Communication

-Is the process of sharing and conveying messages or information from one person to another within
across , channels, context, media and cultures.
- Communication is full of risks; despite whatever precautions and plans we make, we can never really be
sure of our success. No communication ever travels from sender to receiver in the same shape intended by
the sender.

Nature of Communication
-communication is a process it occurs between two or more people ( the speaker and the receiver).
Communication can be expressed through written or spoken words action (nonverbal) or both spoken
words and verbal actions at the same time.

Elements of communication
Context
- refers to the environment of communication in which the interaction happens or takes place.
Communication context is the prime element of every communication process that controls the
communication process among senders and receivers. The most common five communication contexts are
intrapersonal, interpersonal, group, public, and mass communication settings. Additionally, this context
may be physical, historical, psychological, social, chronological, or cultural.

Sender
-  is a person who sends a message to the receiver. The sender is also known as the encoder of the message.
The sender initiates the communication process and starts the procedure by sending a message or
information. Therefore, the sender is a significant element of the communication process. A sender makes
and uses symbols (words or graphic or visual aids) to convey the message and produce the required
response. Therefore, a sender is a speaker, writer, or person who provides the information to share
opinions, ideas, and messages.

Encoding
- means transforming abstract opinions and ideas into symbols such as words, pictures, signs, and marks. A
symbol might represent or indicate opinions, statements, and actions. In contrast, decoding is the process of
transforming the symbol into an idea or thought. Encoding is the process of transformation of the subject
into symbols. The encoding process is related to the sender and receiver.

Message
- refers to the information, ideas, feelings, opinions, thoughts, attitudes, and views the sender wants to
deliver to the receiver. The message seems like a vital element of any communication process. Any
communication conveys the message, also known as sharing ideas, opinions, thoughts, and information.
Invariably, the sender wants to convey the message to communicate with the receiver. So, senders need to
ensure that the main objective of the message is clear and understandable.

Channel
-  is the way or tool of transmitting the message. It is also known as a medium in communication that
conveys the message from sender to receiver. Communicators use different channels to communicate in a
distinct context of communication. In face-to-face communication, the sender’s senses, such as hearing,
seeing, smelling, touching, and tasting, are the channel of transferring the information. It is also one of the
crucial elements of the communication process.
Decoding

-  is “the process of” translating an encoded symbol into ordinary understandable language in contrast to the
encoder. In this process, the receiver converts the symbols into thoughts received from the sender.
Decoding is the opposite process of encoding to get the message’s meaning.

receiver 

- is a person for whom the message is targeted, unlike the sender. Therefore, the receiver is the audience of
the communication process that decodes the message to perceive the meaning. The sender indeed sends a
message aimed at the receiver. Receivers can be one person or a group of people, or a big amount of the
population. The degree to which the decoder understands the message depends on various factors such as
the knowledge of the recipient, their responsiveness to the message, and the reliance of the encoder on the
decoder.

Feedback

- refers to the response of the receiver or audience. One of the main elements of the effective communication
process differentiates the communication models into linear and transactional. Feedback is an inevitable
component of the transactional model. It also helps the sender confirm the decoder’s correct interpretation
of the message. Feedback may be verbal (through words) or non-verbal (in the form of smiles, sighs, etc.).
It may take written form and also in the form of memos, reports, etc. Feedback is also one of the essential
elements of the transactional communication process.

Barrier

A communication barrier is anything that comes in the way of receiving and understanding messages that
one sends to another to convey his ideas, thoughts, or any other kind of information. These various barriers
of communication block or interfere with the message that someone is trying to send.

Models of communication

Linear models

Aristotle’s Model

Aristotle’s model of communication is the oldest communication model, dating back to 300BC. The model was
designed to examine how to become a better and more convincing communicator.Aristotle argues we should look at
five elements of a communication event to analyze how best to communicate: speaker, speech, occasion, target
audience and effect. He also identified three elements that will improve communication: ethos (credibility), pathos
(ability to connect) and logos (logical argument). Aristotle’s model does not pay attention to the role of feedback in
communication.

Lasswell’s model

tries to understand a communication event by asking five important questions. It looks at who created the
message (and what their bias may be), what they said, the channel they said it through (e.g. TV, radio,
blog), who they said it two, and what effect it had on the receiver. This model is effective as it provides a
very simple and practical way of critiquing a message and exploring five important elements that can help
explain the event under analysis in more detail.
 Shannon-Weaver model 

sees communication occurring in five key parts: sender, encoder, channel, decoder, receiver. It emphasizes the
importance of encoding and decoding messages for them to be sent (e.g. turning them into written words, morse
code, etc.). During the process of encoding, sending and decoding, ‘noise’ occurs that can disrupt or cloud a
message. In the most traditional sense, this may be static on a radio broadcast, or even extend to mishearing a
conversation or misspelling an email. This model was the first to introduce the role of noise in the communication
process.

Berlo’s S-M-C-R Model

explains it in four steps: Source, Message, Channel, and Receiver. The unique aspect of Berlo’s model is that it
gives a detailed account of the key elements in each step that will affect how well the message is communicated:
Source: Elements of the source include communication skills of the sender, their attitude and their culture.
Message: Elements of the message include its content, structure and code.
Channel: Elements of the channel include the senses of hearing, seeing, touching, smelling, etc.
Receiver: Elements of the receiver include their attitude, knowledge and culture.

Interactive Models

Osgood – Schramm Model

The Osgood-Schramm model explores communication that is equal and reciprocal.It does not

differentiate between the sender and receiver, but sees each as being in an equal position as message
encoders and decoders.This model is best for explaining and examining personal synchronous
communication where feedback is immediate (such as face-to-face discussions). As feedback is
immediate, noise can be reduced through ongoing clarification of messages during the conversation.
The Westley – Mclean Model

The Westley and Maclean model embraces the importance of feedback in communication. However, it

also emphasizes the important role of environmental and cultural factors in influencing communication. It
shows that the things we say and communicate are influenced by who we are, what our background is,
and what perspective we are approaching issues from. The model takes into account the object of
orientation (background, culture and beliefs) of the sender and receiver of messages. It also considers the
message to have been received and sent within a broader social context that needs to be considered to
know and understand the message.

The Transactional Models

Quick Summary: Transactional models explain direct personal communication processes where two-way
feedback is immediate.

Barnlund’s Transactional Model

 Barnlund’s Transactional Model of Communication highlights the role of private and public cues that
impact our messages.Barnlund’s Transactional Model of Communication is a model that explores
interpersonal.This model also highlights the role of ‘cues’ in impacting our messages. Barnlund highlights
the role of public cues which are environmental cues, and private cues which are a person’s personal.

Dance’s Helical Model

Dance’s Helical Model sees communication as a circular process that gets more and more complex as
communication occurs, which can be represented by a helical spiral, builds on circular models by
explaining how we improve our messages over time by using feedback. The movement up the spiral
indicates that each communication practice is new and different from the previous, as communication
does not ever perfectly repeat itself.

functions of communication
Control – communication functions to control behavior.
Social Interaction – communication allows individuals to interact with others.
Motivation – communication encourages people to live better.
Emotional expression – communication facilities people’s expression of their feeling and
emotions.
Information dissemination – communication functions to convey information.

Categories of Communication
1. Language Barriers – clearly language and linguistic ability may act as barriers to
communication. However, even when communicating in the same language the
terminology used in a message may act as a barrier if is not fully understood by the
receiver. For example, a message that includes a lot of specialist jargon and abbreviations
will not be understood by a receiver who is not familiar with the terminology used. As
nurses, we are especially prone to making this mistake. We must remember to use
language that can be understood by the receiver.
2. Psychological Barriers – the psychological state of the receiver will influence how the
message is received. For example, if someone has personal worries and is stressed, they
may be preoccupied by personal concerns and not as receptive to the message as if they
were not stressed.
3. Physiological Barriers – physiological barriers may result from the receiver’s physical
state. For example, a receiver with reduced hearing may not grasp the entirety of a
spoken conversation, especially if there is significant background noise.
4. Attitudinal Barriers – attitudinal barriers are behavior or perceptions that prevent
people from communicating effectively. Attitudinal barriers to communication may result
from personality conflicts, poor management, resistance to change, or lack of motivation.
Effective receivers of messages should attempt to overcome their own attitudinal barriers
to facilitate effective communication.
5. Physical Barriers – an example of physical barrier to communication is geographic
distance between the sender and the receiver. Communication is generally easier over
shorter distances as more communication channels are available and less technology is
required. Although modern technology often serves to reduce the impact of physical
barriers, the advantages and disadvantages of each channel should be understood so that
an appropriate channel can be used to overcome the physical barriers

Communication Barriers
 -the use of jargon, over-complicated, or unfamiliar terms
- emotional barriers
- lack of attention, interest, distraction, or irrelevance to the receiver
- differences in perception and viewpoint
- physical disabilities such as hearing problems or speech difficulties.

0vercoming Communication Barriers

1. Active listening – active listening is fully concentrating on what is being sad rather
than just ‘hearing’ the message of the speaker. It involves listening with all senses
and giving full attention to the speaker.
2. Use simple language – it’s important to remember the audience that you’re speaking
to and use language that can be easily understood. Avoid using medical terminology
or jargon when speaking to clients and their families.
3. Give constructive feedback – remember that feedback was part of the communication
chain we looked at on the first page. While the feedback that you give the
speaker/sender may occasionally be negative it is important to be constructive in
nature.
Features of communication (7 Cs)
1. Completeness – communication should include everything that the receiver needs to hear
for him/her to respond, react, or evaluate properly.
2. Conciseness – it does not mean keeping the message short but making it direct or straight
to the point. Insignificant or redundant information should be eliminated.
3. Consideration – to be effective, the speaker should always consider relevant information
about his/her receiver such as mood, background, race, preference, education, status, and
needs, among others. By doing so, he/she can easily build rapport with the audience.
4. Concreteness – effective communication happens when the message is concrete and
supported by facts, figures, and real-life examples and situations.
5. Courtesy – the speaker shows courtesy in communication by respecting the culture,
values, and beliefs of his/her receivers.
6. Clearness – it implies the use of simple and specific words to express ideas. It also
achieved when the speaker focuses only on a single objective in his/her speech as not to
confuse the audience.
7. Correctness – correctness in grammar eliminates a negative impact on the audience and
increases the credibility and effectiveness of the message.
Verbal Communication
- It refers to an interaction in which words are used to relay a message. For effective and
successful verbal communication, use words to express ideas that can be easily
understood by the person you are talking to.
Features of effective Verbal Communication
 1. Appropriates – the language that you use should be appropriate to the environment or
occasion ( i..e.., whether formal or informal)
2. Brevity – speakers who often use simple yet precise and powerful words are found to be
more credible. Be direct with your words and avoid fillers.

Nonverbal Communication
- It refers to an interaction where behavior is used to convey and represent meanings. This
includes all kinds of human responses that are not expressed in words
Features of effective Non-Verbal Communication
1. Clarity – clearly state your message to avoid misinterpretation.
2. Ethics – words should be carefully chosen in consideration of the gender, roles,
ethnicity, preferences, and status of the person or people you are talking to.
3. Vividness – words that vividly or creatively describe things of feelings usually add color
and spice to communication.
.
Reason why we need to master Nonverbal Communication
1. It enhances and emphasizes the message of your speech, thus making it more meaningful,
truthful, and relevant.
2. It can communicate feelings, attitudes, and perceptions without you saying a word.
3. It can sustain the attention of listeners and keep them engaged in the speech.
4. It gives the audience a preview of the type of speaker you are.
5. It makes you appear more dynamic and animated in your delivery
6. It serves as a channel to release tension and nervousness.
7. It helps make your speech more dramatic.
8. It can build a connection with listeners.
9. It makes you a credible speaker.
10. It helps you vary your speaking style and avoid a monotonous delivery.

Intercultural Communication
- It happens when individuals interact, negotiate and create meanings while bringing in
their varied cultural backgrounds ( Ting-Toomey, 1999).
- It pertains to communication among people from different nationalities ( Gudykunst.
2003)
- It is a communication that is influenced by different ethnicities, religions, and sexual
orientations.
 - It takes place when people draw from their cultural identity to understand values,
prejudices, language, attitudes, and relationships ( Gudykunst and Kim, 2003).
- It is sending and receiving messages across languages and cultures.
- It can flow, smoothly and become very interesting for a cross-cultural group: however,
things may not go as planned when communication is disrupted by cultural differences.
- NODDING means “yes” in the Indian subcontinent, Iran, most of Europe, Latin America,
and North America but “disagreement” in Greece, Lebanon, Syria, Palestine, Turkey,
Macedonia, Bulgaria, and Albania.
- IN CONTACT CULTURES such as southern Europe and Philippines, people tend to
stand closer to each other, touch during conversation, and maintain eye contact longer,
while in NON-CONTACT CULTURES such as Northern Europe and Japan, there is a
greater distance between communicators – littile to no touch and less eye contact
(Franklin, and Clark. 2001).

The Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity (DMIS)

( Bennet and Bennett, 2004)
Stage 1: DENIAL
- The individual does not recognize cultural differences
“All cities are the same they all have tall buildings, fast food chains, and coffee shops”
Stage 2: DEFENSE
- The individual start to recognize cultural differences and is intimidated by them resulting
in either a superior view of own culture or unjustified high regard for the new one.
“This culture does not view life the way we do, our culture is certainly better”

Stage 3: MINIMIZATION
- Although individuals see cultural differences, they bank more on the university of ideas
rather than on cultural differences.
“Once we see through the cultural differences, we really are just the same!”

Stage 4: ACCEPTANCE
- The individual begins to appreciate important cultural differences in behaviors and
eventually in values.
“These people and I have different values and experiences, and I think we can learn from
one another.”
Stage 5: ADAPTATION
- The individual is very open to world views when accepting new perspectives.
“To address our issue, I have to adjust my approach to consider both my own and my
counterpart’s background.
Stage 6: INTEGRATION
- Individuals start to go beyond their own cultures and see themselves and their actions
based on multifarious cultural viewpoints.
“I can look at things from the perspective of various cultures”
Characteristics of Competent Intercultural Communicators (World Bank, 2010)
1. Flexibility and the ability to tolerate high levels of uncertainty
2. Reflectiveness or mindfulness
3. Open mindedness
4. Sensitivity
Tips to follow to refrain from showing BIAS when talking to someone
1. Avoid stereotypes (generalizations about a certain group).
2. Challenge gender norms.
3. Don’t talk down on younger people and the elderly.
4. Be sensitive to the religious practices of others.
5. Be polite at all times. Don’t belittle people.
Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity (DMIS)
INTERCULTURAL DEVELOPMENT
- Ethnorelative
- Ethnocentric
Ethnorelative
- Acceptance
- Adaptability
- Integration
Ethnocentric
- Denial
- Defense
- Minimization

Denial
 - Is the inability to see cultural differences and is reflective of individuals who isolate
themselves in homogenous groups.
- Ignore diversity
- Ignorant stereotyping
Bennet calls the denial stage the stupid question syndrome.
- Develop better skills of category discrimination
- Become more sophisticated in thinking
- Become more complex in cognitive processing
Defense
Recognition of cultural differences + Negative evaluation of other cultures
3 areas of Defense
1. Denigration or derogation
- Belittling or actively discriminating against another person
2. Superiority
-extreme ethnocentrism to the point where one looks down on another
3. Reversal
- Changing sides or evaluating one’s own cultures as inferior to another
Minimization
- Began to recognize superficial cultural differences such as eating customs, money and so
fort belief that all humans are the same.

Ethnorelative
- Represents a significant change in ones views of difference from something to be avoided
to something that is sought out.
- Individuals ethnorelative stage search for ways to adapt to difference and begin to
recognize that people live culturally different contexts.
Ethnorelative stages
Acceptance
- Acceptance of difference is the first stage on the ethnorelative side of Benett model.
- This stage represent on individual ability to recognize and appreciate cultural difference
in terms of both peoples values their behavior Not good or bad… just different.
- Acceptance of anothers differences not necessarily mean agreement with or even
attempting to adopt those differences. People still have their individual tastes and
 preference , some may be appreciated but not all cultures or cultural practices will be
liked or valued by other people.
Adaptation
- Is the stage during which people begin to see cultural categories as more flexible and
because more competent in their ability to communicate across cultures.

Use empathy Effectively

- Shift frames of references
- Understood across cultural boundaries
- Better teaching
- Movement into adaptation from acceptance is cognitive empathy driven by a need for
actions such as better teaching or more profit and cognitive empathy. The ability to see
things from perspective of other cultures.

Ways to increase intercultural sensitivity and competence

- Opportunities for interaction with other culture partners
- Facilitated multicultural group discussions
- Training in the practice empathy
- Activities that relate to real life situations
- Facilitate opportunities for learners to practice behavior in known cultures

Actively looking of life through the perspective of others

Integration
Cultural
Integration
- Is the final stage of the developmental model of intercultural sensitivity although it is
rarely achieved, it reflects those individuals who have multiple frames of reference and
can identify and more freely within more than one cultural group.
- Acceptance of an identity that is not based in any one culture.
- Able to facilitate constructive contact between cultures.
- Cultural mediators or cultural bridges.
Understanding intercultural development is not an overnight process but one that takes time and
well-planned exposures way we educate our students.
Types of Speech Act
“Can you pass the rice”
Inferred speech act: “Do you have the ability to hand over the rice?”
Indirect speech act:” Please pass the rice”.
“ Do you have know if he/she get 100 on the recent exam?”
“The window is still open”
Speech Act
- It is an utterance that a speaker makes to achieve an intended effect.
- Some of the functions which are carried out using speech acts are offering an apology,
greeting, request, complaint, invitation, complement, or refusal.
- It may contain just one word or several words or sentences. For example “Thanks” and
Thank you for always being there for me.”
3 types of Speech Act ( J.L Austin 1962)
1. Locutionary Act- is the actual act of uttering.
“Please do the dishes”
2. Illocutionary Act- is the social function of what is said.
The speaker requests the addressee to wash the dishes.
3. Perlocutionary Act - the resulting act of what is said.
It would lead to the addressee washing the dishes.
John Langshaw Austin
- A British philosopher of language and the developer of the speech act theory
- Also introduced the concept of performative utterances.
Performatives
- This are statement which enable the speaker to perform something just by stating it.
- A performative utterance said by the right person under the right circumstances results in
a change in the world.
“I now pronounce you husband and wife”

John Searle (1976)

- The professor from the University of California Berkeley
- Classified illocutionary act into 5 distinct categories as a response to Austin’s speech act
Theory

Searle’s Classifications Of Speech Act

1. ASSERTIVE
- The speaker expresses belief about the truth of a proportion .( suggesting, putting,
forward, swearing, boasting, and concluding).
 “ No one makes better pancakes that I do”
2. DIRECTIVE
- The speaker tries to make the addressee perform an action (asking, ordering, requesting,
inviting, advising, and begging)
“ Please close the door”
3. COMMISIVE
- The speaker is committed to do something in the future (promising, planning, vowing,
and betting.)
‘from now on , I will never be absent”.
4. EXPRESSIVE
- The speaker expresses his/her feelings or emotional reaction (thanking, apologizing,
welcoming and deploring)
“I am sorry for not helping out in our group projects
5. DECLARATION
- The speaker brings a change in the external situation.( blessing, firing, baptizing, passing
a sentence and excommunication.)
“your are fired”

Types of Speech context

1. Intrapersonal
- Communicate the center on one person where the speaker act both as the sender and the
receiver of message
2. Interpersonal
- Communication between and among people and establishes personal relationship
between and among them
a. Dynamic Communication – occurs between two people
You provided comfort to a friend who was feeling down
b. Small Group – involves at least 3 but not more than 12 people engaging in the
face to face interaction to achieve and desired goal.
You ‘re having discussion with your group matters on how to finish
task.
3. Public
- Communication that requires you to deliver or send the message before or in front of a
group; unlike in interpersonal context, the channels here are more exaggerated.
Example; a graduation speech

4. Mass communication
- Communication that takes place through TV, radio, news paper, magazines, books,
biilboards, internet and other types of media
 Example; student journalist articulating your stand or current issues through
school newspaper
Types of Speech STYLE
1. Intimate- this style is private, occurs between close family members or individual. The
language used in this style may not be shared in public.
- Example; telling your secrets to your best friend
2. Casual- this style is commonly used among peers and friends jargon, slang or vernacular
language are used.
- Example; normal conversation between friends
3. Consultative- this style is the standard one. Professionally acceptable language is a must.
- Example; formal conversation between teachers and students , doctor and a patient.
4. Formal – this style used in formal settings. Unlike consultative, this is one way.
- Example; SONA, SERMONS OF PRIEST
5. Frozen- this style is frozen it remains unchanged. It mostly occurs in ceremony.
- Example; lord’s prayer, memorial ceremonies and preamble of the constitutions.

ommunication is a PROCESS.
– It is creative, continuing condition
of life, a process that changes as the
communicator’s environments
and needs change.
– Many words have become obsolete,
trite, or altered in their meanings while
new words have evolved