; Betz 1978; Zeidner 1991), few

studies have simultaneously examined the broad range of factors that have been

hypothesized to affect math anxiety to establish their relative importance. Likewise, most

studies of math anxiety either assume that math anxiety is primarily a female

phenomenon or that the issues related to math anxiety are the same for men and women

(Betz 1978; Benson 1989). ).

The purpose of the current study was three-fold: (1) We hoped to integrate the

various variables found in previous studies to be related to math anxiety into a single

multiple regression to determine their relative importance. (2) Since previous studies

provided contradictory evidence as to whether males and females differed in the amount

of math anxiety, this study hoped to see if there was a significant difference between

college males and females on the measure of math anxiety. (3) Finally, and most

importantly, we hoped to determine if the same factors affected math anxiety for males
Differential Models for Math Anxiety in Male and Female College Students 11

and females. Each of the major variables that have been mostly frequently found related

to math anxiety was included in a multivariate regression model to examine its relative

importance as a predictor of math anxiety. In addition to a combined model, separate

models were examined for males and females. This is consistent with the

recommendation of Campbell and Beaudry (1998) “to study the equity problem more

thoroughly, we recommend separate analyses for boys and girls that include larger

groupings of sociopsychological variables” (150). Further justification for examining

separate models of math anxiety for males and females is provided in the research of

Campbell and Evans (1997). They found that females in single-sex classrooms had lower

levels of math anxiety than females or males in coed classrooms. In addition, they found

that math anxiety decreased for the females in the single-sex classroom and males in the

coed classrooms, but increased for females in coed classrooms. This provide further

evidence that the same factor may impact males and females differently.

METHOD

SAMPLING

One hundred and sixty-six undergraduate students from Tennessee Technological

University were surveyed. A stratified random sample was taken of students enrolled in

math or statistics classes at Tennessee Technological University during a single academic

term. Tennessee Technological University is a state university in the southeastern United

States with approximately 8000 students, although only a limited number of those

students are enrolled in math classes during a given semester. A list of undergraduate
Differential Models for Math Anxiety in Male and Female College Students 12

math classes at Tennessee Technological University was made using the course listings

published by the university. A class list that includes major was obtained for each of

these classes. These lists were combined to create a sampling frame with each student

being listed once, regardless of number of math classes taken. Students were divided into

disciplines and a stratified random sample of each discipline was taken. The disciplines

were defined as follows: engineering, business, education, and social science. With

cooperation from the faculty, the surveys were given out in the math classroom to the

selected students. Students were given extra credit to participate in the study. Six

subjects were eliminated from the analysis because two were graduate students and four

did not complete the study. Of the 159 students completing the survey, 80 were male and

79 were female.

MATERIALS

The survey instrument used included a subset of the Math Anxiety Scale (MAS),

the Test Anxiety Inventory (TAI), and a questionnaire designed by the authors.

Fennema and Sherman developed the Math Anxiety Scale in 1976. It is one of their nine

Mathematics Attitude Scales and was adapted to college students by Betz (1978). The

MAS consists of ten questions with responses given on a five point Lickert scale.

The Test Anxiety Inventory (TAI) (Spielberger 1977) consists of 20 statements.

For this study, one question, concerning school anxiety and not test anxiety, was

eliminated. Responses to the TAI are based on a four point Lickert scale

The survey also contained an additional 46 questions designed by the authors.

Fourteen questions were related to demographic information, such as age, gender, years

since graduating from high school, number of college level math classes, etc. Ten
Differential Models for Math Anxiety in Male and Female College Students 13

questions assessed parental support for math skills (PSM). PSM questions include

factors such as parents help with homework in high school, parents feel that math classes

are important, parents do not hold gender based math stereotypes, and parents play math

based games. The higher the PSM score the more the student perceived that their parents

support math. Eight questions assessed the subjects’ Perceived Mathematical Ability

(PMA). PMA represents both the concepts of math self-concept and math self-efficacy

with a higher score indicating higher perceived math ability. These concepts were

combined to create the PMA scale because they were highly correlated in previous

studies (Benson, 1989), thus creating the potential for multicollinearity. The PMA

contains questions regarding their perceived ability to do different types of math such as

reading graph and charts, calculating percentages, balancing a checkbook and word

problems. It also contains questions such as whether they find math difficult and how

hard they perceive that they must work to get good grades in math or statistics. Fourteen

questions assessed student perceptions of their high school and college math teachers’

teaching ability (PHAM and PCAM, respectively). Higher scores for each of these

variables indicate methodologies that have been found in the literature to reduce math

anxiety. Lower scores reflect frequently used negative feedback or embarrassment as well

as the extent to which memorization versus comprehension was emphasized. Males were

coded 0 and females were coded 1.

PROCEDURE

All subjects were treated according ASA ethical guidelines. Students’ informed

consent was obtained so that their permanent records could be accessed for their ACT

scores in math.
Differential Models for Math Anxiety in Male and Female College Students 14

RESULTS

A classical multiple regression model was constructed to explain the variation in

math anxiety among college students. The independent variables were as follows:

(1) Perceived support for math (PSM)

(2) Perceived high-school teachers’ attitude and teaching methods (PHAM)

(3) Perceived college teachers’ attitude and teaching methods (PCAM)

(4) Time since high-school (time)

(5) Perceived math ability (PMA)

(6) Gender

(7) ACT math scores (ACT)

(8) Ratings from the Test Anxiety Inventory (TAI) and

(9) Number of previous college math courses.

Math ACT scores ranged from 11 to 36. Time since high school ranged from 0 to

23 years while the number of previous college math courses ranged from 0 to 13. Means,

standard deviations and correlations among the independent variables are presented in

Table 1 and Table 2. No evidence of a problem with multicollinearity was found. See

Table 3. A multiple regression model was run using the forced entry method. This

method was used so that a comparison could easily be made between the combined, male,

and female models.

Table 1 about here

Table 2 about here

Differential Models for Math Anxiety in Male and Female College Students 15

Table 3 about here

Table 4 contains the results for the combined model for both males and females.

The combined model explained 64.5 percent of the variability in math anxiety (F=15.168,

p <.001). The significant predictors were perceived math ability (PMA), perceived high

school math teachers’ attitude and teaching method (PHAM), and the Test Anxiety

Inventory (TAI). Students with higher perceived math ability had less math anxiety.

High-school teachers who had a positive attitude, were willing to help, and presented

practical applications to math problems tended to produce students with lower math

anxiety. Also, students who had test anxiety exhibited more math anxiety. None of the

findings was surprising. No significant difference existed between the amount of math

anxiety exhibited by males and females. Since previous research had found different

factors affecting male and female math anxiety (Bandalos Yates and Throndike-Christ

1995), separate models were then developed for males and females.

Table 4 about here

MALES

A separate regression model to determine the predictors of math anxiety for males

accounted for 68 percent of the variability in math anxiety when all variables were

included (F=8.51, p < .001). (See Table 5.) We found only two significant predictors of
Differential Models for Math Anxiety in Male and Female College Students 16

math anxiety for males. Not surprisingly, as male students’ math ACT scores increased

their math anxiety decreased (b= -.729, SEb =.285, p< .02). Additionally, as male

students’ general test anxiety increased so did their math anxiety (b=.334, SEb = .113, p

< .007). Neither of these findings was unexpected.

Table 5 about here

FEMALES

A similar multiple regression was conducted for females which produced some

unanticipated results. With all the variables in the equation, 73.1 percent of the

variability in math anxiety for females was explained (F=11.885, p < .001). (See Table

4.) Four variables were found to have a significant impact on math anxiety for females.

The most surprising finding was that the relationship between math ACT and math

anxiety for females was positive (b=.651, SEb=.212, p< .005). Females with the highest

scores on the math component on the ACT tended to have higher math anxiety.

Table 6 about here

The other findings were more conventional. As female students’ perceived math

ability (PMA) increased, their math anxiety decreased (b= -.697, SEb=.176, p< .001).
Differential Models for Math Anxiety in Male and Female College Students 17

A negative relationship was found between perceived high school math teachers’

teaching methods and attitude (PHAM) and math anxiety (b= -.613, SEb=. 164, p <

.001). High-school teachers who students perceived had a positive attitude, were willing

to help, and presented practical applications to math problems tended to produce students

with lower math anxiety. Finally, like males, female students with higher general test

anxiety tended to have higher math anxiety (b=.232, SEb=.091, p < .02). PMA was the

most important predictor of math anxiety for females followed by perceived high school

math teachers’ teaching methods and attitudes, ACT math scores and finally test anxiety.

T-tests were run on the unstandardized regression coefficients to test for whether

the effects of the independent variables were significantly different between men and

women. All the coefficients were significant at the .001 level with the exception of

perceived parental support which was significant at the .01 level. This provides further

evidence for the need for separate models for males and females.

DISCUSSION

Due to the different findings for the male and female models of math anxiety, we

feel that it is not possible to interpret the general model beyond the finding that males and

females overall did not significantly differ in the amount of math anxiety that they

reported. This is consistent with the findings of other studies (Cooper and Robinson

1989; Hendershot 2000; Segal 1987). Instead, we will focus on the separate male and

female models here.

Although no significant difference was found between the amount of math

anxiety exhibited by males and females, different factors were predictors of math anxiety

for each gender. For male students the significant predictors of math anxiety were math
Differential Models for Math Anxiety in Male and Female College Students 18

ACT scores and general test anxiety. These findings are consistent with several other

studies that found a negative correlation between math achievement test scores and math

anxiety (Betz 1978; Bandalos Yates and Thorndike-Christ 1995).

The results of this study are also consistent with previous findings showing a

positive correlation between math anxiety and test anxiety (Spielberger Anton and

Bedell, 1976; Betz 1978; Benson 1989). Test anxiety was the only consistent predictor of

math anxiety for both males and females.

The analysis of female responses indicated that math anxiety was related to lower

perceived math ability (PMA), less competent high-school math teachers (PHAM),

higher ACT math scores, and higher general test anxiety. The most surprising finding

was that female mathematical ability, as measured by the math component of the ACT,

was positively related to math anxiety in the regression model. It is important to note that

ACT by itself was not significantly related to math anxiety in females. The effects of

ACT only became significant controlling for PMA. Thus, for female students with

similar levels of perceived math ability, those with higher ACT scores tended to have

higher math anxiety. In other words, the more female students underestimate their actual

math ability (as measured by math ACT scores), the higher their math anxiety. This

observation is consistent, in part, with other research findings that indicate women are

more likely to underestimate their math abilities than are men (Eccles 1994; Sax 1994;

Skaalvik and Rankin 1994). It is also consistent with the findings of Campbell and

Beaudry (1998) who found that high achieving girls had less confidence in their math

abilities.
Differential Models for Math Anxiety in Male and Female College Students 19

One possible explanation for the findings is that female students with higher math

abilities may have had more negative math experiences in high-school than their male

counterparts, causing them to underestimate their actual ability and, in turn, creating

greater math anxiety. Previous research has found a relationship between teachers’

perceptions and girls’ perceptions of their mathematical ability (Rodger 1990). Our own

informal interviews indicate that many very competent female statistics students who

have math anxiety were told that they were incapable of doing math by elementary and

high school teachers and counselors. This is also consistent with our finding that the

quality of the high-school math experience was a significant predictor of math anxiety for

females.

Unfortunately, it is common for females to be discouraged from pursuing and

developing math skills. Zaslavsky (1994) presents the story of a high-school counselor,

who considered herself a feminist, who inadvertently discriminated against female

students by recommending only males to special advanced programs. Similarly, Gross

(1988) found that over half of the principals and counselors surveyed felt that math was

primarily a male subject. Parsons, Kaczala, and Meece (1982) found that not only did

some teachers treat male and female math students differently, but that this treatment

varied according to their own expectations of the students’ performance. Li (1999)

demonstrated that teachers tended to overrate males’ math ability, stereotype math as

male, and have higher expectations for males. Keller (2001) found that the more teachers

stereotyped mathematics as a male domain the more students held similar stereotypes.

Keller (2001) also found that how students were treated affected their math self-concept.

Parsons, Kaczala, and Meece (1982) found that in high sex-differentiated classrooms
Differential Models for Math Anxiety in Male and Female College Students 20

(classrooms with high levels of gender inequality) female students who teachers expected

to perform the best in their math classes were given less praise and interacted less than

the low-expectancy girls (girls for whom the teacher had low expectations) or the high-

expectancy boys (boys for whom the teacher had high expectations). In contrast, in the

low sex-differentiated classrooms the high-expectancy girls received the most work

praise and interacted the most. These interaction patterns between students and teachers,

in turn, had an impact on the female students’ future expectations. In the classrooms,

where high-teacher-expectancy girls received less praise than high-teacher-expectancy

boys, the girls had lower expectations for their own future (Parsons Kaczala and Meece

1982). Clearly more research is needed to determine how prevalent teacher

discrimination against female math students is and when it begins. Likewise, more

research needs to be conducted on the other factors that lead females to underestimate

their math ability such as gender stereotypes and socialization patterns (Skaalvik and

Rankin 1994).

SUGGESTIONS FOR REDUCING MATH ANXIETY

In general, the current study indicates that math anxiety could be reduced by

better preparation in pre-college classes. For males, this may simply mean increasing

their proficiency in basic math skills. The situation for females is complicated by the fact

that they seem to have a poor image of their own math abilities. Such attitudes may

result from females being discouraged from pursuing and developing math competence

by secondary and primary educational experiences. Obviously, educators in primary and

secondary systems should not provide the kind of negative feedback that encourages the

elevation of math anxiety in female students. Once the damage has been done, it may be
Differential Models for Math Anxiety in Male and Female College Students 21

beneficial for college instructors to provide additional encouragement and positive

reinforcement to female students in math and statistics classes.

The current study also suggests that math anxiety is at least partially related to

general test anxiety. One possible way to reduce math anxiety for males and for females

is to make the testing environment less intimidating. For some students, timed tests are

particularly problematic (Zaslavsky 1994). Simply removing time limits from tests may

reduce math anxiety. For other students, more drastic measures may be necessary.

Moving to a mastery approach in which students have numerous opportunities to take

similar (but not identical) tests has helped one of the authors reduce some students’ math

anxiety. Instructors could also help reduce the level of test anxiety and math anxiety in

math classes by weighing test scores less in computing students’ final grades.

Similarly, Martinez (1987) found that students’ attitudes will be more positive

under the following conditions: (1) the learning environment is non-threatening, (2) the

learning activities are appropriate to the students’ cognitive levels and meaningful from

both the students’ and the teachers’ perspectives, and (3) the instruction emphasizes

creative, active learning strategies instead of the traditional explain-practice-memorize

exercises. Root and Thorme (2001) suggest that the best way to teach statistics is through

community-based service learning projects.

In order to reduce math anxiety for female students, gender equity must be

addressed. Despite the fact that teachers feel that they must play a role in addressing

gender equity, there is much disagreement about what that role should be (Levi 2000). It

seems that multiple approaches are necessary to address both the short term and long

terms problems by both changing current classroom environments and eliminating

Differential Models for Math Anxiety in Male and Female College Students 22

societal stereotypes that lead to self-fulfilling prophecies (Merton 1968). Classroom

environments that emphasize problem solving over memory (Jones and Smart 1995;

Stuart 2000; Zaslavsky 1994) and collaborative learning over competition (Helmericks

1993) are potential ways in which instructors can reduce math anxiety particularly among

women. Helmericks (1993) has experimented with the use of collaborative testing

techniques in statistics classes and found it effective in reducing math anxiety. Similarly,

collaborative learning, in general, has been recommended by experts in the area of math

anxiety such as Fennema (2000) as way of reducing math anxiety for women who are

socialized to be more cooperative than competitive.

In addition, efforts need to be undertaken to reduce gender socialization and

stereotypes (Skaalvik and Rankin 1994). Quinn and Spencer (2001) and Oswald and

Harvey (2000) found a relationship between stereotype threat and women’s ability to

solve mathematical problems. Simple manipulations like stating in the instructions that a

test was not gender biased improved women’s performance on the test. In addition, we

need to insure that males and females are treated equally in the classroom. Teachers need

courses and training to help them reduce their math anxiety and stereotypes so that they

have equal expectations of males and females and low levels of sex differentiation in the

classroom (Meece et. al. 1982). Some researchers have gone as far as to suggest single

sex classrooms (Campbell and Evans 1997). Of course each of these are short-term

solutions, in the long run societal stereotypes and gender socialization in general need to

be addressed.

In summary, this research found different factors influence math anxiety for males

and females. The most surprising finding of this research relates to the females with high
Differential Models for Math Anxiety in Male and Female College Students 23

math ability also having high math anxiety. This helps us understand that the relationship

between math ability and math anxiety for females is complex. Thus, in order to address

math anxiety for males and females different approaches need to be taken. Specifically,

for females’ math anxiety to be reduced, we must deal with gender inequities in society

and classrooms.

One limitation of this research is that it was only conducted at one university with

a relatively small sample. It would useful to replicate this study with a larger, national

sample. Alternatively, it would be helpful to replicate this research at other institutions.

Differential Models for Math Anxiety in Male and Female College Students 24

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TABLE 1: Means and Standard Deviations by Gender

Males Females
Mean Standard Mean Standard
Deviation Deviation
ACT 22.32 4.75 21.34 5.10
Test anxiety 39.04 11.09 43.73 12.86
Time 4.13 3.31 4.34 4.11
Classes 3.05 1.83 2.90 1.89
Parents’ Support 36.60 7.03 35.01 7.29
Perceived Math Ability 21.58 7.07 24.43 6.83
H.S. Teachers 20.34 6.52 19.54 6.06
College Teachers 22.14 6.41 21.24 6.34
Differential Models for Math Anxiety in Male and Female College Students 35

TABLE 2: Correlations of Independent Variables for Combined Model

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1 ACT 1.000
2 Test Anxiety -.071 1.000
3 Gender -.100 .256 1.000
4 Time -.228 -.199 -.100 1.000
5 Classes -.007 .021 -.117 .509 1.000
6 Parents’ Support -.006 .028 -.239 .232 .202 1.000
7 P. Math Ability -.381 .458 .215 -.071 .026 .064 1.000
8 H.S. Teachers -.319 .120 -.076 .020 -.046 .097 .256 1.000
9 College Teachers -.145 .219 -.188 .021 -.080 .143 .151 .262 1.000
Differential Models for Math Anxiety in Male and Female College Students 36

TABLE 3: Multicollinearity Diagnostics

Collinearity Statistics

Tolerance VIF
ACT .707 1.414
Test Anxiety .672 1.488
Gender .782 1.279
Time .605 1.653
Classes .674 1.485
Parents’ Support .860 1.163
P. Math Ability .637 1.571
H.S. Teachers .821 1.218
College Teachers .812 1.232
Differential Models for Math Anxiety in Male and Female College Students 37

TABLE 4. Metric and Standardized Regression Coefficients for the General Model of
Math Anxiety
Variables b SEb Beta T
Perceived Math Ability -.549*** .120 -.393*** -4.565
H.S. Teachers - .521*** .119 -.331*** -4.358
Time .594 .422 .124 1.406
Test Anxiety .306*** .074 .345*** 4.116
Parents’ Support -.044 .097 -.033 -.654
Classes -.603 .554 -.091 -1.088
College Teachers -.171 .116 -.113 1.475
ACT .157 .167 .077 .937
Gender 1.721 1.558 .086 1.105
R-square .645***
*p<.05 **p<.01 ***p<.001
Differential Models for Math Anxiety in Male and Female College Students 38

TABLE 5. Metric and Standardized Regression Coefficients for the Model of Math
Anxiety for Males
Variables b SEb Beta T
Perceived Math Ability -.259 .167 -.201 -1.555
H.S. Teachers -.282 .170 -.190 1.658
Time .538 .498 .136 1.080
Test Anxiety .334** .113 .354** 2.970
Parents Support -.072 .151 -.050 .476
Classes -1.225 .701 -.219 -1.747
College Teachers -.059 .166 -.040 .350
ACT -.729* .285 -.354* -2.554
R-square .680
*p<.05 **p<.01 ***p<.001
 Differential Models for Math Anxiety in Male and Female College Students 39

TABLE 6. Metric and Standardized Regression Coefficients for the Model of Math
Anxiety for Females
Variables b SEb Beta T
Perceived Math Ability -.697*** .176 -.457*** 3.959
H.S. Teachers -.613*** .164 -.382*** 3.732
Time 1.125 .739 .192 1.522
Test Anxiety .232* .091 .269* 2.563
Parents Support -.013 .121 -.011 .110
Classes -.387 .860 -.049 -.450
College Teachers -.157 .150 -.100 1.048
ACT .651** .212 .329** 3.070
R-square .731
*p<.05 **p<.01 ***p<.001

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