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Realtime Lubricating Oil Analysis to Predict Equipment Failure

Conference Paper · September 2019

DOI: 10.2118/195708-MS

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5 authors, including:

Oluwarotimi Alabi Urenna Adegbotolu

University of Aberdeen Robert Gordon University
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Oluwarotimi Alabi RAB Microfluidics R&D Company Limited
Robert Wilson RAB Microfluidics R&D Company Limited
Urenna Adegbotolu RAB Microfluidics R&D Company Limited
Surakat Kudehinbu RAB Microfluidics R&D Company Limited
Stephen Bowden University of Aberdeen

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Abstract
Oil condition monitoring for rotating and reciprocating equipment has typically been laboratory based. A technician
or engineer collects a sample of lubricating oil and sends this to a laboratory for chemical analysis. After the
laboratory has performed the analysis the results are sent to the engineer to make decisions on the health and/or
condition of the machinery. This process can take up to 6 weeks, and consequently analysis may end up being
performed only quarterly with little likelihood of critical failures being pre-empted. The slowness of oil condition
monitoring analyses performed in laboratories has led engineers to substitute for real-time monitoring methods such
as vibration analysis and thermography. Nevertheless, the chemical composition of the lubricating oil remains the
gold standard for the diagnosis of machine health. The automation of methods for analysing the chemical
composition of lubricating oil in real-time would provide engineers with data on the immediate condition of a
particular piece of machinery, allowing the early diagnosis of incipient faults.
In this paper, we present a microfluidic technique that can perform real-time continuous monitoring of the chemical
composition of lubricating fluid from rotating and reciprocating equipment. Results from this technique both in
laboratory and field environments are comparable to conventional laboratory measurements. The microfluidic
technique exploits the flow of fluids within micrometre-dimensioned channel, permitting liquid-liquid diffusive
separation between otherwise miscible non-aqueous fluids. It can be shown that several fluids e.g. methanol,
hexane etc. can selectively extract target components in lubricating oil. Following an extraction, these components
can be quantified using a combination of optical techniques, e.g. UV/Vis, Infrared etc. This microfluidic technique
has been demonstrated for a range of lubricating oils with several acid, alkaline detergent, asphaltene/insoluble
content. This technology can potentially revolutionise the way oil analysis is carried out, automating and making the
process rapid and in real-time.
1.0 Introduction
Equipment reliability is an important factor for the oil & gas, marine and energy sectors that operate heavy machinery
in high cost and hard to reach environments. In these situations, equipment failure and subsequent downtime incurs
costs due to lost production in addition to other costs and as such attention is paid to equipment condition through
frequent or real-time monitoring (National Instruments, 2017; Salameh et al., 2018). Such monitoring informs the
maintenance regimes employed. Machine condition monitoring is viewed as a means to identify incipient faults on
production-critical machinery before any such fault occurs, as this can potentially put a halt to the production
process, requiring expensive repairs and lost revenue during downtime (Gresham and Totten, 2008; National
Instruments, 2017). To this end, technologies that permit real-time or frequent monitoring of machinery condition
2

such as vibration analysis, thermography, acoustics etc. are leading the way for the early diagnosis of potential
machinery failure (Salameh et al., 2018). Whilst some of these techniques can suitably alert reliability engineers,
maintenance or asset managers within hours to days of a failure occurring, they leave no time to respond to the
developing failure. Consequently, reliability engineers, maintenance or asset managers rely on lubricating oil
analysis to give an early indication of a developing failure in machinery.
It has been regarded that the analysis of lubricating oil in rotating and reciprocating machinery has the potential to
offer great value to reliability engineers, maintenance and asset managers of such machinery (Poley, 2012; Zhu, et
al., 2015; Raposo et al., 2019). However, it appears that the true value of lubricating oil analysis for machine
condition monitoring has hitherto been unattainable because of the limitations in existing technologies. Primarily
there are two main ways for a reliability engineer to get a lubricating oil analysed to inform the decision-making
process for monitoring critical production and safety equipment; 1) utilise existing mobile (onsite) equipment or 2)
utilise a conventional commercial laboratory. Both approaches have their limitations.
Mobile onsite equipment which can typically range from single oil property sensors such as water, wear/debris,
viscosity sensors, etc. to multi oil property bench-top devices such as Fourier-Transform-Infrared spectrometers
(FTIR-devices), present challenges to engineers (Zhu et al., 2017). For instance, FTIR-devices require trained
specialists to interpret spectral data using complex chemometric models, and thus these devises are used by only
the biggest consumers of lubricating oil such as commercial laboratories (Wagner, 2014). There is an almost
universal reliance on centralised conventional laboratories for lubricating oil chemical compositional analysis as
these laboratories provide more information on the oils. The challenge in using such centralised laboratories is that
the lube oil analysis cannot be performed frequently or in real-time. This is because lubricating oil has to be sampled,
packaged and transported to a centralised laboratory for this to be analysed and results are sent back in a process
that can take 4-6 weeks. This makes the equipment monitoring process reactive with engineers making decisions
after the fact, with data that becomes very quickly out-dated.
Infrequent sampling and analysis of lubricating oil such as is currently practiced precludes the true value of
lubricating oil analysis to monitor machine condition. Moreover, whilst technologies like vibration analysis,
thermography, acoustics monitoring etc. have attained automation for real-time monitoring of machine condition,
lubricating oil analysis is still a very analogue process. In this paper, we investigate the potential of microfluidic lab-
on-a-chip techniques to perform real-time analysis of lubricating oil and forewarn of failure. We further explore the
potential to automate lubricating oil analysis processes. First, we compare the microfluidic lab-on-a-chip technique
with conventional chemical analysis. Secondly, after establishing the comparability of techniques we present the
results for a daily monitoring program performed on an offshore shipping vessel using the microfluidic Lab-On-A-
Chip (LOAC) technique. These lubricating oils were sampled from the portside (19 samples) and starboard (11
samples) engines of the vessel from 13 April 2018 to 10 May 2018. Three measurements were made; these are
Insolubles, Total Acid Number (TAN), and Total Base Number (TBN) contents.
2.0 Experimental Procedure
Analytical procedures are illustrated in Fig. 1, and the techniques used at each stage are described in the
subsequent sections.
 3

Fig. 1: Schematic representation of the analytical scheme used during this study, elucidating the alternative analysis techniques used for
lubricating oil.

2.1 Samples
Different brands and formulations of diesel, gas and motor sport engine oils were used in this study. In total we
present data for 60 lubricating oils as shown in Table 1. Oils include mineral, semi-synthetic and synthetic oils. The
lubricating oils used to compare microfluidic and conventional techniques were obtained from a shipping vessel
operator (20 lubricating oil samples) and an important lubricant manufacturer (10 lubricating oil samples), both of
whom for confidentiality reasons cannot be revealed.
To study changes in lubricating oil in an operating engine, samples were taken from four-stroke MAK diesel engines
operating a closed-loop lubrication system. Samples were collected by the vessel’s crew as they deemed feasible;
19 samples collected from a portside engine and 11 from a starboard engine. The engines were lubricated with
mineral oil. The operational period was 351 running hours for the portside engine and 156 running hours for the
starboard engine.
Table 1: Description of lubricating oils used in this study.
S/N Sample Lubricant Type Oil Condition
1 MSK 1-4 Mineral Oil Used marine diesel engine
oil
2 MSK 5-9 Mineral Oil Used marine diesel engine
oil
3 MSK 10-14 Mineral Oil Used marine diesel engine
oil
4 MSK 15-20 Mineral Oil Used marine diesel engine
oil
5 R 1-2 Synthetic Oil Used passenger car engine
oil
6 R3 Semi-Synthetic Oil Used car engine oil
7 R4 Synthetic Oil New motorbike engine oil
8 R5-10 Mixed Used gas engine oils
9 P1-19 Mineral Oil Used marine diesel engine
oil
10 S1-11 Mineral Oil Used marine diesel engine
oil
4

2.2 Lab On A Chip (LOAC) Measurements

The microfluidic H-cell at the core the LOAC-device was fabricated by Micronit from fused silica glass. The H-cell
has the following dimensions: channel length 20 mm, width 260 µm and 60 µm, with input and output channels
broken by 1500 µm wide spectroscopy cells. The LOAC-device is configured as presented in Alabi (2015). Briefly;
a fibre optic connection is made to spectroscopy components and alignment achieved with a 3D printed (nylon)
hood. A DT-MINI-2-GS Ocean Optics UV- Vis light source and Ocean optics USB4000 spectrometer is used to
acquire spectroscopy data. Configuration in this way ensures the microfluidic device and spectroscopic unit function
as a single operational unit.
Computer controlled syringe pumps inject oil and extracting solvent into the device through polytetrafluoroethylene
(PTFE) tubing. Spectroscopic measurements are obtained on the in-going oil and the extract. The USB4000 Ocean
Optics spectrometer measures within the wavelength range of 170-890 nm and operates as a single-beam
adsorption spectrometer obtaining measurements on ingoing oil and extract.
Three measurements are determined using this optically integrated microfluidic LOAC method, these are; insoluble,
TAN and TBN and these are described subsequently.

2.2.1 LOAC Determination of Insolubles, TAN and TBN

The determination of Insoluble, TAN and TBN followed the LOAC methods described in Bowden et al., 2006; 2009,
Alabi et al., 2014; Alabi 2015. Insoluble content in lubricating oil samples were determined by acquiring spectra of
used lubricating oil and hexane extract. Spectra were normalised, smoothed and then cropped (290 nm to 410 nm
range) where the difference between whole oil and hexane spectra was used to obtain the proportion of hexane-
insolubles (Alabi et al., 2014; Alabi 2015).
TAN was quantified using methanol-extractables and absorption at 233 nm. Calibration curves were constructed by
reference to solutions of 5b-Cholanic acid and their conversion to a TAN-equivalent as measured by the ASTM D
664. A similar process was used to determine TBN using toluene as an extracting solvent (instead of methanol)
and base detergent additives to create a calibration curve. In this instance TBN is expressed as an equivalent of
TBN as determined by ASTM D 2896.
2.4 Wet Chemistry Measurements
2.4.1 Determination of Insolubles
The % insolubles content were determined using the ASTM D 893, procedure A. This method covers the
determination of pentane and toluene insolubles in used lubricating oils. Pentane insolubles includes asphaltene or
insoluble-resinous matter originating from oil and/or additive degradation. Toluene insolubles comprised highly
carbonised materials from fuel degradation or combustion, oil and additives, fuel carbon, and external
contamination. Engine wear and corrosion materials can also form toluene insolubles. The oil sample was mixed
with a pentane and centrifuged. The supernatant from this solution was decantated and the precipitates washed 5
times with pentane. The pentane insolubles were then determined gravimetrically. A separate oil sample was used
to determine the toluene insolubles where after washing the precipitate severally with pentene, the precipitate is
then washed with a toluene-alcohol mix and toluene insoluble content determined gravimetrically.
2.4.2 Determination of Total Acid Number (TAN)
The ASTM D 664 method was used to quantify the total acid number in the lubricating oil samples. In summary, 2g
of oil was dissolved in a titration solvent (i.e., mixture of toluene, propan-2-ol and water) and titrated with potassium
hydroxide using a glass electrode and a calomel reference electrode. The titration endpoint was taken at well-
defined inflections and meter readings were plotted against the titrating solution. Where no definite inflections are
achieved, endpoints corresponding to those obtained for freshly prepared non-aqueous acidic and basic buffer
solutions are recorded. TAN is then reported in mg KOH/g of oil.
2.4.3 Determination of Total Base Number (TBN)
The ASTM D 2896 method was used to quantify the total base number in the lubricating oil samples. In summary,
2g of oil was dissolved in an anhydrous mixture of chlorobenzene and acetic acid. The solution was titrated with a
mixture of perchloric acid and acetic acid in a potentiometric titrimeter. A glass indicating electrode and calomel
reference electrode are used to note definite inflections. The meter readings are plotted against volumes of titrating
 5

solution with the end-point taken at the inflection in the resulting curve. TBN is then reported in mg KOH/g of oil.

3.0 Results
Results in this study are presented in two sections. Section 3.1 compares the LOAC method with conventional
methods and section 3.2 presents results of the continuous monitoring of a marine vessel diesel engine.
3.1 Methods Comparison: LOAC vs Conventional Methods
3.1.1 Insolubles
The insoluble content is described as any constituent of lubricant that is insoluble in n-alkane solvents such as
pentane or solvents like toluene; this may include, soot, asphaltene, other organic solids and wear/abrasion
products. Fig. 2 presents a comparison of the H-Cell method to the ASTM D 893 method for determining the
insoluble content in a range of sample types provided by the shipping vessel operator. The correlation between the
percentage values of insolubles for different lube oil samples determined by the ASTM D 893 and H-Cell methods
(fig. 2) is significant indicating that the different methods are at least comparable (significant for an alpha value of
0.001, r = 0.91 and n = 19). Fig. 2 shows that the data approximates a 1:1 gradient fit (thick black diagonal line)
where the insolubles content in the oil as determined by the standard method is high, the insolubles content
determined by the H-Cell method is also high and vice versa.

Figure 2: Graph showing Insolubles data obtained using H-Cell method compared to ASTM D893 method as analysed by the shipping vessel
operator. H-Cell method in % approximates a 1:1 gradient fit. Limit of detection (LoD) of H-cell method is given by intercept of red dashed line
on y-axis.

There can be an overestimation of the amount of insolubles in some samples when using the H-Cell method. This
overestimation is further highlighted by the Limit of Detection. The Limit of Detection (LoD) for the H-Cell method,
is depicted by the intercept of the red dashed line on the y-axis in fig. 2. The LoD shows that when the standard
method determines the insolubles content to be zero (0%), the H-Cell method will be 0.2%. Although, the
overestimation appears systemic, its significance relates to the evaluation of the residual life of an oil. Elevated
levels of insolubles in lubricating oil changes its physical properties, such as viscosity, and insolubles can
prematurely clog filters and increase abrasive engine wear (Knochen et al., 2004). Insolubles in diesel engine oils
range from typical values of 0.5% - 3%, so a 0.2% overestimation may not be significant until it gets to the upper
limit which the shipping vessel operator has reported to be 5%.

3.1.2 Total Acid Number (TAN)

Several acidic species e.g. nitric, sulphuric, naphthenic acids derive from the exposure of lubricating oil to
contaminants such as water, air, by-products of combustion and high temperatures (Smiechowski and Lvovich,
2003; Zhu et al., 2017). These acids are typically quantified by their neutralising action on a basic buffer such as
potassium hydroxide. The acidity is expressed as a Total Acid Number, which relates to the mass of base needed
to neutralise the oils acidity. Fig. 3 compares the LOAC obtained TAN and TAN measured via the standard ASTM
D 664 method. For the 10 oil samples analysed using both methods there is a significant correlation indicating that
6

the different methods are comparable (significant for an alpha value of 0.001, r = 0.95 and n = 10).
A further inspection of Fig. 3 suggests that the H-Cell method consistently under-determines the TAN value in some
samples (filled black circles). The reason for this is that the H-Cell method targets the naphthenic acid species as
opposed to other acid species such as sulphuric acid. It is not expected that this would impact negatively on the
TAN value for the purpose of monitoring the condition of an engine. The H-Cell data may be corrected statistically
to reflect the underestimation (hollow circles) by using the LoD which falls within the margin of error for calibration.

Figure 3: Graph showing Total Acid Number (TAN) data obtained using H-Cell method compared to the ASTM D664 method as analysed in a
lubricant laboratory. H-Cell method in mg KOH/g approximates a 1:1 gradient fit but is underpredicted using the H-Cell method (fill black circles).
LoD of H-cell method is given by intercept of red dashed line on y-axis. When a correction factor is applied to the raw data using the LoD, under
prediction of TAN is improved (hollow circles).

3.1.3 Total Base Number (TBN)

Lubricating oils are typically formulated with detergent additives which confer an alkaline reserve to the oil and their
proportion in oil are quantified by the neutralising effect of an acid. This is reported as Total Base Number. Fig. 4
graphically compares TBN content expressed in mg KOH/g between the H-Cell method and standard ASTM D 2896
method. There is a significant correlation between both methods (significant for an alpha value of 0.001, r = 0.86
and n = 10) and samples order in a similar way when analysed by either procedure. But the absolute TBN
determined by the two methods differs. Samples plotting off-trend (values of TBN less than 3 or greater than 12)
are gas turbine lubricant. The 6 motor and diesel engine lubricants have a strong 1:1 correlation and are within the
95% confidence interval in fig. 4. The difference in starting TBN for different types of oil might explain the disparity;
for instance, diesel engine oils are typically formulated with a starting TBN around 15-30 mg KOH/g (Spectro
Scientific, 2017) whereas this is lower for turbine engine oil.
 7

Fig. 4: Graph showing Total Base Number (TBN) data obtained using the H-Cell method compared to ASTM D2896 method as analysed in a
lubricant laboratory. The H-Cell method in mg KOH/g approximates a 1:1 gradient fit but with 4 outliers. The outliers appear to be gas engine
oils.

3.2 Marine Vessel Diesel Engine Study

In this section we present data describing changes in the chemical composition of engine oil collected from diesel
engines operating on a marine vessel from 13 April 2018 to 10 May 2018. Measurements of Insolubles, TAN, and
TBN were made using LOAC devices and data are reported for 30 samples collected from two engines.
3.2.1 Insolubles
Fig. 5 illustrates the insoluble data obtained for the lube oil analysed in both the portside (LHS) and starboard (RHS)
engines presented in percentage. A spikey and cyclical variation (variance of 0.19 %) in the insoluble content of the
engine oil is observed in the Portside engine. After later discussion with the operator this fluctuation was found to
correspond to top-ups performed during the sampling period. The addition of fresh oil added to the machinery over
the study period would have resulted in the dilution in concentration/proportion of insolubles. The detection of the
effect of the addition of fresh oil highlights both the sensitivity and reproducibility of the technique to changes in
composition of the lubricant while in use. Against the background of periodic dilution there is a downward trend for
insolubles observed in both engines with their continued operation.
An increase in insolubles might be expected with continued operation, but the effect of the engine’s filters needs
also to be considered as well as the operators continued dilution. The latter intervention is being deliberately
performed by the vessels crew with the intent of keeping the proportion of insoluble low. The engine filter is typically
responsible for the removal of particulates in an engine’s lubrication system. So, the trend seen in fig. 5 may reflect
the efficiency of the engine’s filter system in removing particulates which may include insolubles like soot and other
organic solids from the engine lubrication system; after a lengthy operation the portside oil filter may no longer be
running efficiently. Therefore, a combination of work performed by the engine filter, and total running hours may
variably impact insolubles measured in the two engines; the portside engine has run for longer and its filter is less
efficient at removing insolubles. Conversely the starboard engine does less work, its filter is less clogged, and it
continues to efficiently remove insolubles from the lubricant.
8

Fig. 5: LHS- Percentage insolubles in lube oil from the portside engine of the marine vessel over the period of 13 April 2018 to 10 May 2018.
RHS- Percentage insolubles in lube oil from the starboard engine of the marine vessel over the period of 13 April 2018 to 03 May 2018. Red
broken arrow indicates trend over time.

3.2.2 Total Acid Number (TAN)

In fig. 6, we present the data for Total Acid Number (TAN) measurements. This illustrates a graph of TAN content
of the lube oil sample in the portside (LHS) and starboard (RHS) engines of the marine vessel over the sampling
period. The data show a slightly spikey trend that may reflect the top-up regime described above, but overall the
clearest trend is of an upward increase in TAN for both engines over the sampling period.
For equivalent durations of operation TAN rises similarly for both engines (up to about 120 hrs of operation). After
120 hrs operation TAN is arguably approaching significant values within the both engines (> 0.5 mg KOH/g is
potentially sufficient to corrode mild steel), but the subsequent rise for the portside engine is notably greater. While
a gentle rise might represent normal operation, clearly the vessels owner would want to investigate the reasons for
the very steep rise in TAN in the portside engine subsequent to the 20th April. This sudden increase in TAN is far
beyond what would have been predicted from the prior operational histories of either engines. What is of note in
this instance is the value of monitoring more than one engine to provide a baseline for comparisons.

Fig. 6: LHS- Acid content in lube oil from the portside engine of a marine vessel over the period of 13 April 2018 to 10 May 2018. RHS- Acid
content in lube oil from the starboard engine of a marine vessel over the period of 13 April 2018 to 03 May 2018. Red broken arrow indicates
trend over time.

3.2.3 Total Base Number (TBN)

Fig. 7 illustrates changes in TBN of the lubrication oil in the portside (LHS) and starboard (RHS) engines as
determined by LOAC analysis.
 9

Fig. 7: LHS- Total Base Number content in mg KOH/g of lube oil from the portside engine of a marine vessel over the period of 13 April 2018 to
10 May 2018. RHS- Total Base Number content in mg KOH/g of lube oil from the starboard engine of a marine vessel over the period of 13 April
2018 to 03 May 2018. Red broken arrow indicates trend over time.

TBN varies far less about its mean or central tendency than TAN or insoluble content, likely reflecting the oil top-up
regime used by the crew. For the portside engine it is notable that subsequent to the 20th April TBN is more likely
to be less than the mean value (red line in fig. 7). This corresponds to the onset of high TAN values shown in fig. 7,
implying that the alkaline reserve is being drawn down, but not in a systematic way. However, there is no simple
correlation observed between TAN and TBN in the portside engine. For the starboard engine, excepting one very
high value, over time there is a decrease in TBN that matches an increase in TAN. These trends might reasonably
be expected as the detergent additives in lubricating oils are formulated to be consumed during oil aging and
exposure e.g. the alkaline reserve and basicity of the oil becomes gradually depleted and neutralised by various
oxidation by-products (Mortier et al., 2011; Soleimani et al., 2013). Ideally, the depletion of alkaline reserve will
indicate to engineers where to direct focus for maintenance purposes but in this case, the true rate of depletion may
be masked by fresh oil dilution and it is likely that the portside engine warranted intervention at the onset of the
study. The higher levels of alkaline reserve in the portside engine compared to starboard engine may represent the
vessels owner being aware of this, and maybe the product of the top-up regime.

4.0 Discussion
4.1 Precision and Sensitivity
Table 2 presents precision and sensitivity of the LOAC methods and compares this to the ASTM standards used in
this study. Repeatability of the LOAC and ASTM methods were assessed by determining the standard deviation of
all processed samples, obtaining their deviation from the mean and expressing these as a relative standard
deviation in percentage. The repeatability for the LOAC appears better than the ASTM method for Insolubles and
TBN measurements. Low repeatability for ASTM D 893 likely derives from difficulty in weighing small amounts of
insolubles in the gravimetric method, whereas low repeatability for ASTM D 2896 likely derives from reading the
end-point in the titration. ASTM has better repeatability for TAN; this appears consistent with Alabi et al., 2014 and
Alabi 2015. LOAC appears sensitive at detecting very low concentrations of TAN and insolubles but not TBN. This
might be because of the variability in sample types used in this study, i.e. mix of diesel engine oil and gas turbine
oils which have differing TBN profiles for their respective uses.
Table 2: Precision and Sensitivity
Technique Method %RSD LoD
Insolubles TAN TBN Insolubles TAN (mg TBN (mg
(%) KOH/g) KOH/g)
LOAC H-Cell 41 46 14 0.2 0.4 5.5
Microfluidic/Gamma
Ray
ASTM D 893 48
D 664 40
10

D 2896 43
D 5185

4.2 Realtime Monitoring of Marine Diesel Engines

High resolution monitoring of the chemical composition of lubricating oil in the diesel engines of a marine vessel
highlights that both distinct and nuanced information can be obtained about the operation of machinery and the
outcomes of the actions of the machinery’s owners. The LOAC measurements of lubricating oil chemistry provide
information on two of the three machinery failure modes; 1) Contamination – insolubles/TAN and 2) Degradation –
TBN. The last of these being wear (which we will report in another paper). In this particular case study, we see that
some of the measurements correlate well and often correspond with each other. For instance, the rise in TAN, is
associated with decreases in TBN, which can be expected as the alkaline reserve is intended to deplete in the
presence of acid species. It should be noted that a straight correlation between TAN and TBN may not always be
the case as some additive depletion may be caused by components other than acidic species (Mortier et al., 2011).
Some more nuanced information can be seen when data is correlated with workload. For instance, it was reported
that the starboard engine experienced particularly high workload on the 20th and 24th April. Within the data, we see
elevated levels of TBN and Insolubles on these dates. Such correlation with workload might typically be missed
with less frequent sampling. Finally, the cyclical variation in insolubles is important and demonstrates the caring
action of a vessel’s crew as they take steps to keep an engine operating under less than ideal circumstances.
Consequently, it can be shown that the true value of lubricating oil analysis may lay in high resolution datasets that
let engineers, maintenance and asset managers understand what is happening in terms of workload, running hours,
vibration data, temperature, human factors and even outside environment.
4.3 Automation of Lubricating Oil Analysis
Of the techniques used to monitor machinery condition, i.e. vibration analysis, thermography acoustic monitoring
etc., only lubricating oil analysis is operated on a manual basis, where samples are taken from the machinery to a
commercial laboratory for detailed compositional analysis (Wagner, 2014). The value of monitoring the lube oil is
lost in this process as decision making is almost always reactive. The LOAC technique presented here shows there
is potential to turn this process on its head by delivering robust chemical composition analysis of the lube oil onsite,
in real-time. This presents an opportunity to automate the lubricating oil analysis process through real-time analysis,
with the data feeding into predictive analytics and Internet of Things (IoT) modules. The benefit of such automation
can then be translated to the operation of machinery and maintenance regimes employed.
5.0 Conclusion
A LOAC technique for analysing lubricating oil gives comparable data with conventional methods, e.g. ASTM D
893, D 664 etc. and can be used to monitor in real-time live lubricated rotating and reciprocating machinery. This
potentially addresses the unmet industrial need for rapid point-of-use multi-parameter testing of lubricant samples.
Such technique can transform the way lube oil analysis is carried out by making conventional processes, automated,
mobile and rapid. Significantly, such techniques can form the basis for the automation of lubricating oil analysis,
generating data that can feed into the machinery data predictive analytics models and Internet of Things (IoT)
modules. The intimate understanding of machine condition enabled by automating lubricating oil analysis can drive
the operation and maintenance practices that underpin equipment reliability and availability.
6.0 References
Alabi, (2015) ‘The Development of Microfluidic and Surface Enhanced Raman Methods for Petroleum Analysis:
Asphaltene and Naphthenic Acids’, A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the University of
Aberdeen.
Alabi, O.O., Bowden, S.A. and Parnell, J (2014) ‘Simultaneous and rapid asphaltene and TAN determination for
heavy petroleum using an H-cell’, Analytical Methods, Vol. 6(11), pp. 3651-3661.
ASTM D2896-15, Standard Test Method for Base Number of Petroleum Products by Potentiometric Perchloric Acid
Titration, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2015, www.astm.org
ASTM D5185-18, Standard Test Method for Multielement Determination of Used and Unused Lubricating Oils and
Base Oils by Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission Spectrometry (ICP-AES), ASTM International, West
 11

Conshohocken, PA, 2018, www.astm.org

ASTM D664-18e2, Standard Test Method for Acid Number of Petroleum Products by Potentiometric Titration, ASTM
International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2018, www.astm.org
ASTM D893-14(2018), Standard Test Method for Insolubles in Used Lubricating Oils, ASTM International, West
Conshohocken, PA, 2018, www.astm.org
Bowden, S.A., Monaghan, P.B., Wilson, R., Parnell, J. and Cooper, J.M., (2006) ‘The liquid–liquid diffusive
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