Advantage Mud Manual

2202Return to Glossary
GLOSSARY
Chapter 1 Drilling Fluid Test Procedures
Chapter 2 Water Base Mud Systems

Chapter 3 Oil Base Mud Systems
Chapter 4 Drilling Fluid Contaminants
Chapter 5 Mud Related Drilling Problems
Chapter 6 Solids Control
Chapter 7 Product Data Information

Chapter 8 Environmental Information
Chapter 9 Hydraulics
Chapter 10 Engineering Data
TABLE OF CONTENTS – CHAPTER 1 Return to Glossary

Chapter 1 Drilling Fluid Test Procedures
Return to Table of Contents
TOPICS PAGE
1.1 MUD DENSITY (Unpressurized Mud Balance) 1

1.2 MUD DENSITY (Tru-Wate Pressurized Mud Balance 2
1.2.1 OBTAINING TRU-WATE DENSITY WITH AN UNPRESSURIZED BALANCE 3
1.3 MARSH FUNNEL VISCOSITY 4
1.4 RHEOLOGICAL MEASUREMENTS(Viscometers) 5
1.5 FILTRATION TESTS 7
1.6 SAND CONTENT 11
1.7 LIQUID AND SOLIDS CONTENT (RETORT / SOLIDS ANALYSIS) 12
1.7.1 SOLIDS CALCULATIONS 13
1.8 CATION EXCHANGE CAPACITY 23
1.9 pH DETERMINATION 26
1.10 CHLORIDE DETERMINATION 26
1.11 FILTRATE HARDNESS (Total Hardness, Calcium & Magnesium) 27
1.12 GYPSUM (Calcium Sulfate) CONCENTRATION 29
1.13 MUD FILTRATE ALKALINITY 29
1.13.1 Pf / Mf Method 30
1.13.2 P1 / P2 Method 30
1.13.3 GARRET GAS TRAIN METHOD (Carbonates) 32
1.14 ALKALINITY OF THE MUD (Pm) 34
1.15 SULFATE ION CONCENTRATION 34
1.15.1 Sulfate Ion – QUALITATIVE TEST 34
1.15.2 Sulfate Ion – QUANTITATIVE TEST 35
1.16 AMMONIUM SULFATE TEST ( Hach Ammonia Nitrogen Test Kit (N1-8) 36
1.17 SULFITE ION CONCENTRATION 36
1.18 HYDROGEN SULFIDE CONCENTRATION 37
1.18.1 HACH H2S TEST 37
1.18.2 GARRETT GAS TRAIN (H2S 38
1.19 HYDROGEN SULFIDE SCAVENGING ABILITY AND ZINC CARBONATE 40
1.19.1 ESTIMATION of ZINC CARBONATE CONCENTRATION (Qualitative 40
1.19.2 H2S SCAVENGING ABILITY and ZINC CARBONATE CONCENTRATION 41
1.20 IRONITE SPONGE TEST 43
1.21 POTASSIUM ION CONCENTRATION 44
1.21.1 HAND CRANK CENTRIFUGE METHOD 44
1.21.2 POTASSIUM TEST STRIPS 45
1.22 POLYACRYLAMIDE (PHPA) POLYMER CONCENTRATION 46
1.23 DAP AND PHOSPHATE CONCENTRATION 47
1.24 NITRATE ION CONCENTRATION 48
1.25 DETERMINATION OF AMOUNT OF CORINOX IN MUD FILTRATE 49
1.26 LOST CIRCULATION MATERIAL CONCENTRATION 49
1.27 BIOCIDE CONCENTRATION 50
1.28 BACTERIA DIPSLIDE TEST 50
1.29 POLYGLYCOL CONCENTRATION 51
1.30 STABLE-K CONCENTRATION 52
1.31 SODIUM SILICATE CONCENTRATION 54
CHAPTER 1
DRILLING FLUID TEST PROCEDURES
In order to ensure that the mud has optimum properties, certain tests are performed. These
tests are used to make sure that the mud properties necessary for a successful drilling operation
are achieved and maintained. The tests are also used as a tool to aid in diagnosing mud related
problems. The mud properties are routinely checked at the well site, and recorded on a daily
Drilling Mud Report.
1.1 MUD DENSITY (Unpressurized Mud Balance) Return to Table of Contents
Drilling mud density is required to calculate the hydrostatic pressure that is being exerted by a
column of drilling mud at any given depth. Density is also used to provide an indication of the
solids content of a drilling mud.
When the test is performed using a standard mud balance, care must be taken to ensure the cup
is full and free of entrapped air.
Mud Balance Calibration:
1. Remove the lid and completely fill the cup with distilled water at room temperature.
2. Replace the lid carefully, and wipe the entire balance dry.
3. Place the balanced arm on the base with the knife edge resting on the fulcrum.
4. With the rider placed at 1000 kg/m3 (S.G. – 1.0 or 8.33 lbs./gal), the bubble of the level vial
should oscillate the same distance to the left and right of the centering mark above the vial.
If not, the calibration screw at the end of the balance should be adjusted until the oscillations
are equal. Some mud balances do not have an adjustment screw and required lead shot to
be removed or added through a calibration cap.
Note: A more accurate reading is obtained if the mud balance is

permitted to oscillate on its knife edge, rather than allowing it to come to rest with the
bubble centered over 7the centering mark.
Test Procedure:
1. Remove the lid from the cup and completely fill the cup with the mud to be tested. It may be
necessary to tap or vibrate the cup lightly to bring the entrapped air to the surface for high
viscosity muds.
2. Replace the lid and seat it firmly on the cup in a rotating manner. Allow the excess drilling
mud to be expelled through the centrally located hole in the lid.
3. Wash the mud from the outside of the cup, and dry the mud balance.
4. Place the balance arm on the base with the knife edge resting on the fulcrum.
5. Adjust the rider until the bubble oscillates equally to the left and right of the centering mark
above the level vial.
6. Read the mud density as shown by the indicator on the rider.
7. Report the result to the nearest scale division in kg/m 3.
Calculations:
The SI density units in kg/m 3 can be found from three of the four different scales on the mud
balance as follows:
kg/m3 = lb/gal X 119.82

kg/m3 = lb/ft3 X 16.02
kg/m3 = Relative Density (gm/cm3) X 1000
The fourth scale on the balance is a mud gradient scale with units of psi/1000 ft. The SI unit for
mud gradient is kPa/m.
kPa/m = 22.62 X psi/ft
1.2 MUD DENSITY (Tru-Wate Pressurized Mud Balance)

When a drilling mud contains entrapped air, or it is experiencing a foaming problem, the mud
density may be accurately determined with a pressurized mud balance. This a mud balance is
similar in operation to the instrument described in Section 1.1 – the difference being that the
sample is pressurized to expel air or gas.
Test Procedure:
1. Fill the sample cup with drilling mud to a level, which is approximately 10 mm below the
upper edge of the cup.
2. Place the lid on the cup with the attached check valve in the down (open) position. Push the
lid downward into the mouth of the cup until surface contact is made between the outer skirt
of the lid and the upper edge of the cup allowing any excess mud to be expelled through the
open check valve.
3. Pull the check valve up into the closed position, rinse off the cup and threads, and the screw
the threaded cap onto the cup.
4. With the plunger in hand, push its handle into place in the inner piston to its lower most
position. Fill the plunger by immersing its nose in the mud to be tested and pulling out the
handle until the inner piston is in its upper most position. (The plunger’s operation is similar
to a syringe or bicycle pump).
5. Place the nose of the plunger onto the mating O-ring surface of the valve on the cap. The
sample cup is pressurized by maintaining a downward force on the cylinder in order to hold
the check valve down (open), and at the same time forcing the piston inward. Approximately
220 Newton’s of force is required on the plunger handle in order to pressure the cup.
6. The check valve in the lid is pressure actuated and will close (move up) under the influence
of pressure within the sample cup. Therefore the valve is closed by gradually easing up on
the plunger cylinder while maintaining pressure on the piston. When the check valve closes,
disconnect the plunger from the lid, rinse the cup in water and wipe it dry.
7. Place the pressurized balance with the knife edge on the fulcrum of the balance stand.
Adjust the sliding weight on the balance beam until the bubble oscillates equally to the left
and right of the centering mark above the bubble vial. Note the value of the specific gravity
at this point.
8. The pressure in the mud balance is now released by reconnecting the empty plunger to the
lid an pushing to the plunger cylinder while permitting the handle to move freely. To
complete the procedure all components should be washed and rinsed thoroughly.
NOTE: For trouble free operation, the valve, lid and cylinder should be greased
frequently with a water proof grease such as “Lubri-Plate.
Calculations:
The SI density units in kg/m 3 can be found from three of the four different scales on the mud
balance as follows:
kg/m3 = lb/gal X 119.82

kg/m3 = lb/ft3 X 16.02
kg/m3 = Relative Density (gm/cm3) X 1000
The fourth scale on the balance is a mud gradient scale with units of psi/1000 ft. The SI unit for
mud gradient is kPa/m.
kPa/m = 22.62 X psi/ft
1.2.1 OBTAINING TRU-WATE DENSITY WITH AN UNPRESSURIZED BALANCE
If aeration becomes a problem in the mud system, and it is necessary to find a true mud density
with a pressurized Tru-Wate mud balance, it may be obtained through the use of an
unpressurized mud balance.
1. In a viscosity cup, add 500 ml of water.

2. Slowly add the aerated mud to the water into the viscosity cup.
3. Agitate the water / mud mixture to release the entrapped air.
4. Continue adding mud to the mixture until the final volume of water and mud is at 1000 ml,
and all the air is released from the mixture.
5. The true mud density can then be taken as follows.
Calculations:
0.5 (Water Density) + 0.5 (Unknown Mud Density ) = Mud Balance Density
Example:
Water Density = 1000 kg/m3 (500 ml)

Mud Balance Density = 1060 kg/m3
Unknown Mud Density = x
0.5 (1000) + 0.5 (x) = 1060 kg/m3

500 + 0.5 (x) = 1060
0.5 (x) = 1060 - 500
0.5 (x) = 560
x = 560
0.5
x = 1120 kg/m3
The tru-wate or density of the mud is 1120 kg/m3
1.3 MARSH FUNNEL VISCOSITY
Funnel viscosity is an indication of the overall viscosity of a drilling mud. It is affected by the
concentration, type, size, and size distribution of the solids present, and the electrochemical
nature of the drilling mud’s solid and liquid phase.
Consequently, funnel viscosity should only be used to provide an indication of change or

consistency of viscosity from time to time. Since Gel Strength can have a great effect on the
magnitude of the funnel viscosity, the measurement should be taken as quickly as possible.
Marsh Funnel Calibration:
With the funnel in an upright position, fill it with freshwater (at 20  C) to the level of the screen
with a finger placed over the orifice. With the aid of the measuring cup (viscosity cup) the time
taken for one litre of water to pass through the funnel orifice tube should be 27.5 seconds (± 0.5
sec). The Marsh Funnel viscosity can be corrected using the following formula:
27.5 sec/L X
Measured Flow = Measured Flow
Of Water (sec/L) of Mud Sample
(sec/L)
X = True Marsh Funnel Viscosity
NOTE: The marsh funnel orifice is a tube, 50.8 mm in length and 4.76 mm in internal
diameter. The orifice may be cleaned by passing a 4.76 mm (3/16 inch) drill through it by
hand.
Test Procedure:
1. With the funnel in an upright position, cover the orifice with a finger and rapidly pour a freshly
collected mud sample through the screen, and into the funnel until the mud just touches the
base of the screen (1500 ml).
NOTE: It is also permissible to overfill the funnel to some level above the screen, and
begin timing when the mud level reaches the screen. This is sometimes done in
conjunction with not placing the finger over the orifice. In this manner, the effect of
Gel Strength on funnel viscosity is minimized.
2. Immediately remove the finger from the orifice and measure the time required for the mud to
fill the viscosity cup to the one (1) litre level.
3. Report the result to the nearest second as the Marsh Funnel Viscosity, at the temperature of
measurement in degrees Celsius.
1.4 RHEOLOGICAL MEASUREMENTS Return to Table of Contents
In the field, the rheological characteristics of a drilling mud are determined with a concentric
rotational viscometer having an industry standardized bob and sleeve. Shear stress, viscosity,
or Gel Strength is determined from the degree of rotation of the bob under the influence of the
shear rate created in the mud by the action of the outer, rotating sleeve. Because most drilling
muds are non-Newtonian in behavior (pseudoplastic and thixotropic), stress, viscosity and gel
strength measurements must be performed at prescribed shear rates (rotational speeds). The
industry standard rotational speeds are 600 and 300 rpm for any steady state of rheological
parameter and 3 rpm for gel strength (an indication of thixotropy) measurements.
The most common field viscometers are:
Baroid Rheometer Model 280
The operation of these models is similar.
The hand crank models have three speeds which are changed by a shift lever and internally
controlled by a slip clutch. The stirring speed is obtained by moving the shift lever counter
clockwise as far as possible. The 600 rpm speed is obtained by moving the shift lever clockwise
from the stirring speed to the first detent position. The 300 rpm rotational speed is obtained by
moving the shift lever to its next detent clockwise from the 600 rpm position. Gel strength is
obtained by rotating the knurled hand wheel.
Fann Model HC34A
This hand crank model has two speeds which are changed by a shift knob (or wheel) on top of
the instrument. The 600 rpm speed is obtained with the shift knob pushed down while the
sleeve is rotating, and the 300 rpm rotational speed is obtained by moving the shift knob all the
way up while the sleeve is moving. A neutral position is located by a detent half way between
the 600 and the 300 reading position. Gel strengths are determined by rotating the knurled
wheel (located below the shift knob) by hand with the shift knob in the neutral middle position.
Fann Model 34A
This model is a 3 speed electric version of the Fann Model HC34A. The stirring speed is
obtained by pressing the button on the left side of the upper body. The 600 rpm speed is
obtained with the top shift knob pushed down while the sleeve is rotating, and the 300 rpm
speed is obtained by moving the top shift knob all the way up while the sleeve is rotating. A
neutral position is located by a detent half way between the 600 and 300 rpm position. Gel
strengths are determined by rotating the knurled wheel (located below the shift knob) by hand,
with the shift knob in the neutral middle position.
PROCEDURES FOR RHEOLOGICAL MEASUREMENTS
In conventional field practices, the steady state rheological description of a drilling mud is given
in terms of the parameters which describe the fluid as an ideal Bingham Plastic. These
parameters are the Plastic Viscosity and Yield Point, or Yield Stress. The time dependent nature
of the drilling mud (thixotropy) is measured in terms of Gel Strength.
The temperature at which rheological measurements are taken should be constant and always
be recorded.
1. Plastic Viscosity and Yield Point
Place a recently agitated sample in a suitable container and lower the instrument head until
the sleeve is immersed in the drilling mud sample exactly at the scribed line of the sleeve.
With the instrument set at 600 rpm, rotate the sleeve until a steady dial reading is obtained,
(for highly thixotropic muds, this may take some time). Consistency of results can be
achieved if the 600 rpm dial reading is taken at the point for which the change in dial reading
is less than 1 degree (one dial division over a stirring time of one minute).
Rheological Measurements:
When the dial reading has reached this steady value, record this as the 600 rpm dial
reading, D600.
Lower the speed to 300 rpm, and stir the sample at this speed until a steady reading is
obtained using the same criteria for the steady state point. Record this value at the 300 rpm
dial reading, D300.
Calculations:
Apparent Viscosity (mPa.s) = D600

2
Plastic Viscosity (mPa.s) = D600 – D300
Yield Point (Pa) = D300 - PV

2
2. Gel Strength
Gel Strength measurements can be made as a continuation of the steady state

measurements. Measurements are taken at two rest periods; 10 seconds and 10 minutes.
a. Stir the mud sample at 600 rpm until a steady reading has been achieved. (If all time
dependence has been taken out of the mud sample, this reading should be the same as
the previous 600 rpm dial reading).
b. Stop rotation of the sleeve. (For the Fann Model HC34A or 34A, the shift knob must be
simultaneously brought to the neutral position).
c. Allow a rest time of 10 seconds, then slowly (at 3 rpm) and steadily rotate the Gel
Strength wheel (counter clockwise for the Fann instruments; clockwise for all others).
d. Record the maximum dial deflection as the initial Gel Strength dial reading, D0.
e. Repeat steps (a)-(b), and in step (c), allow a rest time of 10 minutes.
f. Record the maximum dial reflection as the 10 minute Gel Strength dial reading, D10.
Calculations:
Initial Gel Strength, G0 (Pa) = D0

2
Ten Minute Gel Strength, G10 (Pa) = D10
2
Note: If the initial and the 10 minute Gel Strengths are equal, the mud has no
thixotropy, i.e.: the mud has no ability to build structure while it is at rest. This type of
mud does not have any real Gel Strengths, or increased suspending power while it is
at rest. For this type of mud, the “gel break” is not very evident, rather it will be a
gradual increase to a steady value. This is indicated by a lower ten minute Gel
Strength in comparison to a higher initial Gel Strength.
3. Instrument Care
After every usage, the instrument should be thoroughly cleaned.
a. Run the rotor immersed in water (or solvent for oil base mud) at high speed for a short
period of time.
b. Remove the sleeve:
- hold the spindle, twist and carefully pull straight down for the Fann instruments.
- hold the spindle and unscrew the sleeve for all other instruments.
c. Wipe the bob and other parts thoroughly clean with a dry, clean cloth or paper towel.
Caution: The bob is hollow and from time to time accumulated moisture inside the
bob can be eliminated by removing the bob and drying it out.
Immersion of the hollow bob in extremely hot mud can result in a serious explosion.
Care should be taken not to immerse the sleeve deeper into the mud than the scribed
line on the sleeve. This may result in damage to the bearings holding the bob shaft in
place. Similarly care must be taken not to splash water or solvent up into the sleeve
housing when the bob and its shaft are cleaned.
1.5 FILTRATION TESTS Return to Table of Contents
The filtration and wall building characteristics of a drilling mud are important for providing a
relative measure of the amount of mud filtrate invasion into a porous and permeable formation,
and the amount of filter cake that will be deposited on the wall of the wellbore wherever filtration
occurs. From a drilling view point, these properties give an indication of the amount of water (or
oil) wetting that can take place in filtrate sensitive formations, and the potential for tight hole or
differential sticking problems. For productive, hydrocarbon bearing formations, these properties
give an indication of the amount of filtrate invasion and permeability damage that can be
expected.
Filtration tests are conducted under two different conditions.
1. The standard API filtration test is conducted at surface (or room) temperature and 700 kPa
(100 psi) pressure for 30 minutes. For this test, the fluid loss is the volume (in millimeters) of
filtrate collected in this time period, and the filter cake thickness (in millimeters) is the
thickness of the cake that is deposited on the filter paper in this time period.
2. The API High Temperature – High Pressure test (HT-HP test) is conducted for thirty minutes
of filtration at a temperature normally at ±150 degrees Celsius (300 degrees F), and a
differential pressure of 3450 kPa (500 psi). If the bottom hole temperature is known,
then the filtration temperature may be run at that temperature. For this test, the filtrate
mud be collected under a back pressure of 700 kPa (100 psi), in order to prevent
vaporization of the filtrate.
For all filtration test, the filter paper characteristics are Whatman 50, or equivalent, and the
filtration area is 4560 mm2.
Many filtration tests are conducted with a “half area” filter press. In this event, the
filter cake thickness will be the same, but the fluid loss must be corrected to the full
size paper by doubling the collected filtrate volume in the 30 minute time period. All
HT-HP instruments are half area presses.
Standard Filtration Test Instruments:
1. Rig Style, Standard Filter Press
This type of filter press has a test cell with a removable lid and base that is placed onto the
cross beam of a frame with a screw handle at the top for holding these component parts
together during the test.
The instrument is assembled in the following order:
a. Base cap with filtrate tube, rubber gasket, screen, filter paper, rubber gasket fixed to the
mud cell (cylinder) using the locking dowel.
b. Pour drilling mud into the cell to within 10 mm from the top.
c. Place the rubber gasket, filter paper, and lid onto the cross beam of the test cell frame.
d. Then screw down the handle firmly and connect the pressure source making sure the
pressure relief valve is closed.
2. Baroid, OFI Half Area Filter Press
This type of instrument is typical of a “half area” cell for which the filtrate volume must be
doubled when the fluid loss is reported.
This instrument is self contained with a CO 2 cartridge in a cylinder for its pressure source
that is adjusted using the T-handle of the built-in regulator at the top of the instrument. The
mud cell is a “rubber boot” that is placed inside a holding cup to separate the mud for the
pressure source. The lip of the boot serves as the sealing surface onto which the half area
filter paper is placed prior to securing the lid into place. The lid, in the form of a screw cap or
other locking device, is either knurled on the inside to simulate a screen, or it may contain an
actual, fixed screen. The relief valve (sliding bar) on the side of the cell must be open to
apply pressure to the outside of the boot, and closed when the filtration test is complete, in
order to permit pressure to be relieved.
3. Fann Model MB (Magcobar Style) Filter Press
This instrument consists of a mud cell assembly, pressure regulator and gauge mounted on
the top of the carrying case. The cell is attached to the regulator by means of a coupling
adapter by simply inserting the male cell coupling into the female filter press coupling, and
turning clockwise ¼ turn.
The cell is closed at the bottom by a lid fitted with a screen, by placing the lid firmly against
the filter paper, and turning to the right until hand tight. This forces the filter paper against
the O-ring fitted in the O-ring grove at the base of the cell. Pressure is supplied by a CO 2
cartridge, and may be released by a bleed-off valve prior to uncoupling the cell. (The bleed-
off valve is screwed in).
Standard API Test Procedure:
1. Pour the mud sample into the cell, secure the lid and make sure all valves are in the correct
positions to permit the application of pressure to the sample to be filtered. If necessary,
place a fresh CO2 cartridge in the holding cylinder and screw the cylinder on quickly and
securely to puncture the cartridge.
2. Place an appropriately sized, granulated cylinder under the filtration tube.
3. Using the pressure gauge as an indicator, apply 700 kPa (100 psi) pressure to the sample
and begin timing the test.
4. Collect the filtrate in the graduated cylinder for 30 minutes. At this time, remove the
graduated cylinder, turn off and relieve the pressure on the test sample.
5. Report the volume of collected fluid as the fluid loss in millimeters, making sure the volume
is doubled if a “half area” filter press is used.
6. Disassemble the test cell, discard the mud, and use extreme care to save the filter paper
with minimal disturbance to the filter cake. Remove excess mud from the filter cake by light
washing, or lightly sliding a finger across the filter cake.
Measure the thickness of the filter cake and report in millimeters. If desirable, the filter cake
texture may also be noted as being dry to slick, and mushy to firm to provide an indication of
its friction factor and compressibility.
7. Wash all components thoroughly fresh water, and wipe dry with a clean cloth or paper towel.
High Temperature – High Pressure Filtration Test
1. Baroid, OFI HT - HP Filter Presses
These instruments are O-ringed valve stems that act as valves which are closed when the
stem is tightened in the mud cell, and opened by unscrewing the valve stem approximately
½ turn. The pressure regulator and back pressure cylinder is attached to the valve stems
with locking pins. The cell of this type of instrument is loaded by unscrewing the set screws
in the cell body until the cap can be removed.
With the valve stem in the body and closed (tightened), mud is added to the cell to within 10-
15 millimeters from the top. Filter paper is place on top of the O-ring which has its own
groove in the cell body. The cap is placed in the cell making sure that the set screw seats in
the cap match the screws in the cell. The pressure source is a CO 2 cartridge located in the
barrel of the regulator assembly. The back pressure attachment is required only for tests
conducted at temperatures above 95 degrees C. The mud cell is placed into the heating
jacket, and seated on the alignment pin located in the jacket.
The filtrate volume obtained from this instrument must be doubled in order to correct
the volume to the full sized paper.
2. Magcobar, OFI HT – HP Filter Presses
These instruments are threaded valve stems with valves to which the pressure regulator
assembly and back pressure assembly are secured using a lock ring and slip coupling
assembly.
The cell is filled by closing the valve on the cell, inverting it and then adding the drilling mud
to within 10-15 mm from the top. Filter paper is placed on the O-ring in its groove. The cap
of the cell is secured using set screws and lowered into the heating jacket which has
provision to pass the valve and valve stem assembly of the cell through its base. The back
pressure assembly is used for test with temperatures in excess of 95 degrees C. Pressure
is supplied from CO2 cartridges in the barrel of the regulator assembly. The cartridge is
punctured when the barrel is tightened onto the regulator assembly.
This is a half area instrument whose filtrate volume must be doubled to correct it to
the standard full size test.
High Temperature – High Pressure Filtration Test Procedure:
The following is the standard procedure adopted by the API for testing at ± 149 degrees C (300
degrees F), and 3450 kPa (500 psi) differential pressure.
1. Connect the heating jacket to the correct voltage, place a thermometer in the well of the
jacket, and preheat the jacket to 155 deg. C. Adjust the thermostat in order to maintain a
constant temperature.
2. Take warm mud from the flowline, and preheat to 50-55 deg. C while stirring.
3. Load the cell as recommended by the manufacturer. Care should be exercised not to fill the
cell closer that 15 mm from the top to allow for expansion.
4. Place the cell in the heating jacket with both the top and bottom valves closed. Transfer the
thermometer from the heating jacket to the well of the test cell.
5. Place the pressure assembly on the top valve stem and lock into place. Place the bottom
pressure receiver and lock into place. Apply 700 kPa (100 psi) to both pressure units with
the valves closed. Open the top valve, and apply 700 kPa (100 psi) while heating.
6. When the temperature reached ±149 deg. C (300 deg. F), open the bottom valve and
increase the pressure on the top assembly to 4150 kPa (600 psi) to start filtration. Collect
the filtrate for 30 minutes, maintaining 149 deg. C (300 deg F) temperature, ± 2 deg. C.
If desired, record the volume after 2 seconds. If the back pressure rises above 700 kPa (100
psi) during the test, cautiously bleed off pressure by collecting a portion of the filtrate.
Record the total volume.
7. The filtrate volume should be corrected to a filter area of 4581 mm 2. Double the filtrate
volume and report.
8. At the end of the test, close both valves. Back the T-handle screw off the regulator, and
bleed of the pressure from both regulators.
9. Caution: The filtration cell will still contain ± 3500 kPa (500 psi) pressure. Maintain
the cell in a upright position and cool to room temperature. After the cell is cool,
continue to hole the cell upright (cap down), and loosen the top valve to bleed off the
pressure slowly.
10. After the cell has cooled and the pressure has been bled off, the cell may be inverted to
loose the cap screws with an Allen wrench. Remove the cap with a gentle rocking motion.
Carefully retain the filter cake for analysis and thoroughly clean and dry all components.
11. Do not use the filtrate for chemical analysis.
12. If filter cake compressibility is desired, the test can be repeated using 1400 kPa (200 psi) on
the top pressure unit, and 700 kPa (100 psi) for the bottom pressure unit.
13. Record both temperature and pressure with the results of the filtration test at all times. The
temperature of 149 deg. C (300 deg. F) is normally selected, so as to be within the range
where high temperature mud treating procedures and chemicals are required.
Note: At any time when utilizing any HT-HP filter press, if the CO 2 pressure runs out in
the middle of the test and a replacement cartridge has to used, remember to shut the top
and bottom valves prior to replacing the CO 2 cartridge. Remember the filtration cell will
still contain 500 psi pressure.
1.6 SAND CONTENT Return to Table of Contents
The API sand content is defined to be that portion of the drilling mud solids whose size is greater
than 74 microns. The test can be used to give a qualitative, relative indication of the solids
removal equipment effectiveness, the relative amount of coarse Barite present, and the
abrasiveness of the mud.
Equipment:
The sand content set consists of a 63.5 mm, 74 micron (200 mesh) sieve, a small funnel to fit
snugly over the sieve, and a conical glass tube graduated in percent, and having two fluid level
indicator lines.
Test Procedure:
1. Fill the glass measuring tube to the indicated mark with the mud to be tested. Add water to
the next mark. Close the mouth of the tube and shake vigorously.
2. Pour the mixture onto the screen tapping it lightly to aid passing of the diluted mud through
the screen. Add more clean water, and repeat this wet screening procedure until the wash
water in the tube is clear. Wash the sand retained on the screen to free it of any remaining
mud.
3. With the sieve in an upright position, fit the funnel over the sieve. Invert slowly and fit the
funnel tip into the mouth of the cleaned measuring tube.
Back wash the sand from the sieve using a fine spray of clean water with the measuring tube
positioned vertically upright, allowing the sand to settle in the tube for a few minutes.
Report the sand content as the volume fraction of sand, (the volume percent divided by 100).
For example, if the sand content is read as ¼%, the volume fraction is reported as 0.0025%
1.7 LIQUID AND SOLIDS CONTENT (RETORT / SOLIDS ANALYSIS)
The retort apparatus is used to determine the amount and type of solids and liquids present in a
drilling mud sample. Mud is placed in the steel container and then heated until the liquid portion
is vaporized. The vapor is passed through a condenser in which it is cooled, and then collected
in a graduated cylinder.
The volume of the water and oil is measured as a fraction of the total mud volume. For accurate
results, a true mud density should be used for calculations, an accurate air free sample must be
used, and a volume correction factor should be determined for oil content if it is present in the
mud.
Test Procedure:
Fann Ministill
1. Fill the lower chamber with a freshly obtained mud sample.

2. Place the calibration lid on the chamber allowing any excess mud to escape.
3. Remove the calibration lid from the chamber, and scrape any excess mud from the lid into
the chamber.
4. Add 5-6 drops of “liquid steel wool” to the mud in the sample cup, or pack steel wool around
the upper portion of the immersion heater.
5. Screw the lower retort chamber into the upper chamber while maintaining both chambers in
an upright position.
6. Screw the immersion heater into the cup/chamber assembly.
7. Attach the assembled retort to the condenser.
8. Add a drop of wetting agent (Aerosol) to a 100% by volume graduated cylinder, and place it
under the drain of the condenser. Heating time is usually 20-30 minutes depending on mud
type.
Removable Retort
1. Lift the retort assembly from the insulator block. Using a spatula as a screwdriver, remove
the sample cup from the retort chamber.
2. Pack the upper chamber with fine steel wool, or add 5-6 drops of “liquid steel wool” to the
mud in the sample cup.
3. Fill the lower sample cup with a freshly stirred mud sample, and replace the calibration lid,
allowing any excess to escape.
4. Wipe off any excess mud and screw the lower sample cup (with calibration lid still in place)
into the upper chamber, maintaining both upper and lower chambers in the upright position.
Screw condenser onto the outlet hose of the upper chamber.
5. Replace the retort assembly in the insulator block, and close the insulating cover.
6. Add a drop of wetting agent (Aerosol) to a 10 cm 3 or 50 cm3 graduated cylinder (depending
on the size of retort being used), and place it under the drain of the condenser. Plug in the
retort and turn it on. Continue heating until liquid no linger drips from the condenser. When
using a thermostat retort, the light will go out at the end of the test.
Handling and Instrument Care:
1. Use the spatula to scrape the dried mud form the mud chamber an lid to assure correct
volume.
2. Use the high temperature lubricant on the threads of the mud chamber and lid to make
dismantling easier.
3. Remove and replace any mud caked steel wool.
4. Use a pipe cleaner to clean the drain tube and condenser.
5. The retort should be cooled prior to dismantling. It is extremely hot during and after the
test.
1.7.1 SOLIDS CALCULATIONS Return to Table of Contents
Most retorts are only accurate to within 1.0-2.0%. For that reason, most low solids muds, i.e.:
muds with low mud densities that contain no Barite, salt or oil, use the following formula to
calculate the volume fraction of solids:
Volume Fraction of Solids (% Solids) = [(Mud Weight (kg/m 3) / 1000) – 1] X 0.625
If a Fann Ministill is used, the % by volume water and oil is read directly. The volume fraction of
each constituent is the % by volume divided by 100.
If a Baroid Retort is used, read the volume of oil and water. Calculate the fractions as follows if a
10 cm3 retort is used:
Fo (volume fraction of oil) = cm3 oil / 10

Fw (volume fraction of water) = cm3 of water / 10
Fs (volume fraction of solids) = 1.00 – total liquid fraction
To completely analyze a drilling fluid for the amount of solids present, the following calculations
should be used.
UNWEIGHTED SYSTEMS
1. Low Density, Unweighted Mud (No Oil, No Salt)
Procedure:
1. Measure Mud Density, D (kg/m3)

2. Measure Bentonite from Methylene Blue Test, MBT (kg/m3)
a. Volume Fraction of Solids, Fs
Fs = [(D /1000) – 1] X 0.625
b. Volume Fraction of Water, Fw
Fw = 1 – Fs
c. Total Amount of Low Gravity Solids, LGS (kg/m3)
LGS = D – (Fw X 1000)

d. Amount of Drilled Solids, DS (kg/m3)
DS = LGS – MBT
Example (No Oil, No Salt):
1. Density, D = 1080 kg/m3

2. Bentonite, MBT – 75 kg/m3
a. Volume Fraction of Solids, FS
Fs = [(D /1000) – 1] X 0.625

Fs = [(1080 / 1000) – 1] X 0.625
= (1.08 – 1) X 0.625
= 0.08 X 0.625
= 0.05
Fw = 1 – Fs
Fw = 1 – 0.05
= 0.95
LGS = D – (Fw X 1000)

LGS = 1080 – (0.95 X 1000)
= 1080 – 950
= 130 kg/m3 of Low Gravity Solids
333DS = LGS – MBT

DS = 130 – 75
= 55 kg/m3 of Drilled Solids
2. Low Density, Unweighted Mud (With Oil, No Salt)
Procedure:
1. Measure mud density, D (kg/m3)

2. Measure Bentonite from Methylene Blue Test, MBT (kg/m3)
3. Read the volume fraction of oil from the retort, Fo
Fs = [(D / 1000 – 1) + (0.2 X Fo)] X 0.625
Fw = 1 – (Fs + Fo)
LGS = D – [(Fo X 800) + (Fw X 1000)]

e. Amount of Drilled Solids, DS (kg/m3)
DS = LGS – MBT
Note: The oil fraction is obtained from the retort. The volume fraction of solids is
obtained from the formula. This is done because small errors in reporting the
volume fraction of solids can occur when taken from a retort in a unweighted low
density mud.
Example (With Oil, No Salt):
1. Density, D = 1080 kg/m3

2. Bentonite, MBT = 75 kg/m3
3. Volume Fraction of Oil, Fo = 0.02 (from the retort)
Fs = [(D / 1000 – 1) + (0.2 X Fo)] X 0.625

Fs = [(1080 / 1000) – 1) + (0.2 X 0.02)] X 0.625
= [(1.08 – 1) + (0.004)] X 0.625
= (0.08 + 0.004) X 0.625
= 0.084 X 0.625
= 0.0525
Fw = 1 – (Fs + Fo)
Fw = 1 – (0.0525 + 0.02)
= 1 – 0.0725
= 0.9275
c. Total Amount of Low Gravity, LGS (kg/m3)
LGS = D – [(Fo X 800) + (Fw X 1000)]

LGS = 1080 – [(0.02 X 800) + (0.9275 X 1000)]
= 1080 – (15 + 927.5)
= 1080 – 942.5
= 137.5 kg/m3 Total Solids
DS = LGS – MBT
DS = 137.5 – 75
= 62.5 kg/m3 Drilled Solids
3. Low Density, Unweighted Mud (With Salt, No Oil)
Note: These calculations should be used for fluids containing chlorides over 10,000
mg/L.
Procedure:

2. Measure chloride content, Cl (mg/L)
3. Measure Bentonite form Methylene Blue Test, MBT (kg/m3)
4. Read the volume fraction of water from retort, Fw
5. Read the volume fraction of Oil from retort, Fo
6. Read the volume fraction of Salt in the mud from Figure 1.1, F Salt
a. Amount of Salt in Mud, S (kg/m3)
S = [(1.65 X Cl) X (Fw + Fsalt)] / 1000
b. Amount of Low Gravity Solids, LGS (kg/m3)
LGS = 1.625 {D – [1000 (1 – Fsalt) ] + (160 X Fo) } – (0.375 X S)
c. Amount of Drilled Solids, DS (kg/m3)
LGS = LGS – MBT
d. True Volume Fraction of Water, True Fw
True Fw = [1.625 (1 – Fsalt)] – [(D + S) / 1600]
e. Volume Fraction of Solids, Fs
Fs = 1 – True Fw
Example:
1. Mud Density, D = 1120 kg/m3

2. Chlorides, Cl = 20,000 mg/L
4. Volume Fraction of Water, Fw = 0.91 (from retort)
5. Volume Fraction of Oil, Fo = 0.00 (from retort)
6. Volume Fraction of Salt, Fsalt = 0.011 (From Figure 1.1)
a. Amount of Salt is Mud, S (kg/m3)
S = [(1.65 X Cl) X (Fw + Fsalt)] / 1000

S = [(1.65 X 20,000) X (0.91 + 0.011)] / 1000
= ( 33000 X 0.921) / 1000
= 30393 / 1000
= 30.4 kg/m3 Salt
LGS = 1.625 {D – [1000 (1 – Fsalt) ] + (160 X Fo) } – (0.375 X S)

LGS = 1.625 {1120 – [1000 (1 – 0.011) ] + (160 X 0} – (0.375 X 30.4)
= 1.625 {1120 – (1000 X 0.989) + 0} – 11.4
= 1.625 (1120 – 989) – 11.4
= (1.625 X 131) – 11.4
= 212.9 – 11.4
= 201.5 kg/m3 Low Gravity Solids
LGS = LGS – MBT

= 201.5 – 45
= 156.5 kg/m3 Drilled Solids
True Fw = [1.625 (1 – Fsalt)] – [(D + S) / 1600]

True Fw = [1.625 X (1 – 0.011)] – [(1120 + 30.4) / 1600]
= [(1.625 X 0.989) – (1150.4 / 1600)
= (1.607) – (0.719)
= 0.89
Fs = 1 – True Fw
Fs = 1 – 0.89
= 0.11
4. Low Density, Unweighted Mud (With Salt, With Oil)
Note: These calculations should be used for fluids containing chlorides over 10,000
mg/L.
Procedure:

2. Measure Chloride content, Cl (mg/L)
3. Measure Bentonite form Methylene Blue Test, MBT (kg/m3)
4. Read the volume fraction of water from retort, Fw
5. Read the volume fraction of Oil from retort, Fo
6. Read the volume fraction of Salt in the mud from Figure 1.1, Fsalt
S = [(.65 X Cl) X (Fw + Fsalt)] / 1000
LGS = 1.625 {D – [1000 (1 – Fsalt) ] + (160 X Fo) } – (0.375 X S)

LGS = LGS – MBT
True Fw = [1.625 (1 – Fsalt)] – [(D + S) / 1600]
Fs = 1 – (True Fw + Fo)
Example:

2. Chlorides, Cl = 30,000 mg/L
4. Volume Fraction of Water, Fw = 0.90 (from retort)
5. Volume Fraction of Oil, Fo = 0.05 (from retort)
6. Volume Fraction of Salt, Fsalt = 0.016 (From Figure 1.1)
S = [(.65 X Cl) X (Fw + Fsalt)] / 1000

S = [(1.65 X 30,000) X (0.90 + 0.016)] / 1000
= ( 49500 X 0.916) / 1000
= 45342 / 1000
= 45.3 kg/m3 Salt
LGS = 1.625 {D – [1000 (1 – Fsalt) ] + (160 X Fo) } – (0.375 X S)

LGS = 1.625 {1120 – [1000 (1 – 0.016) ] + (160 X 0.05} – (0.375 X 45.3)
= 1.625 {1120 – (1000 X 0.984) + 8} – 16.99
= 1.625 {(1120 – 984) + 8} – 16.99
= (1.625 X 144) – 16.99
= 234 – 16.99
= 217 kg/m3 Low Gravity Solids
LGS = LGS – MBT

= 217 – 45
= 172 kg/m3 Drilled Solids
True Fw = [1.625 (1 – Fsalt)] – [(D + S) / 1600]

True Fw = [1.625 X (1 – 0.016)] – [(1120 + 45.3) / 1600]
= [(1.625 X 0.984) – (1165.3 / 1600)]
= (1.599) – (0.728)
= 0.87
Fs = 1 – (True Fw + Fo)
Fs = 1 – (0.87 + 0.05)
= 1 – 0.92
= 0.08
WEIGHTED SYSTEMS
Procedure:
1. Measure the mud density, D (kg/m3)

2. Measure the Chlorides, Cl (mg/L)
3. Measure the Bentonite from Methylene Blue Test, MBT (kg/m3)
4. Read the volume fraction of water from the retort, Fw
5. Read the volume fraction of oil from the retort, Fo
6. Read the volume fraction of Salt in the mud from Figure 1.1, F Salt
7. Determine the volume fraction of solids from the retort, Fs
a. Amount of Salt in mud, S (kg/m3)
S = (1.65 X Cl) (Fw + F Salt)/1000
b. Amount of Total Undissolved Solids, TS (kg/m3)
TS = D – [(Fo X 800) – (Fw X 1000)] – S
c. Average Relative Density of Undissolved Solids, Dr
Dr = TS / (Fs – F Salt) X 1000
d. Amount of Barite in Mud, BAR (kg/m3)
BAR = TS X [2.62 – (6.82/Dr)]
e. Amount of Low Density Solids, LDS (kg/m3)
LDS = TS – BAR
f. Amount of Drilled Solids, DS (kg/m3)
DS = LDS – MBT
1. Example Weighted Mud (With Oil, No Salt)

3. Volume Fraction of Water, Fw = 0.73 (from Retort)
4. Volume Fraction of Oil, Fo = 0.01 (from Retort)
5. Volume Fraction of Solids, Fs = 0.26 (By Difference)
No Salt in Mud = 0
TS = D – (Fo X 800) – (Fw – 1000) – S

= 1560 – [(0.01 X 800) – (0.73 X 1000)] - 0
= 1560 – (8) – (730) – 0
= 822 kg/m3

= 822 / (0.26 – 0) X 1000
= 822 / 0.26 X 1000
= 822 / 260
= 3.16
BAR = TS X [2.62 – (6.82/Dr)]

= 822 X [(2.62 – (6.82/3.16)]
= 822 X (2.62 – 2.16)
= 822 X 0.46
= 378 kg/m3
LDS = TS – BAR
= 822 – 378
= 444 kg/m3
DS = LDS – MBT
= 444 – 65
= 379 kg/m3
2. Example Weighted Mud (With Oil, With Salt)

2. Chlorides, Cl = 20000 mg/L
3. Volume Fraction of Water, Fw = 0.65 (from Retort)
4. Volume Fraction of Oil, Fo = 0.05 (from Retort)
5. Volume Fraction of Solids, Fs = 0.30 (By Difference)
6. Volume Fraction of Salt, F Salt = 0.008 (From Figure 1.1)
S = (1.65 X Cl) (Fw + F Salt) / 1000

= (1.65 X 20000) (0.65 + 0.008) / 1000
= (33000) (0.658) / 1000
= 21714 / 1000
= 21.7 kg/m3
TS = D – (Fo X 800) – (Fw – 1000) – S

= 1680 – [(0.05 X 800) – (0.65 X 1000)] – 21.7
= 1680 – (40) – (650) – 21.7
= 968 kg/m3

= 968 / (0.30 – 0.008) X 1000
= 968 / 0.292 X 1000
= 968 / 292
= 3.32
BAR = TS X [2.62 – (6.82/Dr)]

= 968 X [(2.62 – (6.82/3.32)]
= 968 X (2.62 – 2.05)
= 968 X 0.57
= 552 kg/m3
LDS = TS – BAR
= 968 – 552
= 416 kg/m3
DS = LDS – MBT
= 416 – 30
= 386 kg/m3
Figure 1.1
WATER IN MUD, volume fraction

VOLUME FRACTION SALT (As NaCl) in the WATER PHASE
Chloride Content (mg/L) Volume Fraction (Salt) Specific Gravity

5000 0.003 1.004
10000 0.006 1.010
20000 0.012 1.021
30000 0.018 1.032
40000 0.023 1.043
60000 0.034 1.065
80000 0.045 1.082
100000 0.057 1.098
120000 0.070 1.129
140000 0.082 1.149
160000 0.095 1.170
180000 0.108 1.194
188650 0.114 1.197
1.8 CATION EXCHANGE CAPACITY Return to Table of Contents
The Methylene Blue Dye Test, (MBT), is used to determine the Cation Exchange Capacity of the
solids present in a water base drilling mud. Only the reactive portions of the clays present are
involved in the test and materials such as Barite, Carbonates, and Evaporites do not affect the
results of the test, since these materials do not adsorb the Methylene Blue.
The Cation Exchanged Capacity of some typical clays is:
Clay CEC
(milliequiv. / 100 gm moisture free)
Wyoming Bentonite 75
Soft Shale 45
Kaolinite 10
Drilled Cuttings 8-12
For Bentonite based mud systems, the MBT provides an indication of the amount of reactive
clays which are present in the drilling mud solids and for Bentonite free, water based mud
systems, the MBT reflects the reactivity of the drilled solids. The test cannot distinguish between
the type of clays but, if a reactivity for the drilled solids is known or assumed, it can be used to
determine the amount of Bentonite present in the Bentonite based systems.
Equipment:
1. Erlenmeyer flask
2. Hot plate or bottle warmer
3. Stirrer Rod
4. Hydrogen Peroxide Solution (3%)
5. Sulfuric Acid – 5N
6. Methylene Blue Solution: (solution strength may vary depending upon supplier)
7. 10 ml pipette
8. 3 ml syringe
9. No. 4 Whatman Filter Paper ( Standard filter paper may be substituted)
10. 25 ml Graduated Cylinder
Test Procedure:
1. Using the completely filled, 3 ml syringe, measure 2.0 ml of mud sample to be tested into the
Erlenmeyer flask containing 10-15 ml of distilled water.
2. Add 15 ml Hydrogen Peroxide and 1 ml of 5N Sulfuric Acid. Swirl or stir as required to

mixed the solution
3. Boil gently for approximately 10 minutes, and dilute with 20 ml fresh water.
4. Add Methylene Blue Dye in 1.0 ml increments. After each dilution, swirl the flask and stir
vigorously for at least 20 seconds, and remove a drop of sample on the end of the stirring
rod.
5. Apply the drop to a piece of filter paper making the drop with the amount of Methylene Blue
added between each increment. The approximate end point is reached when a blue ring
spreads out from the blue spot on the filter paper.
At this point, without further addition of Methylene Blue, swirl the flask an additional 2
minutes, and place another drop on the filter paper. If the blue ring is again apparent, the
end point has been reached.
If the ring did not appear, continue with the Methylene Blue increments until a blue ring
permanently forms after two additional minutes of swirling.
Note: For increased accuracy, 0.5 ml increments may be used as the end point is
approached. The blue ring is more apparent on the reverse side of the filter paper
from which the drop is placed.
Calculations:
Note: There are 2 different strengths of Methylene Blue dye that is used to determine the
Equivalent Bentonite Content. One will have to determine which strength of dye
the chemical testing company is supplying.
1. Stronger Strength of Methylene Blue:
kg/m3 Reactive Clay ( Equivalent Bentonite Content)
= 14.25 X ml Methylene Blue

ml of Mud Sample
2. Weaker Strength of Methylene Blue (as supplied by Canamera United Supply Ltd.)
kg/m3 Reactive Clay ( Equivalent Bentonite Content)
= 10 X ml Methylene Blue
ml of Mud Sample
Care of Reagents:
The Methylene Blue Dye and Hydrogen Peroxide should be stored in a cool, dark place to
extend the life. These solutions should be replaced every 4 months.
1.9 pH DETERMINATION Return to Table of Contents
The acidity or alkalinity of a drilling mud is indicated by the Hydrogen ion concentration, which is
commonly expressed in terms of pH. A perfectly neutral solution has a pH of 7.0, whereas
alkaline (basic) solutions have a pH range between 7.0-14.0, and acidic solutions have a pH less
than 7.0.
The pH measurement is used as well to indicate the presence of contaminants such as cement
or anhydrite.
The two most common field methods for determining pH are described as follows:
pHydion Paper:
1. This method may be used on the mud filtrate, or whole mud directly.
2. Place a 25 mm (1 inch) strip of indicator paper on the surface of the mud to be tested and
allow it to remain until the liquid has wet the surface and the color has stabilized. This takes
approximately 1 minute.
3. Compare the color standards provided with the test paper (which was not in contact with the
mud solids) to the color standards provided with the test paper, and estimate the pH of the
mud accordingly.
Color pH Strips:
1. This method applies only to the mud filtrate.

2. After obtaining a sample of mud filtrate, totally immerse the colored portion of the color pH
strip into the filtrate, and remove immediately.
3. After a short period of color stabilization (10-15 seconds), compare the color of the wetted
strip with the color standards provided in the color pH plastic container.
An estimate may be necessary if a color does not exactly match a particular pH value.
1.10 CHLORIDE DETERMINATION Return to Table of Contents
Chloride ions exist in a mud system as Salts of Sodium, Magnesium, Calcium, or Potassium.
The determination of the Chloride ion present in the mud filtrate may give an indication of a Salt
water flow, or the presence of a Salt formation or stringer.
In mud systems to which Salt has been added, the Chloride measurements show the amount of
salinity present in the mud.
Equipment:
1. Silver Nitrate solution:

- 0.0282 N for low Chloride concentrations
- 0.282 N for high Chloride concentrations
2. Potassium Chromate indicator
3. Sulfuric Acid (N/50)
4. Phenolphthalein indicator
5. Pipettes (1 ml)
6. White titration dish
7. Stirring rod
Test Procedure:
1. Measure 1.0 ml of filtrate into a white titration dish and dilute to a convenient volume with
distilled water.
2. Add a few drops of Phenolphthalein indication solution. If a pink color develops, add N/50
Sulfuric Acid until the pink color completely disappears. It is not necessary to record the
volume of N/50 Sulfuric Acid added.
3. Add 4-5 drops of Potassium Chromate indicator to obtain a yellow color.
4. Add Silver Nitrate while swirling or stirring until the color changes from yellow to orange-red
(brick red), and persists for 30 seconds.
Calculations:
1. If 0.0282 N Silver Nitrate is used:

mg/L Chlorides = 1000 X ml of Silver Nitrate added
2. If 0.282 N Silver Nitrate is used:

mg/L Chlorides = 10000 X ml of Silver Nitrate added
Remarks:
1. mg/L Salt (NaCl) = 1.65 X mg/L Chlorides

2. The Chloride test may be run on the same sample used in the Pf determination, if the Mf test
was not performed.
3. Avoid contact with the Silver Nitrate solution. Wash immediately with water if Silver Nitrate
gets on the skin or clothing.
4. The end point of the reaction is when the Silver Chromate is when the first detectable
permanent color change from yellow to a light brick red occurs.
When using the weak Silver Nitrate solution, the end point is approached very gradually.
Therefore, the formation of the Silver Chromate can be seen by a color change for yellow to
brick red.
If the strong Silver Nitrate is used, the end point is approached much more rapidly. Hence
the early formation of the Silver Chromate, and is brick red color may be missed due to the
larger amounts of Silver Nitrate being added. The color change will go from yellow to red.
As soon as the red color is seen, the titration is complete.
5. White lumps of Silver Chloride form when titrating high concentrations of Salt. This should
not be mistaken for the end point.
6. A high pH will precipitate Silver Oxide.
1.11 FILTRATE HARDNESS (Total Hardness, Calcium & Magnesium)
Water containing large amounts of Calcium or Magnesium Salts is commonly referred to as

“hard water”. Make up waters that are hard make it difficult to obtain the maximum yield from
Bentonite, so it becomes necessary to treat out excess Calcium. As a general rule, the total
hardness as Calcium should be brought to less tan 40 mg/L. The presence of Calcium in the
mud filtrate may also indicate the presence of contaminants, such as anhydrite or cement.
Equipment:
1. Titraver Solution, 1 ml = 1 mg CaCO3

2. Strong Buffer Solution
3. Manver Indicator
4. 1 ml Pipettes
5. Distilled Water
6. Stirring Rod
7. Calver II Indicator (to distinguish Calcium form Magnesium)
8. Potassium Hydroxide (8N) solution to distinguish Calcium from Magnesium)
Test Procedures:
Total Hardness (as Calcium):
1. Using a pipette, measure 1.0 ml of filtrate into a white titration dish, and dilute to a
convenient volume with distilled water.
2. Add 4-5 drops of strong Buffer solution, and 2-3 drops of Manver Indicator. A red or wine
color will develop if Calcium is present.
3. While swirling or stirring continuously, add Titraver with a pipette until the color changes from
red to blue. At this end point, record the number of milliliters of Titraver added.
Calculations:
mg/L Hardness (as Calcium) = 400 X ml Titraver added
Calcium Hardness:
1. Using a pipette, measure 1.0 ml of filtrate into a white titration dish, and dilute with a small
amount of distilled water.
2. Add 2-3 drops of 8N KOH (Potassium Hydroxide) solution.
3. Add several grains of Calver II, and swirl or stir to mix.
4. Using a pipette. Titrate with Titraver solution to a color change from red to blue.
Calculations:
mg/L Calcium Ion = 400 X ml Titraver added
Magnesium Hardness:
The Magnesium hardness is calculated as follows:
mg/L Magnesium = mg/L Total Hardness (as Calcium) – mg/L Calcium

1.12 GYPSUM (Calcium Sulfate) CONCENTRATION
This test essentially repeats the test for total hardness as performed on the mud filtrate, but this
test uses a sample of whole mud. The result in terms of total Gypsum is then deducted.
Equipment
1. Versenate Solution, 0.01M EDTA

2. Strong Buffer (made up from 7.0 grams Ammonium Chloride in 970 ml Ammonium
Hydroxide made up to 1000 ml with distilled water)
3. Calmagite (1 gram per litre in distilled water)
Test Procedure
1. Add 5 ml of mud to 245 ml of distilled water. Stir the mixture for 15 minutes, then filter with
an API filter press through standard test paper. Discard any cloudy filtrate.
2. Pipette 10 ml of the clear filtrate into a titration dish.
3. Continue as per the procedure for total hardness to titrate with Standard Versenate. Record
the number of ml Versenate = Vt.
4. Titrate 1 ml of mud filtrate obtained as per the standard fluid loss test procedure, using the
standard total hardness test procedure. Record the number of ml of Versenate = Vf.
Calculations
Total Gypsum (Calcium Sulfate) kg/m3 = 6.8 X Vt
Excess Gypsum kg/m3 = 6.8 Vt – 1.97 Vf X Fw
Where Fw = volume fraction of water
1.13 MUD FILTRATE ALKALINITY Return to Table of Contents
Acidity is one measure of alkalinity that is indicated by the pH. However, the nature and amount
of other ions such as Carbonates or Bicarbonates can also effect mud filtrates alkalinity. For
fresh water mud systems, these ions can be indicative of the rheological stability of such mud
systems. Concentrations of either ion can result in high, low shear rate viscosity (Yield Point) and
high, progressive Gel Strengths.
Three methods can be employed for the determination of Carbonate and Bicarbonate
concentration. The very common Pf / Mf method is restricted to mud systems having a low
organic content, whereas the P1 / P2 method or Garret Gas Train may be used for better, more
quantitative method, especially in the systems with high organic content.
1.13.1 Pf / Mf Method Return to Table of Contents
Equipment:
1. Phenolphthalein Indicator Solution

2. Bromo Cresol Green Indicator Solution
3. Distilled Water
4. N/50 Sulfuric Acid
5. White Titration Dish
6. Stirring Rod
7. 1 ml Pipette
Test Procedure:
1. Using a 1 ml pipette, measure 1 ml of filtrate into a white titration dish. Dilute with distilled
water.
2. Add 2-3 drops of Phenolphthalein Indicator.
- if no color change occurs, then the Pf = 0; continue to step 4
- if a pink or red color develops, the Pf > 0; continue to step 3
3. Using a pipette, add N/50 Sulfuric Acid continuously while swirling or stirring until the sample
changes from pink to colorless (or original filtrate tint).
4. The number of ml of N/50 Sulfuric Acid to reach this point is recorded as the Pf value.
5. To the sample, which has been titrated to the Pf end point, add 2-3 drops of Bromo Creosol
indicator solution to obtain a light blue color. Continue titrating with swirling (or stirring) until
the color changes from light blue to apple green (pH 4.0-4.5).
This end point is recorded as the Mf end point.
Calculations:
Use the following table to estimate the Carbonate (CO 3), Bicarbonate (HCO3), or Hydroxyl (OH)
alkalinity present in the mud system.
Pf / Mf Relation Bicarbonate Carbonate Hydroxyl

(mg/L HCO3) (mg/L CO3) (mg/L OH)
Pf = 0 1220 X Mf 0 0
Pf = Mf 0 0 340 X Mf
2Pf = Mf 0 1200 X Pf 0
2Pf > Mf 0 1200 (Mf – Pf) 340 (2Pf – Mf)
2Pf < Mf 1200 (Mf – 2Pf) 1200 X Pf 0
1.13.2 P1 / P2 Method Return to Table of Contents
Inorganic ions such as Borate, Silicate, Sulfide, and Phosphate ions can have a real effect on
mud alkalinity. Additionally, organic compounds (ex: anionic organic thinners, fluid loss
additives, or other Polymers) and their degradation by-products, may also affect the
determination of the relative amounts of Carbonate, Bicarbonate, or Hydroxyl ion in solution.
The P1 / P2 method eliminates these effects.
Equipment:
1. Sodium Hydroxide Solution (0.1 N)

2. Barium Chloride Solution
5. White Titration Dish
6. Stirring Rod
7. Distilled Water
8. Pipettes (1 ml)
Test Procedure:
1. Determine the Pf end point as outlined in steps 1-3 of the Pf/Mf method. If the Pf = 0, there
are no carbonates present.
2. Place 1 ml of filtrate into a white titration dish, and dilute with distilled water.
3. Add a measured 2 ml of 0.1 N Sodium Hydroxide solution to convert all Bicarbonate to
Carbonates. Check the pH – if it is less than 11.5, continue to add 0.1N Sodium Hydroxide in
1–2 ml increments, until the pH exceeds 11.5. Make a record of the total amount of Sodium
Hydroxide added in this step.
4. Add a measured amount (2-4 ml) of Barium Chloride to precipitate all the possible
Carbonates. Add 2-4 drops of Phenolphthalein solution and stir with a stirring rod.
5. Using a 1ml pipette, tritrate immediately to the end point with N/50 Sulfuric Acid. Record the
number of ml’s N/50 Sulfuric Acid added as the P1 end point.
6. Place exactly the same amounts of 0.1N Sodium Hydroxide, Barium Chloride, and indicator
into 25 ml of distilled water, and titrate to the end point using N/50 Sulfuric Acid, and record
this as the P2 end point.
Calculations:
Pf = 0 There are no Carbonates present
P1 > P2:
mg/L Bicarbonates (HCO3) = 0

mg/L Carbonates (CO3) = 1200 [Pf – (P1-P2)]
mg/L Hydroxyls (OH) = 340 (P1-P2)
P2 > P1:
mg/L Hydroxyls (OH) = 0

mg/L Carbonates (C03) = 1200 x Pf
mg/L Bicarbonates (HCO3) = 1220 (P2 – P1)
WARNING: The reagents may be hazardous to the health and safety of the user if
inappropriately handled.
1.13.3 GARRET GAS TRAIN METHOD (Carbonates)
Either of the above methods is still subject to some error and certain situations may required yet
another method.
The Garret Gas Train separates gas from liquid, thereby preventing contamination of the CO 2
detecting Drager tube by the liquid phase. The CO 2 Drager tube responds to the CO 2 passing
through it by progressively staining (purple) along its length as the hydrazine chemical and the
CO2 react, causing a methyl violet indicator to turn purple. The stain length is dependent on the
amount of CO2 present, and the total gas volume that passed through the tube.
Consequently, for accurate results, the gas exiting the train must first be captured in a one litre
gas bag to allow the CO2 to mix uniformly with the carrier gas. Then the contents of the bag are
drawn through the tube using 10 strokes of the Drager hand pump. This will draw exactly one
(1) litre of gas through the tube.
Test Procedure:
1. Be sure the Gas Train is clean, dry, and on a level surface

2. With the regulator T-handle backed off, install and puncture a Nitrogen (N 2) gas cartridge.
3. Add 20 ml distilled water to Chamber #1. (The chambers are numbered beginning at the
regulator).
4. Add 5 drops of Octanol Defoamer to Chamber #1.
5. Install the top of the Gas Train and evenly hand tighten to seal all the O-rings.
6. Attach the flexible tubing from the regulator onto the dispersion tube of Chamber #1.
7. Inject with syringe an accurately measured sample of filtrate into Chamber #1. See table
below:
Drager Tube Identification
Carbonate Range Sample Volume Drager Tube Tube Factor

mg/L Identification
25-750 10.0
50-1500 2.5 CO2 0.01 / A 25000
250-7500 1.0
8. Flow carrier gas through the Gas Train for 1 minute to purge the system of air. Stop gas
flow.
9. Install one end of a piece of flexible tubing onto the stopcock which is fitted directly into the
gas bag. Have the gas bag full collapsed. Fit the other end of the tubing onto the outlet tube
of Chamber #3.
10. Slowly inject 10 ml of Sulfuric Acid solution into Chamber #1 through the septum using the
syringe and needle. Gently shake the Gas Train to mix acid with the sample in Chamber #1.
11. Open the stop cock on the gas bag. Restart Nitrogen flow gently and allow the gas bag to
fill. When the bag is full, (DO NOT burst it) shut off and close the stop cock. Immediately
proceed to the next step.
12. Remove the tubing from Chamber #3 outlet and re-install it onto the upstream end of the
CO2 0.01% / A Drager Tube. (Observe that the arrow indicates the gas flow direction).
Attach the Drager hand pump to the other end of the Drager Tube.
13. Open the stop cock on the bag. With a steady hand pressure, fully depress the hand pump
then release it so that the gas flows out of the bag, and through the Drager Tube. Operate
pump 10 times. This should essentially empty the bag.
14. Observe a purple stain on the Drager Tube if CO 2 is present. Record the stain length in the
units marked on the Drager Tube.
Calculations:
mg/L CO2 = 25000 X Tube Stain Length

ml of sample volume
Care and Cleaning:
To clean the Gas Train, remove the flexible tubing and gas train top. Wash out the chambers
using a brush with warm water and mild detergent. Use a pipe cleaner to clean the passages
between the chambers. Wash, rinse, and then blow out the dispersion tube with air or nitrogen
gas. Rinse the unit with distilled water, and allow to drain dry.
Garret Gas Train

1.14 ALKALINITY OF THE MUD (Pm) Return to Table of Contents
This test measures the alkalinity of the whole mud. When used in conjunction with the filtrate
alkalinity determination, the amount of excess Lime present in the mud can be determined.
Equipment
1. Titration dish
2. Syringe, 3 ml
3. Distilled water
4. Phenolphthalein indicator solution
5. N/50 (0.02 N) Sulfuric Acid
Test Procedure
1. Measure 1 ml of a freshly stirred sample of mud into a titration dish using a syringe.
2. Dilute the mud in the dish with about 50 ml of distilled water.
3. Add 4-5 drops of Phenolphthalein indicator solution.
4. If the sample does not change color, record the Pm as 0.
5. If the sample turns pink, titrate rapidly with N/50 Sulfuric Acid until the pink color disappears.
Calculations
Report the alkalinity of the mud, Pm as the number of ml of N/50 Sulfuric Acid added until the
pink color disappears.
Note: If the mud sample is deeply colored and the color change is hard to see, use 0.5 ml
of mud, and report the Pm as the volume of Sulfuric Acid added X 2.0. If N/10 (0.1N)
Sulfuric Acid is used, the Pm is reported as the volume of acid added to 1 ml of mud X
5.0.
1.15 SULFATE ION CONCENTRATION Return to Table of Contents
Sulfate ions are present in many natural, ground and surface waters. In Bentonite based mud
systems, flocculation and a high viscosity can result from Sulfate ion concentrations approaching
or exceeding 2000 mg/L. A qualitative or more quantitative test can be performed to establish
the Sulfate concentration.
1.15.1 QUALITATIVE TEST
Equipment:
1. Dropper bottle of Barium Chloride.

2. Dropper bottle of strong Nitric Acid.
3. Test Tube.
Test Procedure:
1. Place 2-4 ml of filtrate in a test tube and add a few drops of Barium Chloride.
2. Shake the tube gently, and observe the presence of a milky, white precipitate. This indicates
the presence of Carbonates and/or Sulfates.
3. Add a few drops of Nitric Acid and shake again. If the precipitate dissolves and disappears,
completely, only carbonates were present. If the precipitate remains, its intensity can be
used for a qualitative estimate of the Sulfate concentration.
Results:
“Trace” - the precipitate is barely discernable

- less than 50 mg/L Sulfate ions are present
“Show” - the precipitate is a translucent white suspension

- up to 500 mg/L Sulfate ions are present
“Light” - the precipitate is a milky white suspension

- up to 1000 mg/L Sulfate ion are present
“Heavy” - the precipitate is a heavy “curdly” white suspension

- more than 1500 mg/L Sulfate ions are present
- the precipitate could be diluted for a more accurate determination of
the concentration
1.15.2 QUANTITATIVE TEST Return to Table of Contents
One method of quantitatively determining the Sulfate ion concentration is with the use of the
Hach Model SF-1 Sulfate Test Kit.
1. Fill the calibration tube to the top with filtrate to be tested.

2. Pour this sample into the mixing tube.
3. Add the contents of one Sulfaver IV powder pillow. Swirl to mix. A white, turbid precipitate
will appear if Sulfates are present.
4. Allow to stand for 5 minutes.
5. Hold the calibrated tube in such a manner so that it can be viewed through the top. Slowly
pour the prepared sample into the tube. Continue pouring until the image of the black cross
on the bottom of the tube just disappears from view. At this point, the tube will appear as a
uniform field of view.
6. Read mg/L of Sulfates (SO4) from the scale on the side of the calibrated tube.
Note: The difference between mg/L and ppm is not significant until the Sulfate
concentration exceeds 7000 mg/L.
Warning: The reagents may be hazardous to the health and safety of the use if
inappropriately handled.
1.16 AMMONIUM SULFATE TEST ( Hach Ammonia Nitrogen Test Kit (N1-8)
Sample Preparation
Add 0.25 ml filtrate to a 100 ml graduated cylinder. Dilute with distilled water to the 100 ml mark.
Cover with palm of hand and invert cylinder several times. From this 100 ml solution, pipette 1.0
ml to the 10 ml graduated cylinder. Dilute to the 10 ml mark with distilled water. Invert the
cylinder several times.
Fill one tube to the white line with this solution. Fill the other tube to the white line with distilled
water.
1. Add 3 drops Nessler solution to each tube and swirl. Allow 10 minutes for color
development.
2. Insert the filtrate containing tube in the right opening in the top of the color comparator.
3. Insert the distilled water sample in the left opening in the top of the color comparator.
4. Hole the color comparator up to a light such as the sky (preferable), a window of lamp and
view through the two openings in the front. Rotate the color disc until a color match is
obtained. Read the number in the scale window.
Calculation:
Ammonium Sulfate (NH4)2SO4, kg/m3 = 19 X number in scale window
1.17 SULFITE ION CONCENTRATION Return to Table of Contents
In many mud systems, especially those which contain high levels of Salt, it is necessary to use
an Oxygen scavenger to reduce the dissolved Oxygen content in the mud in order to reduce drill
string corrosion to acceptable levels.
One method of reducing Oxygen corrosion is with the use of an Oxygen seeking ion, like the
Sulfite (SO3) ion, which will react with the dissolved Oxygen present in the drilling mud. In order
to minimize Oxygen corrosion, it is necessary to maintain a residual Sulfite concentration in the
drilling mud at all times. Usually, residual concentrations in the order of 300 mg/L or greater are
required to reduced corrosion levels to an acceptable range. Corrosion results should always be
verified with the use of corrosion rings.
One method of determining the residual Sulfite concentration is with the use of the HACH Model
SU-5 Sulfite Test Kit. The Sulfite concentration may be determined using mud or filtrate.
Equipment:
Hach Model SU-5 Sulfite Test Kit

Test Procedure:
1. Measure a sample by filling the sample bottle to the indicated mark, (10 ml).
2. Add the contents of Sulfite #1 reagent powder pillow. Swirl to mix.
3. Add the contents of one Sulfamic Acid powder pillow. Swirl to mix.
4. Tritrate with Sulfite #3 reagent using the eye dropper, (low and high range Sulfite #3 reagent
is available). Add the reagent drop wise with continual swirling of the sample until a
permanent gray-blue color develops. Note the number of drops required to reach the end
point.
Calculations:
mg/L Sulfites (SO3) = 0.64 X No. of drops “low” range Sulfite #3
mg/L Sulfites (SO3) = 6.4 X No. of drops “high” range Sulfite #3
Warning: The reagents contained in the kit are harmful. Avoid contact with eyes and skin.
Do not ingest. Read warning on chemical container.
1.18 HYDROGEN SULFIDE CONCENTRATION Return to Table of Contents
In many areas Hydrogen Sulfide is found by itself, or in association with hydrocarbons,

especially gas. Hydrogen Sulfide gas (H2S) is not only very lethal, but also extremely corrosive.
Therefore, when H2S is encountered in the mud, it must be reduced to acceptable levels so that
it does not pose a health hazard, or create a drill string failure.
The concentration of Hydrogen Sulfide present may be determined using the Hach Model HS-7
Hydrogen Sulfide Test Kit, or more quantitatively, using the Garrett Gas Train.
1.18.1 HACH H2S TEST
Equipment
Hach Model HS-7 Hydrogen Sulfide Kit
Test Procedure
1. Fill the sample vial to the 25 ml mark with recently filter pressed filtrate from the mud to be
tested. (If 25 ml is not available, use a known amount of filtrate and dilute to 25 ml using
distilled water. Five or more ml of filtrate is recommended).
Note: For most accurate results, the test should be performed using a recently
obtained mud sample. If the sample has been aerated or allowed to stand for some
time, much if not all of the Hydrogen Sulfide gas will be lost by aeration or oxidation.
2. Place a circle of Hydrogen Sulfide test paper (lead acetate paper) inside the cap of the
sample vial.
3. Add an Alka Seltzer tablet to the sample and IMMEDIATELY snap the cap containing the
test paper onto the vial.
4. After allowing ample time for the tablet to dissolve, remove the cap and test paper.
5. Compare the color of the test paper with the color chart accompanying the test kit, and
record the amount of H2S gas present.
Calculations
H2S Present = 25 X H2S recorded

ml of filtrate used
1.18.2 GARRETT GAS TRAIN (H2S) Return to Table of Contents
Equipment
1. Garrett Gas Train with H2S Drager tubes, and floating ball flow meter
2. Lead Acetate Hach paper discs as an alternative to Drager tubes (for a more qualitative test)
3. Sulfuric Acid, 5N
4. Dropper bottle with Octanol Defoamer or equivalent
5. Hypodermic syringe (10 ml with 21 gauge needle)
Test Procedure
1. Be sure the Gas Train is clean, dry and on a level surface.
Note: Moisture in the flow meter can cause the ball to float erratically.
2. With the regulator T-handle backed off, install and puncture a CO 2 gas cartridge.
3. Add 20 ml distilled water to Chamber #1 (the chambers are numbered beginning at the
regulator).
4. Add 5 drops of Octanol Defoamer to Chamber #1.
5. Measure the sample into Chamber #1 according to the following table:
Drager Tube Identification
Sulfide Range Sample Volume Drager Tube Tube Factor

(mg/L) Identification
1.5-30 10.0
3.0-60 5.0 H2S 100/a 15
6.0-120 2.5
60-1020 10.0
120-2040 5.0 H2S 0.2% / A 600
240-4080 2.5
6. Select the proper Drager tube in accordance with the identification table. Break the tips from
each end of the tube, and apply Lubriseal to each end.
7. Install the tube with the arrow pointing downward into the bored receptacle. Likewise, install
the flow meter with the word “TOP” upward. Be sure the O-rings seal around the body of
each tube.
8. Install the top on the gas Train, and evenly hand tighten to seal all O-rings.
9. Attach the flexible tubing from the regulator onto the dispersion tube of Chamber #1, and
from the outlet tube of Chamber #3 to the Drager tube.
10. Adjust the dispersion tube of Chamber #1 to within 5 mm from the bottom.
11. Flow CO2 gas gently through the Train for 10 seconds to purge the system of air. Stop the
gas flow.
12. Slowly inject 10 ml Sulfuric Acid into Chamber #1 through the septum using the syringe and
needle.
13. Immediately restart CO2 flow. Using the regulator, adjust the flow so that the ball remains
between the two lines on the flow meter tube.
Note: One CO2 cartridge should provide 15-20 minutes of flow at the rate.
14. Observe a color change on the Drager tube if H 2S is present. In the units marked on the
tube, note and record the maximum darkened length before the front start to smear.
Continue flow for 15 minutes, although the front may attain a diffuse, feathery coloration. On
the high range tube, an orange color may appear ahead of the black front if sulfites are
present. The orange region should be ignored when recording the darkened length.
Calculations
mg/L Sulfides = Tube Factor X Tube Stain Length

ml Sample Volume
Care and Cleaning
To clean the Gas Train, remove the flexible tubing and Gas Train top. Take the Drager tube and
flow meter out of the receptacles, and plug with stoppers to keep them dry. Wash out the
chambers using a brush with warm water and mild detergent. Use a pipe cleaner to clean the
passages between the chambers. Wash, rinse and then blow out the dispersion tuber with air or
CO2 gas. Rinse the unit with distilled water and allow to drain dry.
Note: A lead acetate Hach paper disc fitted below the O-ring of Chamber #3 can be
substituted for the Drager tube in the Gas Train. The lead acetate paper, although not
preferred for quantitative work, will show the presence of Sulfides.
WARNING: The reagents in this kit may be hazardous to the health and safety of the user
if inappropriately handled. Please read all warnings before performing the test and use
appropriate safety equipment.
Garret Gas Train
1.19 HYDROGEN SULFIDE SCAVENGING ABILITY AND ZINC CARBONATE
When Zinc Carbonate is used as a drilling mud additive to scavenge Hydrogen Sulfide (H 2S) in a
sour gas well, it is possible to obtain an estimate of the scavenging ability of the drilling mud, as
well as the amount of Zinc Carbonate present.
Quantitatively, the scavenging ability of the mud and therefore the amount of Zinc Carbonate
present, can be determined using the Garret Gas Train. A more qualitative method to determine
the amount of Zinc Carbonate present employs the Hach Hydrogen Sulfide test kit.
1.19.1 ESTIMATION of ZINC CARBONATE CONCENTRATION (Qualitative)
Equipment and Reagents
1. Hach Model HS-7 Hydrogen Sulfide Kit

2. Filter Press
3. Hamilton Beach mixer or equivalent
4. Hypodermic syringe, 5 ml
5. Fresh Sodium Sulfide (Na2S), stock solution – 100 gm Na2S/litre
6. Concentrated Hydrochloric Acid (18%), or 5N Sulfuric Acid
7. Distilled Water
8. Octanol Defoamer or equivalent.
Test Procedure
1. Using the hypodermic syringe, add 2.5 ml of Sodium Sulfide stock solution (Na 2S) to 250 ml
of mud,
2. Agitate the sample in the mixer at medium speed for 5 minutes.
3. Using the filter press, obtain at least 3 ml of filtrate for each test.
4. Place a circle of Hydrogen Sulfide test paper (lead acetate paper) inside the cap of the
sample vial.
5. Measure 2 ml of filtrate into the sample vial using the syringe and dilute the sample with
approximately 20 ml of distilled water. Acidify the solution with 2 drops of acid, quickly drop
an Alka Seltzer tablet into the solution, and close the sample vial with the cap.
6. After allowing ample time for the tablet to dissolve, remove the cap and test paper. The
presence of brown coloration on the lead paper indicated that the Zinc Carbonate
concentration is less than 1.1 kg/m3.
7. If the acetate paper is white (negative), the Zinc Carbonate concentration is more than 1.1
kg/m3. In order to define the end point more accurately, repeat the entire test using an
additional 2.5 ml of Sodium Sulfide stock solution each time until a brown coloration is
apparent on the lead acetate paper.
Calculations
Approximate kg/m3 Zinc Carbonate = 0.44 X Maximum Number Milliliters Sodium Sulfide
Solution Used
1.19.2 H2S SCAVENGING ABILITY and ZINC CARBONATE CONCENTRATION
Equipment and Reagents
1. Garrett Gas Train with H2S Drager tubes and floating ball flow meter, and CO 2 gas
cartridges.
2. Sulfuric Acid, 5N
3. Dropper bottle with Octanol Defoamer or equivalent.
4. Hypodermic syringe with 21 gauge needle, 10 ml
5. 2, minimum 400 ml jars with lids
6. Osterizer blender, blade type, 10 speed
7. Filter press
8. Fresh Sodium Sulfide (Na2S) stock solution (100 grams Na2S per litre)
Test Procedure
1. Label 2 jars, “A” and “B”.

2. Measure 350 ml of drilling mud into jar “A”.
3. Measure 350 ml of distilled water into jar “B”.
4. Measure 20 ml of stock Sodium Sulfide (Na2S) solution into each jar. Close both jars and
shake vigorously by hand for 30 seconds. Transfer the contents of jar “A” to the Osterizer
mixing jar, replace the lid, and stir at the slowest speed for 15 minutes. Transfer the drilling
mud – H2S system back to jar “A”.
Note: Some drilling muds will thicken severely when the Na 2S solution is added. If
thickening occurs, add a dispersant from the rig stock at about 3 kg/m 3 (roughly a
cone shaped pile on a dime). If thickening is observed during the first of a series of
tests, the mud should be pretreated with a dispersant prior to a Na 2S addition.
5. Extract 10 ml of dilute Sodium Sulfide (Na 2S) stock solution from jar “B” and label this filtrate
“B”.
6. Prepare the Garrett Gas Train for testing as outlined below.
a. Be sure the Gas Train is clean, dry, and on a level surface.
Note: Moisture in the flow meter can cause the ball to float erratically.
b. With the regulator T-handle backed off, install and puncture a CO 2 gas cartridge.
c. Add 20 ml distilled water to Chamber #1 (the chambers are numbered beginning at the
regulator).
d. Add 5 drops of Octanol Defoamer to Chamber #1.
e. Install the top on the Gas Train and evenly hand tighten to seal all O-rings.
f. Select a high range Drager tube (H2S 0.2% / A tube factor is 1500) for installation.
g. Break off the ends of the tube, apply Lubriseal to both ends and install the tube with the
arrow pointing downward into the bored receptacle. Likewise, install the flow meter with
the word “TOP” upward. Be sure O-rings deal around the body of each tube.
h. Attach the flexible tubing from the regulator onto the dispersion tube of Chamber #1 and
from the outlet tube of Chamber #3 to the Drager tube.
Note: Use only latex rubber or inert plastic tubing. Do not clamp tubing.
Unclamped tubing provides a pressure relief in the event the Gas Train is over
pressured.
i. Adjust the dispersion tube of Chamber #1 to within 5 mm from the bottom.

j. Flow CO2 gas gently through the Train for 10 seconds to purge system of air. Stop the
gas flow.
7. Proceed to the Garrett Gas Train operating procedure outlined below:
a. Using the hypodermic syringe, inject 4.0 ml of filtrate (“B”) into Chamber #1.
b. Slowly inject 10 ml 5N Sulfuric Acid solution into Chamber #1 through the septum using
the syringe and needle.
c. Immediately restart CO2 flow. Using the regulator, adjust the flow so that the ball
remains between the 2 lines on the flow meter tube. One CO 2 cartridge should provide
15-20 minutes of flow at this rate.
d. Observe a color change on the Drager tube. In the units marked on the tube, note and
record the maximum darkened length before the front starts to smear. Continue flow for
15 minutes although the front may attain a diffuse, feathery coloration. On the high
range tube, an orange color may appear ahead of the black front if Sulfites are present.
The orange region should be ignored when recording the darkened length.
8. Label the darkened, stained length as “B”.
9. Filter the mud (“A”) to obtain at least 4 ml of filtrate, label filtrate “A”.
10. Clean the Gas Train as outlined below:
To clean the Gas Train, remove the flexible tubing and Gas Train top. Take the Drager tube
and flow meter out of the receptacles, and plug with stoppers to keep them dry. Wash out
the chambers using a brush with warm water and mild detergent. Use a pipe cleaner to
clean the passages between the chambers. Wash, rinse and then blow out the dispersion
tuber with air or CO2 gas. Rinse the unit with distilled water and allow to drain dry.
11. Run the Gas Train using 4.0 cm 3 of filtrate “A” (from the mud) repeating paragraphs 6 and 7.
Label the darkened length “A”.
12. Be sure to clean the Gas Train after each test.
Calculations
mg/L H2S Scavenging Ability = 375 (B-A)
kg/m3 Zinc Carbonate = 0.0037 X mg/L H2S Scavenging Ability
WARNING: The reagents in the kit may be hazardous to the health and safety of the user
NOTE: The 100 gram/L Na2S solution can deteriorate with time. If the 4.0 cm 3 of filtrate
“B” results in Drager tube lengths which are too short, the filtrate volumes can be
increased. If filtrate sample volume is indeed increased, the equation used to calculate
H2S scavenging ability is changed from:
to:

new volume (ml)
1.20 IRONITE SPONGE TEST Return to Table of Contents
One method of scavenging H2S in a sour gas well is with the use of Ironite Sponge. The reaction
of Hydrogen Sulfide with Ironite Sponge can easily be monitored in the field. The test is based
on the fact that Ironite Sponge is attracted to a magnetic field, whereas Iron Sulfide (the reaction
product of Ironite Sponge and Hydrogen Sulfide), is not attracted to a magnetic field.
Equipment
1. Strong magnet (22 Decanewton, 50lb) pulling force.

2. Sand content tube and screen
3. Large container, e.g. 500 ml beaker
Test Procedure
1. Fill the sand content tube to water mark (100 ml) with a sample of mud to be tested.
2. Using water to dilute and rinse, transfer all the contents of the sand content tube to a large
container (e.g. 500 ml beaker).
3. While holding the strong magnet against the container carefully, pour off all the diluted mud
containing drilled solids, and the non-magnetic Ironite Sponge reaction products. The
magnet should be place near the top of the container on the side that the diluted mud is
being poured, in order to prevent the un-reacted Ironite Sponge from becoming part of the
effluent.
4. Add more water and repeat step 3 until only Ironite Sponge and silty solids remain. At this
point with the magnet in position, rapidly pour off the silty solids.
5. Add more water and pour the remaining suspension back into the sand content tube through
the sand content screen to remove any large solids or steel filings as a result of casing or
pipe wear. Use additional water as a flush to ensure that all Ironite Sponge is transferred
back.
6. Shake the sand content tube and then allow any remaining non-magnetic material to settle
out while the magnet is rapidly being moved up and down along the side of the sand content
tube.
7. Draw the Ironite Sponge to the bottom of the sand content tube and allow it to settle. Tap
the sand content tube lightly, and then record the percentage of Ironite Sponge present
subtracting the non-magnetic solids if they are present at the bottom of the tube.
Calculations
kg/m3 Ironite Sponge = 4 X % Ironite Sponge Recorded
1.21 POTASSIUM ION CONCENTRATION Return to Table of Contents
When a drilling mud containing Potassium Chloride or Potassium Sulfate is used, the primary
purpose is to prevent, or at least minimize hydration of water sensitive formations. Inhibition of
hydration is provided by the Potassium ion (K +), which is attracted to negative charges appearing
through the flat surface. Therefore, it is extremely important to know the Potassium ion
concentration at all times in these mud systems.
There are two different methods of determining the amount of Potassium in a mud system; one
utilizing a hand crank centrifuge, and the other utilizing Potassium test strips.
1.21.1 HAND CRANK CENTRIFUGE METHOD Return to Table of Contents
Equipment
1. Hand cranking centrifuge with 18:1 gear ratio

2. Two graduated 15 ml centrifuge tubes
3. 750 gm/L Sodium Perchlorate precipitating solution
Test Procedure
1. In order to balance the centrifuge, measure 14 ml of fresh water in the other centrifuge tube,
and place it into the centrifuge.
2. Add 4.0 ml Sodium Perchlorate to 10.0 ml of filtrate to be tested in the centrifuge tube. A
white precipitate which forms immediately indicates the presence of Potassium.
3. Invert slowly for 1 minute and place in the centrifuge.
4. Centrifuge for 1 minute at a cranking speed of 120 RPM (10 revolutions every 5 seconds).
5. Remove the centrifuge tube, and not the amount of centrifuged precipitate as the FLOC
VOLUME in milliliters. Do not discard the centrifuged filtrate at the this point.
6. Determine the Potassium ion concentration from the table below:
Note: For Potassium ion concentrations above 55,000 mg/L, save the centrifuge
filtrate, clean the tubes, split the centrifuged filtrate evenly into each tube, add 4 ml
Sodium Perchlorate to each tube, and centrifuge again.
Record the total floc volume as the sum of the original floc volume, plus any
additional floc volume obtained by double centrifuging.
Potassium Ion Concentration
Floc Volume Potassium Ion Concentration

(milliliters) (mg/L)
0.00 0
0.25 5000
0.50 7500
0.80 10000
1.10 15000
1.30 19000
1.50 24500
1.70 31000
1.90 38000
2.10 45000
2.30 53000
2.50 59000
2.70 65000
2.90 70000
3.10 75500
3.30 81000
NOTE: 5250 mg/L K+ is approximately 10 kg/m3 KCl
1.21.2 POTASSIUM TEST STRIPS Return to Table of Contents
For Low Levels of Potassium (up to 1500 mg/L)
1. Insert the miniature test tube into the tube holder and add 10 drops of reagent solution.
2. Dip the test strip into the mud filtrate for 1 second. Remove the strip and shake excess
filtrate from the strip.
3. Place the test strip in the miniature test tube containing the reagent solution for 1 minute.
4. Remove the test strip, and compare the color to that of the color scale.
5. Report filtrate Potassium in mg/L.
For Levels of Potassium (1500-35000 mg/L)
1. Dilute the mud filtrate by adding 1.0 cm 3 of filtrate to a clean 25 ml graduate and adding
distilled water to the 25 ml mark.
2. Place your thumb over the opening in the graduate, and invert the graduate several times to
thoroughly mix the filtrate in the distilled water.
3. Proceed with the test as described above.
4. Multiply the results by 25.
For Levels of Potassium Ranging up to 140,000 mg/L
If the filtrate Potassium exceeds 35000 mg/L, further dilution will be required.
The following chart shows the volume of filtrate, volume of distilled water, the multiplier, and the
maximum concentration of filtrate Potassium which can be measured.
Filtrate Volume Distilled Water Multiplier Maximum

(cm3) Volume Potassium
(cm3) (mg/L)
1.0 24.0 25 35000
0.5 24.5 50 70000
1.0 99.0 100 140000
1.22 POLYACRYLAMIDE (PHPA) POLYMER CONCENTRATION
Very often, mud systems may utilize a Partially Hydrolyzed Polyacrylamide (PHPA) Polymer to
provide or enhance inhibition by encapsulation of the Polymer around the hydratable clays that
are encountered while drilling. In order for this method of inhibition to be effective, a residual
PHPA concentration must be present in the drilling mud filtrate.
Equipment
1. Hand Cranking Centrifuge, 18:1 gear ratio

2. Two Graduated Centrifuge Tubes
3. Floc Developer Solution
4. Cresol Red Indicator
5. Hydrochloric Acid, 0.2 N
6. Sodium Hydroxide, 0.2 N
Test Procedure
1. Measure 12 ml of fresh water into test tube and place in centrifuge tube for balance.
2. Measure 10.0 ml filtrate in the graduated centrifuge tube.
3. Add 6 drops of Cresol Red indicator and with the tube covered, invert gently. A reddish
purple color will develop to indicate a pH greater than 7.0.
4. Add 0.2 N Hydrochloric Acid drop by drop, inverting gently each time until the solution just
turns an orange-yellow.
5. Add 2 ml floc developer solution.
6. Invert the tube gently to mix for 15-20 seconds, and allow the solution to stand for 3-4
minutes.
7. Invert the centrifuge tube a few times and place it in the centrifuge.
8. Centrifuge for 1 minute at a cranking speed of 120 RPM (same as 10 revolutions every 5
seconds).
9. Remove the centrifuge tubes and note the amount of centrifuged precipitate as milliliters of
precipitate.
Calculations
kg/m3 of Polyacrylamide (PHPA) = 1.4 X ml of Precipitate
1.23 DAP AND PHOSPHATE CONCENTRATION Return to Table of Contents
In a low temperature and low pH environment, Diammonium Phosphate (DAP) can be used very
successfully as an inhibitor to prevent or minimize hydration of water sensitive formations. The
inhibiting Ammonium ion is difficult to measure, however, the phosphate and DAP
concentrations are readily determined.
Equipment
1. Manver indicator solution

2. 2% Calcium Chloride solution
3. Strong buffer solution
4. White titrating dish
5. Distilled water
6. 1 ml pipettes
Test Procedure
1. Pipette 1 ml of filtrate into the titrating dish.

2. Add 7 drops strong Buffer, and 3 drops of Manver while swirling to mix.
3. Using 2% CaCl2, titrate to a distinct color change.
Note: For low DAP concentrations, the color change is from dark purple to bright red.
For high DAP concentrations, the color change is from dark blue to dark red.
If a small amount of distilled water is used in the titration, the color change will be
from wine to bright red, and purple to dark red for low and high DAP concentrations
respectively.
Calculations
kg/m3 DAP = 14.3 X ml 2% CaCl2 Added
mg/L Phosphate (PO4) = 719 X DAP Concentration

1.24 NITRATE ION CONCENTRATION Return to Table of Contents
In some instances, after a potential producing horizon is drilled, it is desirable to know how much
drilling mud filtrate has permeated the zone. In order to differentiate drilling mud filtrate from
formation water, a “tracer” is often introduce into the drilling mud. The Nitrate ion is often used
as such a tracer.
Equipment
HACH Model NI-11 Nitrate test kit, 0-50 mg/L
Test Procedure
To obtain accurate test results, please read carefully before proceeding.
Samples containing above 50 mg/L Nitrate, Nitrogen can be tested by diluting the sample before
running the test. For example, a 1 to 5 dilution can be made by using 1 ml of the water to be
tested, and 4 ml of distilled water. Use the calibrated dropper provided in the kit for the dilution.
The results of a 1 to 5 dilution are multiplied by 5 to obtain the correct mg/L Nitrate Nitrogen.
The results of other dilutions will follow the same procedure as above; for example, the results of
a 1 to 3 dilution would be multiplied by 3.
A small portion of the Nitraver reagent will remain undissolved and fall to the bottom of the color
viewing tube. This will not affect the test results, but should be rinsed from the tube between
tests.
WARNING: The reagents in this kit may be hazardous to the health and safety of the user
1. Rinse a color viewing tube several times with the water to be tested. Then fill to the 5 ml
mark.
2. Use the clippers to open 1 Nitraver 5 Nitrate reagent powder pillow. Add the contents of the
pillow to the tube. Stopper the tube and shake vigorously for exactly 1 minute.
3. An amber color will develop if Nitrates are present.
4. Allow the prepared sampled to set undisturbed for 1 minute. Then place the tube of
prepared sample in the right opening of the comparator.
5. Fill the other viewing tube to the 5 ml mark with some of the original water sample, and place
it in the left opening of the comparator.
6. Hold the comparator up to a light source such as a window, the sky, or a lamp and view
through the openings in front. Rotate the disc until a color match is obtained. Read the
mg/L Nitrate Nitrogen (N) through the scale window.
7. Test results can be converted from mg/L Nitrate Nitrogen (N) to mg/L Nitrates (NO 3) by
multiplying the scale reading X 4.4.
1.25 DETERMINATION OF AMOUNT OF CORINOX IN MUD FILTRATE
This method can be used to measure the amount of Organic Phosphorous Corinox corrosion
inhibitor in a mud filtrate. Four (4) ml of filtrate are required to perform the test. If the endpoint is
not reached after using 2 ml of Thorium Nitrate Tirtating solution, the test should be repeated
using a 1 ml sample of filtrate.
Test Method
Thorium Nitrate Titration
Test Procedure
1. Add a 4.0 ml sample of filtrate to a glass titrating bottle. Dilute the sample with 20 ml of
distilled water.
2. Add one (1) drop of Meta-Cresol purple.
3. Add 1N Hydrochloric Acid (HCl) to reduce the pH to 2.5-3.5. Check the pH every 2-3 drops
with the pH paper. DO NOT OVER ACIDIFY (typically 5-17 drops are required).
4. Add ten (10) drops of Fluoride Masking agent.
5. Add one (1) scoop of reagent #3 using a measuring scoop. If organic phosphorous
compounds are present the sample will turn yellow.
Calculations
Corinox / KD-700 (mg/L) = 2500 X (ml) Thorium Nitrate X (4 / Sample Size)
1.26 LOST CIRCULATION MATERIAL CONCENTRATION
The following is a quick and easy method of determining the approximate concentration of lost
circulation material (LCM) in a drilling mud.
Test Procedure
1. Pour 1000 ml of mud through a sieve or strainer into a viscosity cup.

2. Place all the LCM material retained by the strainer into a clean viscosity cup.
3. Tap the cup sharply to level the contents. Read the volume in cubic centimeters (cm 3).
Calculations
LCM Concentration (kg/m3) = Volume of LCM (cm3) X 0.2
Example
The LCM material strained from 1000 cm3 of mud filled the viscosity cup to the 300 cm3 mark.
300 X 0.2 = 60 kg/m3 of LCM material in the mud

1.27 BIOCIDE CONCENTRATION Return to Table of Contents
When a Biocide or preservative is being used, it is important that the level be maintained
adequately to prevent fermentation of certain products. This test offers a simple means of
monitoring the level of Biocide in a mud system.
The test involves a reaction between Sodium Sulfite and Glutaraldehyde that results in a change
of pH. The amount of change is related to the amount of Biocide in the system.
Equipment
1. Titration dish
2. Pipettes
3. Sodium Sulfite Solution
4. N/50 Sodium Hydroxide
6. Phenolphthalein Solution
Note: The Sodium Sulfite solution deteriorates rapidly. If older than 30 days, it should be
replaced with a fresh solution.
Test Procedure
1. Pipette 2 ml of filtrate into a titration dish.

2. Add 2-3 drops of Phenolphthalein indicator.
3. Tritrate with N/50 Sulfuric Acid (if pink or red), or N/50 Sodium Hydroxide (if colorless) as
required until a faint pink color remains. Add 1-2 drops of acid to dispel the color.
4. To the neutralized filtrate, add 1 ml of Sodium Sulfite solution. A red color will develop.
5. After approximately 30 seconds, titrate with N/50 Sulfuric Acid until the color just disappears.
6. Repeat steps 3 and 4 using distilled water, instead of filtrate.
250
Calculations
Biocide (litres/m3) = (ml Acid for Filtrate – ml Acid for Distilled Water)
ml of Filtrate
1.28 BACTERIA DIPSLIDE TEST Return to Table of Contents
Panatest dipslides are used to semi-quantitatively measure aerobic bacteria. The test procedure
is very simple, but the results are not available for 24-48 hours, as the bacteria have to incubate
inside the sealed tubes.
Equipment
The test slides, tubes, and comparison chart are supplied as a kit.
Test Procedure
1. Remove the white plastic cap seal.

2. Remove the slide from inside the tube, without touching the lower, pale yellow portion of the
slide.
3. Immerse the lower portion of the slide in a sample of mud for approximately 10 seconds.
4. Remove the slide from the mud and allow to drain for approximately 10 seconds. Do not
wash or rinse the slide.
5. Replace the slide in the plastic tube and seal with the white cap.
6. Complete the sample details on the label attached to the plastic tube.
7. Keep the tube upright and incubate for 24-28 hours at 30-37 degrees C.
8. At the end of the incubation period, compare the slide with the comparison chart on the
underside of the test kit lid.
9. Record bacteria as organisms per ml.
Note: Dispose of the used slides by incineration. Do not open test tubes until they are
required for use. Do not open used tubes after the incubation period.
1.29 POLYGLYCOL CONCENTRATION Return to Table of Contents
Polygylcols can be added to drilling fluids as a primary shale inhibitor. The Glycol will slowly
deplete from the drilling fluid as it is adsorbed into the shale formations as drilling progresses.
This test procedure can be used to measure the concentration of different types of Glycols in a
drilling fluid system.
Equipment
1. API standard retort kit, 50 ml is preferred for accuracy. It must be fitted with a temperature
control, which will permit heating at 150 degrees C (302 degrees F) and 510 degrees C (950
degrees F).
Test Procedure
1. Place a known volume of mud in the loser part of the retort cell, It is important that this
sample contains as little entrained air as possible. Insert fine steel wool, as required into the
upper part of the cell.
2. Assemble the cell and seal the threads with a silicone high temperature grease to reduce
leakage through the threads.
3. Set the temperature controller to 150 degrees C. Heat the retort until all the water has been
collected (approximately 90 minutes)
4. Note this volume as V1.
5. Re-adjust the temperature to 510 degrees C, and continue to distil over the remainder of the
liquid phase.
6. Note the final volume as V2.
Calculations
Volume Glycol % = (V2 – V1) X 100

Sample Volume (ml)
Note: The presence of other liquids with high boiling points, such as lubricants, will
interfere with the result of this test.
1.30 STABLE-K CONCENTRATION Return to Table of Contents
Many KCl clay-stabilizing substitutes determine residual concentrations of the product by an

indirect method. Typically these methods will analyze for counter ions of the substance that is
providing the clay stabilization. While this method will work if both the clay stabilizer and the
counter ion are adsorbed by the clay. If substitution of Sodium in the clay lattice occurs, the
counter ion will stay in solution. If this clay stabilization mechanism is prevalent, then analysis of
the mud using the countered ion method will show levels of clay stabilizer much higher than is
actually present. One way to avoid this inaccuracy is a direct method of analysis. The
procedure is designed to determine the available concentration of Stable-K. Since drilled solids
will contain some clays, some of the Stable-K will be tied up with these solids. Stable-K that is
tied up with the solids is unavailable to provide clay stabilization. Due to its unique structure,
analysis of Stable-K by a direct method is possible. This method is able to distinguish between
total Stable-K concentrations and available Stable-K concentrations using standard mud kit
apparatus. For most purposes, determining available Stable-K concentrations should be
sufficient. If residual concentrations of Stable-K are much lower than expected, determining the
total concentration of Stable-K will aid in assessing whether the product is being consumed
downhole or in the drilled solids.
Equipment
1. 8N KOH Solution
4. Mud Retort
5. 10 ml Pipette
6. 50 ml Beaker
7. Steel Wool
Test Procedure
Available Stable-K:
1. Collect a minimum of 4 ml or a maximum of 9 ml of filtrate from the fluid loss test. Record
the number of ml of filtrate. The more filtrate that is collected, the more accurate the results
will be.
2. Add 1 ml of 8N KOH to the filtrate, and bring to a total volume of 10 ml (if necessary) using
distilled water.
3. Remove the retort assembly from the insulator block if required. Remove the lower mud
chamber from the retort assembly and thoroughly clean with the spatula provided.
4. Pack the upper chamber of the retort assembly with steel wool. Failure to pack the upper
chamber with steel wool will result in transfer of the KOH into the receiving vessel,
invalidating the results.
5. Transfer the filtrate to the mud chamber of the retort assembly. Place the leveling lid on the
assembly and wipe off any excess fluid. There should be minimal if any excess fluid.
6. Grease the threads of the mud chamber with a high temperature grease, and screw the mud
chamber into the upper chamber, tightening with the spatula provided.
7. Place a 10 ml graduated cylinder under the condenser tube. Plug in the retort and continue
heating until the light goes off. (Fluids may appear to have stopped coming form the
condenser tube prior to this, however more accurate results are obtained by proceeding until
the pilot light goes out).
8. Transfer the distillate from the 10 ml graduated cylinder into a 50 ml beaker. Rinse the 10 ml
cylinder with distilled water, and transfer to the 50 ml beaker. Bring to a total volume of
approximately 30 ml with distilled water.
9. Add 2 drops of phenolphthalein to the solution. If Stable-K is present, the solution should
tune to a pink color. If the solution remains clear, then no Stable-K is present.
10. Fill a 10 ml pipette to the 10 ml mark with N/50 Sulfuric Acid solution. Add dropwise to the
solution from Step 9 while swirling until the color changes form pink to clear. Be sure that all
traces of pink color are removed form the solution. Record the ml. of N/50 Sulfuric Acid
required.
Total Stable-K:
1. Add 9 ml of air free drilling mud to a 10 ml graduated cylinder. Bring to a total volume of 10
ml with 8 N KOH solution. Invert and mix the solution.
2. Follow Steps 3 through 10 of the available Stable-K procedure.
Calculations:
1. Available Stable-K:
litres/m3 Available Stable-K in Water Phase = (ml N/50 Sulfuric Acid) X 3.65
ml of filtrate collected
litres/m3 Available Stable-K in Mud =
litres/m3 Available Stable-K in Water Phase X Volume Fraction in Mud
2. Total Stable-K:
litres/m3 Stable-K in Mud = (ml N/50 Sulfuric Acid) X 0.406
Notes:
A 9 ml filtrate sample with 3 litres/m3 Stable-K will take approximately 7.4 ml of N/50 Sulfuric
Acid. Smaller filtrate samples will take proportionately less; e.g.: a 6 ml sample will require 6/9
as much N/50 Sulfuric Acid. Higher loadings of Stable-K require proportionately more N/50
Sulfuric Acid; e.g. at 6 liters/m 3, 9 ml of filtrate will take approximately 14.8 ml of N/50 Sulfuric
Acid. If the results are unexpectedly high, then it is likely that some of the fluid from the mud
chamber “bumped’ over to the condenser without distilling. If this is the case the retort should be
allowed to cool, then dismantled and repacked with new steel wool. The test should be rerun to
verify results.
Note: Fluid additives containing Ammonia Salts and organic amines will interfere with
this test.
1.31 SODIUM SILICATE CONCENTRATION Return to Table of Contents
For the Silicate mud systems, there is one specific additional test to measure the level of Sodium
Silicate in the mud. The test is described below.
If KCL (Potassium Chloride) is used, it is normally measured by the conventional centrifuge

method with a factor incorporated to account for Silicate precipitation in the filtrate. Due to the
attraction of Silicate to the semi-permeable membranes of ion selective probes, unreliable
readings are obtained, while the centrifuge test method was shown to give reliable and
repeatable results.
Silicate Test Methods:
There are two methods for testing the Silicate level in the system.
1. Hach Color Test Method

2. Titration Method
Both methods should be available on the rig, however the Hach Test method has a self-
contained kit, which is easy to use, and is the preferred method for oilfield purposes. The titration
method is more suited to laboratory situations.
1. Hach Color Test Method
This test kit is complete with instructions and chemical reagents to test the filtrate for Silicate,
The result is indicated in grams per litre or SiO2.
With a density of l.475 S.G. for Ancosil and an activity of 3O.3% by weight SiO 2,
% by volume Sodium Silicate = g/L SiO2 + 0.2237
2. Titration Method
Due to the affinity of SiO2 to glass, the titration’s should be carried out in plastic beakers. If this
is not possible, the beakers must be washed out thoroughly after use.
This procedure describes the method for determining Silica (SiO 2), by titration. The test is in two
stages, the first determines the Sodium Oxide (Na 2O) alkalinity which is due in part to the molar
ratio of Na2O to SiO2 present in the Silicate product, the second to determine Silica. The Silica
is reacted with Sodium Fluoride which is then titrated with strong acid.
Equipment:
1. pH meter with Calomel electrode

2. Balance, accurate to 0.1 gram
3. Magnetic stirrer complete with small stir bar
4. 2 ml and 5 ml pipettes
5. 100 ml beakers
Reagents:
1. Distilled Water
2. 0.2 N Hydrochloric Acid
3. 2.0 N Hydrochloric Acid
4. Methyl Red Indicator Solution
5. Sodium Fluoride, Reagent Grade
6. pH Buffers; pH 4.0 and pH 10.0
Procedures:
Blank Titration:
A blank titration is first performed to compensate for Silica present in the reagents.
1. Pipette 5 ml of distilled water into a small beaker. Add I drop of methyl red.
2. Add 0.2 N Hydrochloric Acid until the color first changes to pink.
3. Add I gram of Sodium Fluoride. The color changes to yellow.
4 Titrate with 2.O N Hydrochloric Acid to a pink color change, at pH 6.0
5 Record the amount of acid used ( Vol. A).
Alkalinity (Sodium) Content:
1. Ensure the pH meter is calibrated.

2. Pipette 5ml of distilled water into a small beaker and add I drop of Methyl Red indicator.
3. Set the beaker on a stirrer, and insert the pH electrode. The indicator solution is used as a
guide, but accurate measurements are against the pH value.
4. Add a few drops of 0.2N Hydrochloric Acid, until the color is pink.
5. Pipette 2 ml of filtrate into this beaker. The color changes to yellow.
6. Titrate with 0.2N Hydrochloric Acid to pH 5.5, where the color change to pink is noted.
7. Record the ml’s of acid used ( Vol. B).
Silica (SiO2) Content:
1. To the sample titrated above, add I gram of Sodium Fluoride. The color changes to yellow,
and the pH will rise to 8.0-9.0.
2. Titrate with 2.ON Hydrochloric Acid to pH 6.0, and record the ml’s of acid used ( Vol. C).
Calculations:
Alkalinity:
For a 2ml sample:
Na2O (mg/L) = 31000 X (Vol. B) X 0.2

2
Where Vol. B is the volume of 0.2N Hydrochloric Acid used
Silica ( SiO2):
For a 2nd sample:
mg/L SiO2 = 15000 X N{ (Vol. C) – (Vol. A)}

2
g/L SiO2 = 15 X N{ (Vol. C) – (Vol. A)}

2
Where Vol. C is the volume of 2.O N Hydrochloric Acid used in the titration, Vol. A is the volume
of acid used in the blank correction ( typically <0. I ml), and N is the normality of the acid ( 2N).
To convert g/L SiO2, to % by volume Sodium Silicate in the system:
% volume Sodium Silicate = g/L SiO2 X 0.2237
Where the S.G. of Sodium Silicate is 1.475, with an SiO 2 activity of 30,3% by weight
Test method for K+ (Potassium) Ion:
As indicated above, the K+ ion should be measured using the centrifuge method as outlined in
Section No. 1.21.1. In order to account for precipitated Silicate it is necessary to perform a
control centrifuge test with the standard volume of filtrate, adding 3 ml’s of water instead of the
Sodium Perchlorate. This will indicate the amount of suspended Silicate which may have passed
through the filter paper. When this is centrifuged, the volume of precipitate should be measured.
(Vc)
The Potassium should be centrifuged in the conventional way, and the total filtrate measured.
(Vt)
The volume of Silicate precipitate should be subtracted from this volume, and this final volume
used to quantify the level of Potassium. (VK+)
Volume of filtrate to determine Potassium = Vt - Vc

Chapter 2 Water Base Mud Systems
TOPICS PAGE
2.1 SPUD MUDS 1

2.1.1 WATER / NATIVE SPUD MUDS
1
2.1.2 WATER / GEL LIME SLURRY 1
2.1.3 BENTONITE SLURRY 2
2.1.4 ABI HIGH YIELD BENTONITE SLURRY
2
2.2 WATER DRILLING 3
2.2.1 SAPP WATER / DRILLING DETERGENT 3
2.2.2 FLOCCULATED CLEAR WATER DRILLING 4
2.3 GEL CHEMICAL SYSTEMS 7
2.4 DISPERSED GEL CHEMICAL SYSTEMS 9
2.5 POTASSIUM BASED MUD SYSTEMS 11
2.5.1 POTASSIUM CHLORIDE (KCl) MUDS 12
2.5.2 POTASSIUM SULFATE (K2SO4) MUDS 16
2.6 AMMONIUM SULFATE MUD SYSTEMS 18
2.7 GYP MUD SYSTEMS 21
2.8 SALTWATER MUD SYSTEMS 23
2.9 CLAY FREE POLYMER MUDS (“CLEAR FLUID”) 27
2.10 STABLE-K MUD SYSTEM 28
2.11 POLYGLYCOL MUD SYSTEMS 30
2.12 SILICATE MUD SYSTEMS 32
CHAPTER 2
WATER BASE MUD SYSTEMS
Before building a mud system, a complete analysis of the make up water should be made. If the
water contains excess Calcium, it should be reduced to 40 mg/L of less with additions of Soda
Ash. Magnesium in the make up water can also be removed by increasing the pH to 10.5+ if
needed. The salinity of the water should also be checked, and noted if excessively high. The
chlorides should be below 1000 mg/L for optimum yield of Bentonite. If the make up water
contains above 7000 mg/L of Chlorides, it may be necessary to prehydrate Bentonite in fresh
water.
2.1 SPUD MUDS Return to Table of Contents
2.1.1 WATER / NATIVE SPUD MUDS
In many areas of Western Canada, the wells are spudded in with water. In many of these areas,
the shallow formations contain significant amounts of Bentonite clay or shale. The viscosity
increases naturally with the incorporation of Bentonitic or swelling clays into the water. The
viscosity builds with continued circulation. Small amounts of Bentonite, Caustic Soda, or Lime
may be added to increase the viscosity further if required. This system is very economical.
2.1.2 WATER / GEL LIME SLURRY Return to Table of Contents
Used extensively throughout Western Canada as a cost effective method of drilling surface hole.
The system is made up as follows:
1. Fill the earthen pits with water, or if a conductor pipe is set, fill the mud tanks with water.
Maintain the circulating volume at a minimum to keep treating costs to a minimum for drilling
the surface hole.
2. Check the hardness and salinity of the make up water. If the Calcium content is above 40
mg/L, then treat out the excess hardness with Soda Ash as required.
Note: To determine the amount of Soda Ash required to treat out the total hardness,
use the following formula.
Soda Ash Required (kg/m3) = Total Hardness, mg/L X 0.0004

2.85
3. Normally the well is spudded in with water allowing native clays to build viscosity.
4. If a further increase in viscosity is required to clean the hole, add approximately 0.75-1.0
kg/m3 of Caustic Soda through the chemical barrel to increase the pH to ±9.5.
5. Add Bentonite through the hopper at approximately 5-7 min’s/sx. until a viscosity of ± 45-50
sec/L is obtained.
6. For a further increase in funnel viscosity (in particular an increase in Yield Point), or if the
viscosity has to be increased prior to running the surface casing, small amounts of Lime can
be added to flocculate the Bentonite. Normally 1 sack of Lime is added for every 15-20
sacks of Bentonite that was initially mixed to build the slurry, or a concentration of ±1.5
kg/m3. The Lime should be added through a chemical barrel.
7. The Bentonite / Lime slurry is normally diluted with water, or discarded when the surface
hole is finished.
8. If mud rings are a problem in the area, it is recommended that no Lime be added, as it may
cause the clays to swell, and create mud rings.
2.1.3 BENTONITE SLURRY Return to Table of Contents
A Bentonite slurry is generally premixed prior to spudding, and is used in the deeper wells where
more than 2-3 days is expected to drill surface hole. The system is made up as follows.
1. The mud tanks should be clean, and filled ½-¾ full with fresh water. Keep the surface
volume to a minimum in order to keep the treating costs as low as possible.
2. The Calcium and salinity of the make up should be checked. Treat out soluble Calcium to
40 mg/L or less with additions of Soda Ash, as required. If the make up water contains
above 7000 mg/L of Chlorides, another water source will be required.
3. Add approximately 0.75-1.0 kg/m3 of Caustic Soda through the chemical barrel to increase
the pH of the water to 9.0-9.5.
4. Add approximately 65-75 kg/m3 of Bentonite at 5-7 min’s/sx. to increase the funnel viscosity
to ±40-45 sec/L.
Let the Bentonite slurry hydrate as long as possible prior to spudding the well. As drilling
progresses, increase the viscosity as required with further additions of Bentonite to ensure
adequate hole cleaning is being maintained.
The mud density and solids content should be maintained as low as possible with water dilution,
dumping the sand trap and/or shaker compartment, and utilizing all the solids control equipment
of the rig.
It may be possible depending upon the rig tank and/or sump design for water drilling, to save the
surface hole mud for future use after drilling with flocculated water.
2.1.4 ABI HIGH YIELD BENTONITE SLURRY Return to Table of Contents
ABI High Yield Bentonite is a premium grade of Bentonite that has been peptized to achieve
approximately double the viscosity of regular Bentonite with the same amount of product mixed.
This product is ideal for spudding in with a larger surface hole size, i.e.: 444.5 mm hole or larger,
and where high pump outputs are required to achieve a high enough annular velocity to drill the
larger surface hole size. The system is made up as follows.
1. Fill the mud tanks ½-¾ full with fresh water.

2. It is important to check the Calcium make up of the water with type of system.
Note: Calcium free make up water will be required. A minimum of 1-2 sacks of Soda
Ash should be mixed to the make up water prior to adding the High Yield Bentonite.
3. Increase the pH of the water to 9.0-9.5 with Caustic Soda.
4. Add ABI High Yield Bentonite through the hopper at approximately 5-7 min’s/sx. to increase
the funnel viscosity to ±40-45 sec/L.
Let the High Yield Bentonite slurry hydrate as long as possible prior to spudding the well. As
drilling progresses, increase the viscosity as required with further additions of HYB to ensure
adequate hole cleaning is being maintained.
The mud density and solids content should be maintained as low as possible with water dilution,
dumping the sand trap and/or shaker compartment, and utilizing all the solids control equipment
of the rig.
The purpose of any spud mud is to drill surface hole as economical as possible. Mud
volumes and additions should be minimized to maintain treating cost as low as possible.
2.2 WATER DRILLING Return to Table of Contents
2.2.1 SAPP WATER / DRILLING DETERGENT
SAPP (Sodium Acid Pyrophosphate) is a very powerful thinner having a pH of 4.0. Drilling
Detergent is an anionic, surface wetting agent (surfactant) that comes in both a liquid (Drilling
Detergent “L”) and a powdered (Drilling Detergent “P”) form. Both products are used primarily of
shallow water drilling or on surface hole to minimize mud rings, and bit balling.
Mud rings and bit balling are caused by a rapid build up of native Bentonitic solids, that are not
removed froth the wellbore quickly enough. In some instances, the build up of solids and
viscosity is rapid enough to plug off the flowline.
Generally SAPP water drilling is only recommended for water drilling to a maximum of 600-700
metres of open hole. This will depend upon the sump volume and design.
1. Fill the sump ½-¾ full with fresh water. Drill out the cement and shoe with water while
circulating the sump. If circulating the mud tanks, dump as necessary to maintain the mud
density as low as possible.
2. Treat out any excess Calcium from the cement cuttings with 1-2 sacks of Sodium
Bicarbonate.
3. Drill ahead with water, adding 1 viscosity cup (± 1 kilogram) of SAPP (dry) in the box end of
the drill pipe every connection to prevent bit balling and the build up of mud rings.
4. At the same time, trickle in or add small amounts of Drilling Detergent “L” or Drilling
Detergent “P”. Normally add Drilling Detergent “L” down the trough to the suction tank at a
concentration of 0.2-0.6 litres/m3. If Drilling Detergent “P” is being used, add in a
concentration of ±0.75-1.5 kg/m3.
If mud rings become a severe problem, additional treatments may be necessary. Mix ½-1 sack
of SAPP into a chemical barrel full of water, and add as close to the pump suction as possible.
Additional treatments of Drilling Detergent may also be required to disperse any mud rings.
There must be sufficient volume in the sump, and constructed properly with a dyke for SAPP
water drilling. The mud density should be maintained as low as possible; i.e. 1050 kg/m 3 with
further additions of water. An annular velocity of 50-55 metres/min. is recommended.
The easiest method to prevent mud rings is to circulate the hole long enough between
connections, or prior to surveys or trips, etc., maintain the annular velocity high enough,
and keep the fluid sufficiently dispersed with SAPP to minimize and rapid build up of
native solids.
Some drilling contractors may object to adding SAPP down the drill pipe due to its acid nature. If
so, then add the SAPP through a chemical barrel into the suction tank as required.
2.2.2 FLOCCULATED CLEAR WATER DRILLING Return to Table of Contents
There are 2 basic requirements essential to the success of a flocculated clear water drilling
system:
 Adequate water volume

 Sufficient settling space and time
The flocculated particles formed in this system are bulky and very light. The settling pits, or mud
tanks used must have sufficient area to handle the large volume of solids which will settle. Fluid
movement must be arranged so that sufficient time is allowed for settling of solids to prevent re-
circulation.
It is possible to utilize this system with either mud or floc tanks, or an earthen pit or sump.
However for large intervals of Bentonitic shales or clays (more than 1000-1500 metres of 222
mm hole), an earthen pit or sump with a minimum of 300-400 m3 of water is recommended for
optimum results.
As a rule of thumb, if you take the anticipated mud up depth, subtract the surface casing depth
from that value, and multiply that factor by 0.4. This will equal the minimum amount of water in
cubic metres that will be required to successfully drill the interval with clear water.
Example: Surface Casing Depth: 300 metres

Anticipate Mud Up Depth: 1200 metres
Minimum Amount of Water Required = (1200-300) X 0.4

= 900 X 0.4
= 360 m3 of water
This is only a rule of thumb, but is fairly accurate in the field. Ideally, a wall should be
constructed between 2 pits, with a dyke or weir located to provide a maximum circulating
distance between the flowline and suction. The pits should be constructed for a fluid depth of
approximately 1.5-2.0 metres, particularly in the case of the suction pit, where the suction should
be as close to the surface as possible.
If absolutely necessary, a flocculated system can also be used in properly arranged rig or floc
tanks. For best results, a minimum surface vole of 100 m 3 is recommended. Again, if extensive
intervals (in excess of 1000-1500 metres of 222 mm hole) is to be drilled, a larger volume would
be beneficial, but not absolutely necessary. A minimum of 2 tanks with compartments should be
required to flocculate in the tanks.
Flow between the tanks must be over the top with no possibility of bottom communication. Flow
patterns should be arranged to provide maximum surface distance between the shale shaker
and the suction, Tanks must be constructed with bypass troughs to allow cleaning of individual
compartments.
1. Fill the sump or tanks with clear water.

2. Drill out the surface casing shoe and cement with water. Do not treat out any excess
Calcium from the cement as it will assist in flocculation.
3. Circulate the sump, and add approximately 1-2 kg/m3 of Envirofloc and 2-4 kg/m3 of Gypsum
to the water to increase the Calcium content of the water to ±300-400 mg/L. Add Envirofloc
and Gypsum in a 1:2 ratio respectively over a circulation.
Note: Envirofloc (Calcium Nitrate) and Gypsum (Calcium Sulfate) are the most
commonly used products to increase the Calcium ion of the sump throughout
Western Canada. Gypsum is normally added in 2:1 ratio with the Envirofloc to cut
down on the costs.
Envirofloc is very soluble is water (even in winter when the water is cold), and goes
into solution very easily and quickly. Both products do not contain any Chlorides,
therefore are environmentally acceptable. Calcium Nitrate (Envirofloc) is a common
fertilizer, which can be “land farmed” while drilling ahead, or after the well is finished.
There are other “Salts” or products that can be utilized to increase the effectiveness of the
flocculant(s). These products and concentrations are as follows:
Gypsum Alone: 3-5 kg/m3

Ammonium Sulfate: 10 kg/m3
Potassium Chloride: 10 kg/m3
Potassium Sulfate: 10-15 kg/m3
Calcium Chloride: 1-3 kg/m3
Note: These concentrations may vary somewhat, depending upon the sump or tank
volume and size.
4. Begin adding a flocculant when the first cutting reaches the shale shaker. There are many
flocculants available to settle the solids. One common one is Mud Floc II. Mud Floc II is
readily dispersible in water, and therefore does not have to mixed with diesel first. Add 1 (2
lb.) bottle of Mud Floc II into a chemical barrel full of water.
5. The chemical barrel should be located as close to the flowline discharge as possible. If
possible, a chemical agitator should be clamped onto the barrel to provide for optimum
mixing.
6. Normally, add 1 Mud Floc / water mixture for every 20-30 metres of new hole drilled (based
on 200 or 222 mm hole). This mixture must be added continuously. This takes a
conscientious effort from the derrickman, as clear water can only be obtained if the flocculent
/ water mixture is added uniformly throughout the interval, particularly in the wintertime.
Other flocculants that are available is listed below. The majority of these products are added
in a similar fashion. The concentration levels may vary – refer to the product data on each of
these products.
Alcomer 110RD Alcomer 120P

Alcomer 120L Alkapam A-1103D and A-1703D
Alkapam C-1803 Alkapam N-1003D
Enkapsafloc Percol 338
Percol 351 Percol 728
7. 1-2 sacks of Envirofloc and 2-4 sacks of Gypsum should be added every tour, to maintain
the Calcium level at a minimum of 200-400 mg/L.
8. If the water becomes “dirty” or “cloudy” at the suction, increase the concentration of
Envirofloc and Gypsum by adding ±5-10 sacks over a circulation. The flocculant will also
have to be increased along with added dilution to clear up the water.
9. The following properties should be maintained and monitored throughout the clear water
drilling interval.
Mud Density: 1000-1020 kg/m3

Funnel Viscosity: 26-28 sec/L
pH: Neutral
Calcium: 200-400+ mg/L
Caution:
1. While drilling with water, do not stop the tools for any extended period of time.
Annular velocities of 50-55 metres/min. are recommended.
2. When cleaning out fill after trips, do not stop to break down stands. Break down prior
to reaming or picking up from the pipe rack.
3. Circulate for 15-20 minutes, or “bottoms up” prior to trips, in order to clean the hole of
cuttings. Watch closely for tight hole on connections, or trips.
4. When starting the pump, it is important that the annular flow is not restricted, as this
may result in induced fractures to the formation.
5. Any signs of hole instability, mud up immediately.
Additions of Envirofloc and Gypsum should be discontinued ±50 metres prior to mud up depth.
Additions of flocculant should be discontinued ±20-30 metres prior to mud up depth. Clear fluid
from the circulating sump may be used for mud up after treating the Calcium content to <
40 mg/L with additions of Soda Ash as required. Try to reduce as much volume in the sump as
possible.
If excessive torque, drag or tight hole becomes a problem while clear water drilling, the hole may
be “slugged” with a high viscosity pill of prehydrated Bentonite. This will ascertain if hole cleaning
is the problem. If a hole cleaning problem is apparent, begin mud up procedures immediately.
2.3 GEL CHEMICAL SYSTEMS Return to Table of Contents
Gel Chemical mud systems are the most common systems used throughout Western Canada.
They provide good lifting capacity, favorable shear thinning characteristics, good fluid loss
control, and are economical for the operator.
Make Up:
1. For best results, the mud system should initially be free of all drilled solids. Ensure the mud
tanks are thoroughly cleaned before mudding up.
2. Fill the mud tanks ½ to ¾ full with fresh water, or water from the sump from the clear water
drilling section.
3. Water properties are important. Excessive Salt or hardness in the make up water will
interfere with the hydration of the Bentonite. Check the hardness of the make up water, and
lower the Calcium to < 40 mg/L with additions of Soda Ash. The salinity of the water should
also be checked, and noted if excessively high. The chlorides should be below 1000 mg/L
for optimum yield of Bentonite. If the make up water contains above 7000 mg/L of Chlorides,
it may be necessary to prehydrate Bentonite is fresh water.
4. Adjust the pH of the make up water to ± 9.5 with approximately 0.75-1.0 kg/m 3 of Caustic
Soda through the chemical barrel. Add the Caustic Soda to the make up water prior to
adding the Bentonite.
5. Add Bentonite through the hopper at 5-7 min’s/sx. The rate should be slow enough and
agitation vigorous enough, that “clogging”, balling, or waste of clay does not result. The
initial yield depends in part on the quality of the surface mixing equipment, but normally the
mud will thicken with time and agitation. As a rule of thumb, 60-70 kg/m 3 of Bentonite should
produce a mud with a funnel viscosity of approximately 38-42 sec/L.
6. A natural fluid loss of approximately 12.0-15.0 cm 3 should be obtained from the Bentonite
slurry. Normally, a fluid loss in this range is sufficient to begin drilling.
Maintenance:
1. The mud density should be maintained as low as formation pressures will permit. These
systems can be weighted up with additions of Barite or Calcium Carbonate if required.
2. The funnel viscosity should be maintained just high enough for effective hole cleaning with
additions of Bentonite as required.
3. The Plastic Viscosity (PV) will correlate with the solids content of the mud, and should be
maintained as low as possible with dilution, dumping, and maintaining effective use of the
solids control equipment.
4. Generally, the Yield Point (YP) will run approximately ½ that of the Plastic Viscosity in a
conventional Gel Chemical mud system. The Yield Point can be increased with further
additions of Bentonite, or a viscosifying Polymer such as Kelzan XCD Polymer if added hole
cleaning is needed.
5. Gel Chemical mud systems are not considered to be very corrosive in nature. To obtain the
maximum hydration from the Bentonite, the pH should be maintained between 9.0-10.0 with
additions of Caustic Soda as required. The Mf alkalinity should be approximately twice as
high as the Pf alkalinity. If there is a large disparity between the Pf and Mf alkalinity, a build
up of Carbonate and/or Bicarbonate ions may be indicated (refer to Section 4.5)
6. A fluid loss of 12.0-15.0 cm3 should be obtained naturally from the Bentonite slurry.
Normally as drilling progresses, and prior to entering the potential productive zones of
interest, the fluid loss is lowered to an approximate range of 6.0-10.0 cm 3 with additions of
Drispac or Staflo as required.
A concentration of 1.0-1.5 kg/m3 of Drispac or Staflo is generally added to lower the fluid loss
in this range. Small amounts of Lignite is commonly added along with the fluid loss additive
to aid in fluid loss control. Normally Drispac/Staflo and Lignite is added in a 1:1 ratio
respectively.
7. The Calcium content of the mud should be monitored and maintained less than 80 mg/L with
additions of Soda Ash as required. Care should be taken not to add too much Soda Ash in
order to minimize the Sodium Absorption Ratio (SAR) in the surrounding soil.
An overtreatment of Soda Ash should also be cautioned, as a excess Carbonate ion build up
may occur, thereby causing and increase in viscosity. If small amounts of Calcium are left in
the mud system, this problem will not occur.
8. In some areas of Western Canada, Salt may be encountered. Generally if less than 5000
mg/L Salt is encountered, Bentonite can still be added directly into the active system without
the yield or hydration being inhibited. If the Salt concentration exceeds ±5000 mg/L, a
separate premix tank independent of the active mud system will be required to prehydrate
the Bentonite in fresh water prior to adding to the active system.
9. Fresh additions of Bentonite should be made every tour, along with a good stream of water
so that the mud does not become dehydrated. The Methylene Blue Test (MBT) should be
checked regularly to determine the amount of Bentonite in the active system.
10. For an unweighted (no Barite) Gel Chemical system, the volume fraction of solids is
calculated as follows:
Volume Fraction of Solids (% Solids) = [(Mud Weight, kg/m 3 / 1000) – 1] X 0.625
or
Volume Fraction of Solids (% Solids) = (Mud Weight, kg/m3 – 1000) X 0.00064
For a weighted mud system containing Barite, the volume fraction of solids is calculated from
the retort.
11. All available solids control equipment should be utilized to maximum capacity. Any further
decrease in density should be done by dilution.
2.4 DISPERSED GEL CHEMICAL SYSTEMS Return to Table of Contents
Dispersed Gel Chemical mud systems are utilized in Western Canada primarily when drilling
contaminants such as massive Anhydrite or Salt sections are encountered. They are an
excellent systems to use in the deeper foothill wells of Western Canada, where higher
temperatures and pressures can occur.
Lignosulfonate dispersants were first used in Calcium base muds to control the Yield Point and
Gel Strengths. The Lignosulfonates are primarily used as a viscosity reducing agent. The
Lignosulfonates may be treated with a range of metal ions to confer slightly different properties.
Calcium Lignosulfonates were the earliest to be used. Chrome and Ferrochrome
Lingnosulfonates were developed to be more powerful thinners (dispersants) with extended
temperature stability. In more recent times, the environmental effects of Chrome has led to the
use of Chrome Free Lignosulfonates, such as Peltex or Pelthinz, which lack some of the
temperature stability of the Chrome materials. Other dispersants, such as Desco CF and
Alcomer 74 have replaced Peltex as the primary thinner(s) in dispersed muds. On the deeper
hotter holes, Lignite is also often used in conjunction with the primary dispersants to aid in
dispersion, fluid loss control, and temperature stability.
It is believed that dispersants attach onto clay particles by valence attraction of the broken edge,
thereby reducing the attractive forces between the particles. This phenomenon accounts for the
dispersants ability to reduce and control the viscosity and Gel Strengths.
Dispersed systems, depending upon the concentration of dispersants used, are often called
dispersed or fully dispersed systems. The term “dispersed” in this sense has grown up through
common usage, but is strictly incorrect as it is used to cover the deflocculating properties of
dispersants. Dispersants actually have an inhibiting effect on true dispersion, which is the
separation of the individual clay plates from the aggregated state.
Treatments with Peltex, Pelthinz, Desco CF, Alcomer 74 and/or Lignite provide excellent
rheology control, as well as borehole stability. They also aid in fluid loss control, and are
generally stable at temperatures to 150+ Celsius.
Conversion:
1. Dispersed Gel Chemical mud systems are very flexible. Normally treatments of dispersants
are made to existing Gel Chemical muds prior to entering an expected contaminant such as
massive Anhydrite or Salt. They may also be added on the deeper wells where
temperatures and pressures are increasing. The thinners are added to a concentration
where the mud becomes fully dispersed.
2. Treatments may be altered to meet a variable mud property requirements. The required level
of dispersion will depend upon many factors, such as the amount of contaminant expected,
the type of contaminant encountered, the amount of solids in the mud system, the bottom
hole temperature, pH of the fluid, etc. The mud program will normally have an indication of
the amount and type of dispersant(s) required.
3. Treatment levels may be as follows:
a. 2.0-6.0 kg/m3 for initial deflocculation
b. 10.0-20.0 kg/m3 for inhibition and increased fluid loss control
c. 20.0-30.0 kg/m3 for inhibition at higher temperature when the increased temperature has
a dispersing effect on the clay particles. These concentrations are also needed for HT-
HP fluid loss control.
These concentrations will vary depending upon the products used. It will take less Desco CF
and Alcomer 74 than it would for Peltex or Pelthinz for the same level of dispersion. It is
common to use a combination of these products when dispersing a mud system.
For example:
a. Desco CF and Lignite is used in a 1:2 ratio respectively.

b. Desco CF and Alcomer 74 are used in a 2:1 ratio respectively.
c. Peltex/Pelthinz and Lignite used in a 1:2 ratio respectively.
4. Peltex Lignosulfonate and Lignite are acidic in nature with a pH of approximately 4.0. They
work more effectively in a pH range of 9.5-10.5. If these products are being used to disperse
a mud system, the pH should be increased to these levels to ensure their effectiveness. If
required, Peltex/Lignite and Caustic Soda can be mixed together through the chemical
barrel.
5. Some foaming may be encountered when adding Lignosulfonate. A stockpile of a defoamer
should be on location in the event it may be required.
6. While the dispersants are being added, additions of Bentonite will have to be made to
ensure the viscosity and Yield Point are maintained high enough for effective hole cleaning,
and to suspend Barite if applicable.
Maintenance:
1. The funnel viscosity should be maintained as required with daily additions of Bentonite. The
Plastic Viscosity will tend to run somewhat higher than a conventional Gel Chemical mud
system. The PV should be maintained as low as possible.
2. The Yield Point and Gel Strengths will run lower than a Gel Chemical mud, but should be
maintained high enough to ensure effective hole cleaning, and to suspend the drilled cuttings
and/or Barite when the pumps are shut off.
3. Daily additions of dispersant will be required, but will vary depending upon hole size, amount
of contaminant encountered, mud density, solids content, and the desire properties.
4. Alkalinity greatly affects the performance of Peltex / Pelthinz and/or Lignite. An optimum pH
of 9.5-10.5 should be maintained, and more importantly, the Pf alkalinity should be
maintained between 0.3-0.7. Conversely, the pH can become greater than 10.5 with few
immediate adverse effects. The foaming tendency is mud reduced when the pH is in the
correct range. Lignosulfonates need free Hydroxide ions in order to work satisfactorily.
Lignosulfonates and Lignite have a pH of 3-4 in an aqueous solution, so it is normal practice

to add Caustic Soda along with any Lignosulfonate. A ratio of 4 sacks of Lignosulfonate to 1
sack of Caustic Soda is approximately correct to balance pH movement.
5. The fluid loss of a dispersed mud system will generally run lower than that of a conventional
Gel Chemical system where massive anhydrite is being treated out with Soda Ash alone.
This is one of the main advantages of dispersing a mud system through an anhydrite
section. The fluid loss will remain much more stable, and therefore minimize any chance of
differential sticking, tight hole, etc.
Fluid loss is normally controlled with conventional fluid loss additives such as Drispac or
Staflo. Additions of Lignite added in conjunction with Desco CF, Peltex or Pelthinz will also
aid in fluid loss control.
6. If a Gel Chemical mud system is dispersed adequately, and the solids concentration is not
too excessive, drilling through massive anhydrite sections will not appreciably affect the flow
properties.
While drilling through massive anhydrite sections, the pH of the system may be controlled
with additions of Lime rather than Caustic Soda. This will minimize the amount of SAR
(Sodium Absorption Ratio) from an excessive amount of Caustic Soda being added to the
mud system.
7. Dispersed muds, if treated with sufficient concentrations, are able to tolerate Salt
contamination up to ± 80 kg/m3, and still retain control over rheology and fluid loss.
2.5 POTASSIUM BASED MUD SYSTEMS Return to Table of Contents
Potassium based fluids are usually employed for drilling clay/shale formations, both in
exploration and production wells. These fluids are inhibitive systems that are used for controlling
reactive formations. In shales containing clay mineral sequences, there is a powerful hydrational
interaction with water. This hydration of the formation creates stresses internally in the rock
being drilled, leading to borehole instability. The Potassium based mud systems have been
designed to combat this effect.
Clays are composed of layers of hydrated Silica, Magnesia, or Alumina, which are oriented in
different ways to form the basic clay mineral of Montmorillonite, Kaolinite, Mica, and Chlorite.
This alignment creates charged sites on the edges and faces of these minerals that have an
affinity for water, thus a water layer will exist between the mineral sheets. The expansion or
hydration potential of the different clay minerals is dependent upon salinity, and the type of ions
present at the charged sites within the clay minerals.
The primary shale inhibition is achieved by the substitution of cations in the clays (Sodium,
Calcium, and Magnesium) with Potassium ions from the drilling fluid. The Potassium ion is
small, and highly charged, and will readily cation exchange to form a clay with a minimum
potential for expansion. Additions of PAC and PHPA Polymers provide secondary inhibition
through encapsulation; forming a Polymeric barrier against migration of water into the matrix of
the rock being drilled.
The Potassium based mud systems will be more inhibitive than the Calcium or Ammonium
based mud systems, and are normally run non-dispersed. The pH is also normally kept low (8.0-
9.0) to minimize the clay hydration promoted by Hydroxyl ions.
The following table shows the various Potassium salts that can be used for inhibition. Of these,
only the Carbonate, Phosphate, Nitrate, Sulfate, and Acetate salts of Potassium can provide
enough Potassium to be equivalent to 3% KCl by weight. The Carbonate and Sulfate salts are
about twice the cost of KCl. The Nitrate, Phosphate, and Acetate salts are five to seven times
the price of KCl. Of these salts, Potassium Sulfate appears to be the most cost effective
substitute for KCl. A 3.5% solution of Potassium Sulfate (K 2SO4) is equivalent in Potassium to a
3% KCl solution.
SUMMARY OF POTASSIUM ION SOURCES
Name Formula % K+ Ion in Maximum pH of Comments on

the Molecule mg/L of K+ in Solution Usage
Solution
Potassium KCl 52% 135000 7 Environmental
Chloride Concern
(Chlorides)
Potassium KOH 70% 4000 8-12 Add only to control
Hydroxide pH
Potassium K-Lignite ±1% 10000 ±11 Supplemental K+
Lignite Source
Potassium K – PHPA ±1% 2500 ±10 Supplemental K+
PHPA Source
Potassium K2CO3 57% 280000 11.5 CO3 ions can
Carbonate thicken clay base
muds and
precipitation of Ca+
+
can restrict
production
Potassium KH2PO4 30% 53000 4.6 Precipitation of Ca+
Phosphate K2HPO4 45% 269000 8.5 +
can restrict
(three) K3PO4 55% 282000 12 production
Potassium KNO3 39% 100000 7 Dry KNO3 forms an
Nitrate explosive with
hydrocarbons
Potassium K2SO4 45% 45000 7 Precipitation of Ca+
Sulfate +
can restrict
production
Potassium KCOOCH3 40% 260000 10 Costly
Acetate
2.5.1 POTASSIUM CHLORIDE (KCl) MUDS Return to Table of Contents
Potassium Chloride (KCl) muds are a special class of Salt muds, in that the Potassium (K +) ion is
utilized as the principal inhibiting ion. That is at a certain concentration, the Potassium ion will
base exchange with the Sodium ion in Smectite clay, thereby minimizing the amount of swelling
from the clay. Potassium ion concentrations generally range from 3.0-5.0% by weight for shale
stabilization throughout Western Canada.
With today’s environmental concerns regarding the use of salt base fluids, the use of KCl muds
have been severely restricted in Canada. With the costs associated to clean up a sump that
contains KCl, it has made these systems almost cost prohibitive to use.
Make Up:
1. For best results, the system should be free of all drilled solids. Dump and clean the mud
tanks and rebuild volume with water.
If KCl was used for the upper flocculated water portion of the hole, then utilize as much
clear sump water as possible to fill the tanks. Fill the tanks ± ¾ full with water.
2. Add approximately 1.0-1.5 kg/m3 of Caustic Soda or Caustic Potash (KOH) through the
chemical barrel to increase the pH of the water to ± 9.5-10.0. Caustic Potash (Potassium
Hydroxide) has the advantage of providing an extra source of Potassium ions for added
inhibition.
3. Add the required amount of KCl (Potash) through the hopper to bring the Potassium
concentration to the desired level. Generally a minimum concentration of 30 kg/m 3 (3% by
weight) will be required. On the initial premix, a concentration of 40 kg/m 3 (4% by weight) is
recommended in the make up water. Once the fluid is displaced from the hole, and
additional volume is build, the end concentration should be in the 3% by weight range.
4. Some foaming may occur but should easily be controlled with small additions of a Defoamer
as required. A stockpile of Defoamer should be on location in the event it may be required.
5. Normally a PHPA Polymer such as Alcomer 110RD or Alcomer 60RD is added for shale
encapsulation. A concentration of 1.5-2.0 kg/m 3 is normally sufficient for added inhibition
from these Polymers.
6. Then add approximately 3.0-4.0 kg/m3 of a fluid loss reducing Polymer such as Drispac or
Staflo through the hopper. All Polymers should be mixed slowly through the hopper at a
minimum rate of ± 25-30 min.’s/sx.
7. KCl muds being a Salt, can be corrosive in nature. Corrosion rings should be installed and
monitored with these types of mud systems. Maintaining a pH of 9.5-10.0 will minimize
corrosion levels, but will not eliminate it.
An oxygen scavenger such as Corinox, KD-40 or Sodium Sulfite is normally added to control
corrosion levels to an acceptable level with the KCl systems. Corinox and KD-40 are unique
dual purpose corrosion prevention chemical mixtures in a liquid form. It has the ability to
scavenge dissolved Oxygen effectively, as well the capability to absorb onto active corrosion
sites (anodes) on drill pipe, casing, and tubing in water base muds.
Under normal conditions for a corrosion level of about 25 mils per year (25 mpy), initially one
(20L) pail of Corinox per 16 m3 of fluid is added.
If Sodium Sulfite is being used as on Oxygen scavenger, it is added continually until the
residual Sulfite (SO3) concentration in the mud filtrate reaches or exceeds 300 mg/L.
8. If Bentonite is to be used for viscosity and supplemental fluid loss control, then prehydrate
approximately 70-90 kg/m3 of Gel if fresh water in a separate premix tank independent of the
rig’s active system. Let this system hydrate as long as possible to achieve full hydration of
the Bentonite; i.e.: at least 30 minutes in warm water, and at least 60 minutes in cold water.
9. At mud up depth, displace the exiting fluid from the hole with the KCl Polymer water. While
displacing, build volume and viscosity by slowly transferring over the prehydrated Bentonite
to the active system over a circulation.
Maintenance:
1. The mud density should be maintained as low as formation pressures will allow. If an
increase in density is required, generally Barite is used.
For an unweighted KCl Polymer system, all solids control removal equipment should be run
continuously using the finest possible screens on the shale shakers. If a centrifuge is
available, it should be big enough to process the circulating volume of the active system.
2. The viscosity should be maintained just high enough for effective hole cleaning. This is
normally achieved with additions of prehydrated Bentonite. The MBT (Methylene Blue Test)
should be monitored, and maintained at approximately 30-40 kg/m 3 in the active system for
viscosity control. Additions of prehydrated Bentonite will also aid in fluid loss control by
building a filter cake.
The viscosity in the KCl systems is also normally supplemented with additions of Kelzan
XCD Polymer. XCD Polymer is an excellent product for increasing the Yield Point and “low
end” rheology of these mud systems. Normal concentrations: 1.5-2.0 kg/m 3.
If the viscosity has to be reduced, dispersants such as Desco CF or Alcomer 74 may be

added as required. Both products work very well in the KCl Polymer systems.
3. The Plastic Viscosity (PV) of the mud will correlate to the solids make up of the mud system,
and should be kept as low as possible with dilution, and the effective solids control
equipment on the rig.
Because of the semi-flocculated nature of a KCl system, effective solids control

equipment is vital. High speed linear motion shale shakers, and high volume
centrifuge(s) are highly recommended with these types of muds.
4. Because of the semi-flocculated nature of the system, the Yield Point (YP) of a KCl mud will
normally run higher than that of a conventional Gel Chemical system.
The Gel Strengths will also be higher, but are generally flat and fragile.
Kelzan XCD Polymer is an excellent product for increasing the YP or initial Gel Strength if
added hole cleaning is required.
5. The pH of the mud system will be determined by the mud program. Maintaining a high pH
will reduce the corrosion of the system, but will also enhance the hydration of swelling clays.
If an increase if pH is programmed, then control in the desired range with additions of

Caustic Soda (NaOH) or Caustic Potash (KOH) as required.
6. The natural fluid loss of a KCl system will be very high because of the semi-flocculated
nature of the system; i.e.: 50-70+ cm 3. However, the filtrate contains both KCl and PHPA
Polymer, and thus protects against the hydration of water sensitive clays or shales.
In order to minimize the possibility of differential sticking though, and to minimize the overall
amount of water going into the potential productive zone(s), the fluid loss is generally
lowered to the 8.0-12.0 cm 3 range with additions of Drispac or Staflo as required. This will
require more fluid loss Polymer than with conventional Gel Chemical mud systems.
Generally a concentration of 3.0-4.0 kg/m 3 of Drispac should be sufficient to lower the fluid
loss to the desired range.
Generally Drispac SuperLo or Staflo ExLo is used to control the fluid loss. If an increase in
viscosity is required with a reduction in fluid loss, then utilize Drispac Regular or Staflo
Regular.
7. For maximum inhibition from the fluid, the concentration of PHPA Polymer should be
monitored and maintained in a range of 1.5-2.0 kg/m 3. Monitor the concentration closely to
ensure there is always an excess in the filtrate.
8. As drilling progresses, daily additions of KCl will have to be made to ensure the Potassium
ion does not fall below 3% by weight (30 kg/m 3), or as outlined in the mud program. The
Potassium ion should be monitored closely.
9. Corrosion rings should be installed and monitored while drilling with a KCl system. The
corrosion level should be controlled as outlined by the drilling program with an Oxygen
scavenger such as Corinox, KD-40 or Sodium Sulfite as required.
PROPERTIES OF KCl SOLUTIONS (at 20 C)
% KCl Density KCl KCl K+ Cl- Final Freezing

(kg/m3) (kg/m3) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) Volume Point
Factor ( C)
1 1006 11.4 10050 5271 4779 1.004 0
2 1013 20.0 20220 10605 9615 1.008 -1
4 1026 39.9 40960 21482 19478 1.016 -2
6 1039 62.8 62210 32627 29583 1.024 -3
8 1052 82.8 84000 44056 39945 1.033 -4
10 1065 105.6 106300 55752 50548 1.043 -5
12 1079 128.4 129200 67762 61439 1.053 -6
14 1093 154.1 152700 80087 72613 1.064 -7
16 1106 176.9 176700 92674 84026 1.076 -8
18 1120 202.6 201300 105576 95724 1.088 -9
20 1135 225.4 226600 118845 107755 1.102 -10
22 1149 251.1 252400 132376 120024 1.115 0
24 1160 279.6 279000 146327 132673 1.028 13
Note:
 KCl: 1.984 SG
 KCl Required (kg/m3) = 1.91 X Potassium Ion (mg/L)

1000
 1 kilogram of KCl occupies 0.411 of volume in water

2.5.2 POTASSIUM SULFATE (K2SO4) MUDS Return to Table of Contents
Potassium Sulfate (K2SO4) muds are similar to the KCl muds in that the Potassium (K +) ion is still
utilized as the principal inhibiting ion, but does not contain any Chloride ions which make the
system much more environmentally friendly.
The Potassium ion will base exchange with the Sodium ion in Smectite clay, thereby minimizing
the amount of swelling from the clay. Potassium ion concentrations generally range from 3.5-
5.0% by weight for shale stabilization throughout Western Canada with these systems.
Make Up:
2. If Potassium Sulfate was used for the upper flocculated water portion of the hole, then utilize
as much clear sump water as possible to fill the tanks. Fill the tanks ± ¾ full with water.
3. Add approximately 1.0-1.5 kg/m3 of Caustic Soda or Lime through the chemical barrel to
increase the pH of the water to ± 9.5-10.0. Lime is much cheaper than Caustic Soda and
will not affect the rheology of the mud system.
4. Add the required amount of K 2SO4 (Potassium Sulfate) through the hopper to bring the
Potassium concentration to the desired level. Generally a minimum concentration of 35-40
kg/m3 (3.5-4.0% by weight) will be required. On the initial premix, a concentration of 45-50
kg/m3 (4½-5% by weight) is recommended in the make up water. Once the fluid is displaced
from the hole, and additional volume is build, the end concentration should be in the 3.5-
4.0% by weight range. The Potassium ion concentration should be no lower than 16000
mg/L.
5. Some foaming may occur but should easily be controlled with small additions of a Defoamer.
A stockpile of Defoamer should be on location in the event it may be required.
7. Then add approximately 1.5-2.0 kg/m3 of Kelzan XCD for primary viscosity control. The
Potassium Sulfate systems are normally run clay free; i.e.: no Bentonite in the mud system.
8. After the Kelzan XCD has been mixed, fluid loss reducing Polymers should then be added.
For these systems, Drispac and Starpak DP are normally mixed together in a 1:3 ratio
respectively. Concentrations of ±3.0 kg/m 3 of Drispac Regular and ±9.0-10.0 kg/m 3 of
Starpak DP are normally mixed for an initial concentration. All Polymers should be mixed
slowly through the hopper at a rate of ± 25-30 min.’s/sx.
9. Potassium Sulfate muds also being a Salt, can be corrosive in nature. Corrosion rings
should be installed and monitored with these types of mud systems. Maintaining a pH of
9.5-10.0+ will minimize corrosion levels, but will not eliminate it.
An oxygen scavenger such as Corinox, KD-40 or Sodium Sulfite is normally added to control
corrosion levels to an acceptable level with the K 2SO4 systems. Corinox is an unique dual
purpose corrosion prevention chemical mixture in a liquid form. It has the ability to scavenge
dissolved Oxygen effectively, as well the capability to absorb onto active corrosion sites
(anodes) on drill pipe, casing, and tubing in water base muds.
Maintenance:
increase in density is required, generally Barite or Calcium Carbonate is used. Calcium
Carbonate is recommended for use when drilling into a potential pay zone, as it is acid
soluble.
For an unweighted Potassium Sulfate system, all solids control removal equipment should
be run continuously using the finest possible screens on the shale shakers. If a centrifuge is
normally achieved with additions Kelzan XCD Polymer only. Normal concentrations: 1.5-2.0
kg/m3.
3. If the viscosity has to be reduced, dispersants such as Desco CF or Alcomer 74 may be
added as required. In a clay free environment, dilution with water is required to reduce the
viscosity. Both products work very well in the K2SO4 Polymer systems.
As with the KCl systems, effective solids control equipment is vital. High speed linear
motion shale shakers, and high volume centrifuge(s) are highly recommended with
these types of muds.
5. Because of the Polymer nature of the system, the Yield Point (YP) of a Potassium Sulfate
mud will normally run higher than that of a conventional Gel Chemical system.
6. The pH of the mud system will be determined by the mud program. Maintaining a high pH
will reduce the corrosion of the system, but will also enhance the hydration of swelling clays.

Caustic Soda or Lime.
7. In order to minimize the possibility of differential sticking, and to minimize the overall amount
of water going into the potential productive zone(s), the fluid loss is generally lowered to the
6.0-8.0 cm3 range with additions of Drispac and Starpak DP as required.
Drispac and Starpak DP is normally added in a 1:3 ratio respectively.
Drispac Regular is also normally added in these systems to supplement the viscosity. If a
decrease in fluid loss is required, without any additional viscosity increase, then utilize
Drispac SuperLo.
8. Note: If a neutral pH has been a programmed, or if the fluid is sitting static for an
extended period of time; i.e.: testing, logging, etc., the Polymers in this system may
begin to ferment.
If the fluid begins to smell, a bactericide will be required. A common bactericide that
can be “de-activated” at the end of the well without environmental repercussions is T-
352 Glutaraldehyde.
The recommended treatment is dependent on the severity of the bacterial
contamination. As a pretreatment, add 0.1-0.5 litres/m 3 to the mud system and
monitor with microbial dipslildes. For combating contaminated fluids, add 0.5-2.0
litres/m3 per treatment until bacterial control is achieved
9. As drilling progresses, daily additions of Potassium Sulfate will have to be made to ensure
the Potassium ion does not fall below 16000 mg/L (35-40 kg/m 3), or as outlined in the mud
program. The Potassium ion should be monitored closely.
10. Corrosion rings should be installed and monitored while drilling with a K 2SO4 system. The
corrosion level should be controlled as outlined by the drilling program with an Oxygen
scavenger such as Corinox, KD-40 or Sodium Sulfite as required.
PROPERTIES OF POTASSIUM SULFATE (K2SO4) SOLUTIONS
% K2SO4 Density K2SO4 K+ SO4-2 Final Freezing

(kg/m3) (kg/m3) (mg/L) (mg/L) Volume Point
Factor ( C)
1.0 1008 10.0 4532 5568 1.004 -0.28
1.5 1012 15.1 6821 8379 1.005 -0.06
2.0 1016 20.2 9110 11190 1.006 -0.05
2.5 1020 25.4 11443 14057 1.007 -0.06
3.0 1024 30.5 13776 16924 1.008 -0.06
3.5 1028 36.0 16110 19790 1.009 -0.11
4.0 1032 41.5 18488 22712 1.011 -0.11
4.5 1037 46.5 20911 25689 1.012 -1.06
5.0 1041 52.0 23920 28610 1.013 -1.17
5.5 1045 57.3 25758 31642 1.014 -
6.0 1049 62.7 28181 34619 1.016 -
6.5 1053 68.1 30649 37651 1.017 -
7.0 1057 73.8 33162 40738 1.019 -
7.5 1061 79.2 35675 43825 1.020 -
8.0 1066 84.9 381888 46912 1.021 -
8.5 1070 90.6 40746 50054 1.023 -
9.0 1074 96.3 43304 53196 1.024 -
9.5 1078 102.0 45907 56393 1.026 -
10.0 1083 107.8 48509 59591 1.027 -
2.6 AMMONIUM SULFATE MUD SYSTEMS Return to Table of Contents
Ammonium based mud systems are similar to the KCl base muds, except that the Ammonium
ion (NH4) is utilized as the principal inhibiting ion.
The most common Ammonium base mud system run in Western Canada today is the
Ammonium Sulfate system. The Ammonium Sulfate mud is more environmentally friendly than
the KCl systems because it does not contain any Chlorides.
Ammonium Sulfate based mud systems are a little more difficult to control than a Potassium
based mud. The NH4 ion is slightly larger that the K + ion, therefore it is harder to base exchange
with the Sodium ion in the Smectite clay. This will result in a little more flocculation than the
Potassium base systems, until the Sodium ions have all based exchanged with the NH 4 ions.
Once the Sodium ion has been replaced by the Ammonium ion, it fits into the lattice structure
very snuggly, and is very difficult to remove.
Make Up:
1. For best results, the system should initially be free of all drilled solids. Dump and clean the
mud tanks. Rebuild ± ¾ full with fresh water.
If Ammonium Sulfate has been used for the clear water (flocculated) drilling section of the
hole, then fill the mud tanks with clear sump water. Ensure the fluid is taken from the
suction side of the sump, and is free of any drilled solids.
2. Add the required amount of Ammonium Sulfate through the hopper to bring the Ammonium
content up to the desired level.
3. Generally a minimum concentration of 3% by weight, or 30 kg/m 3 of Ammonium Sulfate is
sufficient to inhibit most Bentonitic shales in Western Canada. On the initial make up, it is
sometimes recommended to increase the concentration to 4% by weight (40 kg/m 3). When
the fluid is displaced to the hole at mud up depth and volume is built, the final concentration
will end up at the desired 30 kg/m3 with dilution.
4. Then add approximately 3.0-4.0 kg/m 3 of Drispac SL or Staflo Exlo for fluid loss control. Mix
the fluid loss additives slowly through the hopper; i.e.: 25-30 min’s/sack.
5. In a separate premix tank independent of the rig tank(s), prehydrate approximately 70-90
kg/m3 of Bentonite in fresh water, free of any Calcium. Let this slurry hydrate as long as
possible.
6. At mud up depth, displace the Ammonium Sulfate Polymer slurry to the hole. While
displacing, slowly add over the prehydrated Bentonite slurry to build volume, and increase
the viscosity. Discard the previous fluid from the hole to the sump, or a buried tank, etc.
7. A neutral pH must be maintained with the Ammonium Sulfate mud system. Increasing
the pH above 8.0 will liberate Ammonia gas and make it very unpleasant and unsafe to
work around the mud tanks.
Any cement that has to be drilled out, should be done with fresh water prior to
displacing the hole to an Ammonium Sulfate mud system.
8. Ammonium Sulfate muds in nature are not as corrosive as the KCl or Salt base mud
systems. Being a fertilizer though, Ammonium Sulfate can be somewhat corrosive.
Corrosion rings should be installed and monitored with these types of mud systems.
If required, an oxygen scavenger such as Corinox, KD-40 or Sodium Sulfite may be added to
control corrosion levels to an acceptable level with the Ammonium Sulfate systems. Corinox
is a unique dual-purpose corrosion prevention chemical mixture in a liquid form. It has the
ability to scavenge dissolved Oxygen effectively, as well the capability to absorb onto active
corrosion sites (anodes) on drill pipe, casing, and tubing in water base muds.
Maintenance:
increase in density is required, generally Barite or Calcium Carbonate is used. Calcium
Carbonate is recommended for use when drilling into a potential pay zone, as it is acid
soluble. For an unweighted Ammonium Sulfate system, all solids control removal equipment
should be run continuously using the finest possible screens on the shale shakers. If a
centrifuge is available, the centrifuge should be big enough to process the circulating volume
of the active system.
3. The viscosity in the Ammonium Sulfate systems can also be supplemented with additions of
Kelzan XCD Polymer. XCD Polymer is an excellent product for increasing the Yield Point
and “low end” rheology of these mud systems. Normal concentrations: 1.5-2.0 kg/m 3.

added as required. Both products work very well in the Ammonium Sulfate systems.
Because of the semi-flocculated nature of an Ammonium based system, effective

solids control equipment is vital. High speed linear motion shale shakers, and high
volume centrifuge(s) are highly recommended with these types of muds.
5. Because of the semi-flocculated nature of the system, the Yield Point (YP) of an Ammonium
Sulfate mud will normally run higher than that of a conventional Gel Chemical system.
6. The pH of the mud system should remain neutral. Maintaining a high pH will liberate
Ammonia gas.
7. The natural fluid loss of an Ammonium Sulfate will be very high because of the semi-
flocculated nature of the system; i.e.: 50-70+ cm3.
In order to minimize the possibility of differential sticking, and to minimize the overall amount
8.0-12.0 cm3 range with additions of Drispac or Staflo. This will require more fluid loss
Polymer than with conventional Gel Chemical mud systems. Generally a concentration of
3.0-4.0 kg/m3 of Drispac should be sufficient to lower the fluid loss to the desired range.
Generally Drispac SuperLo or Staflo ExLo is used to control the fluid loss. If an increase in
viscosity is required with a reduction in fluid loss, then utilize Drispac Regular or Staflo
Regular.
8. As drilling progresses, daily additions of Ammonium Sulfate will have to be made to ensure
the concentration does not fall below 3% by weight (30 kg/m 3), or as outlined in the mud
program.
9. Corrosion rings should be installed and monitored while drilling with an Ammonium Sulfate
system. The corrosion level should be controlled as outlined by the drilling program with an
Oxygen scavenger such as Corinox, KD-40 or Sodium Sulfite.
2.7 GYP MUD SYSTEMS Return to Table of Contents
GYP muds are used primarily to drill massive and soluble sections of anhydrite.
Gypsum is an environmentally friendly product that does not cause any major problems with
today’s environmental regulations.
GYP muds are also inhibitive in nature, in that the Calcium ion will base exchange with the
Sodium ion in Smectite (Bentonitic) clays, and thereby cause dehydration or inhibition of the
Bentonitic clay particle.
It is not a very good inhibiting ion though, because the Calcium ion is quite large, and is hard to
get it to replace the Sodium ion in the available lattice space of the Smectite clay. It takes quite
a long time for the base exchange to take place, and being a divalent ion, the degree of
flocculation can be quite severe.
Make Up:
Two situations normally occur when making up a GYP mud system.
1. The first situation occurs when anhydrite is not predicted but encountered, or if only stringers
of anhydrite are encountered while drilling with a conventional Gel Chemical system.
2. When this situation occurs, the Gel mud becomes flocculated because of the Calcium
contamination from the anhydrite. Anhydrite or soluble Calcium is not treated out with Soda
Ash, but rather allowed to climb in the Gel Chemical system. This process is normally
called “Gypping” the mud over.
Adjustments will have to be made to the Gel base mud. The degree of contamination or
flocculation will depend upon the amount of anhydrite drilled, and the amount and type of
solids in the mud system.
3. When anhydrite is encountered with a Gel base mud system, a marked increase in funnel
viscosity, Yield Point, Gel Strengths, fluid loss, and Calcium content occur. A decrease in
pH should also be noted.
4. Additions of Desco CF and/or Alcomer 74 will be required to control the flocculation.
Normally Desco and Alcomer 74 are added in a 2:1 ratio respectively. The amount of
dispersion required will depend upon the amount of anhydrite drilled, and the solids content
of the mud.
5. As anhydrite is drilled, more soluble Calcium will be introduced in the mud system. Do not
treat out any Calcium with Soda Ash. Let as much soluble Calcium enter the mud system
naturally.
6. Generally about 400 mg/L of soluble Calcium will be required to “GYP” over the mud system.
The lower the pH, the Calcium will go into solution and vice-versa. Calcium is insoluble
above a pH of 10.6.
1. The second solution occurs when the anhydrite section is predicted or known about. The
system is ‘Gypped” over by physically added Gypsum prior to penetrating the anhydrite
formation. This will ensure that enough Calcium is in the mud system prior to penetrating
the zone, and therefore no contamination should occur while drilling the anhydrite.
2. Prior to penetrating the anhydrite formation, slowly add approximately 15.0-17.0 kg/m 3 of
Gypsum to an existing Gel Chem. system.
dispersion required will depend upon the amount of soluble Calcium desired, and the solids
content of the mud.
4. Because Gypsum (CaSO4.2H20) has a water molecule attached to it, it will require a
good stream of water to be added to the active system while adding the Gypsum.
5. After the system has been “Gypped” over, maintain the pH in the desired range with
additions of Lime, rather than Caustic Soda. Lime Ca(OH) 2 will have the added advantage of
an additional Calcium source rather than Caustic Soda (NaOH).
6. Add Drispac/Staflo and Starpak DP for fluid loss control.
The Polyanionic Cellulose fluid loss Polymers such as Drispac or Staflo are affected by the
amount of soluble Calcium in the mud system. The higher the Calcium content of the mud,
the more of these additives will be required.
Starpak DP is a much more effective fluid loss additive in Calcium base muds. Therefore
normally Drispac or Staflo, and Starkpak DP is added in a 1:3 ratio respectively.
7. Adding Bentonite direct to the active system with a high amount of Calcium will severely limit
the hydration of the Bentonite. Therefore a separate premix tank, independent of the active
mud tank(s) will be required to prehydrate the Bentonite in fresh water, prior to adding to the
active system.
In a separate premix tank, prehydrate approximately 70-90 kg/m 3 of Bentonite in fresh water.
Let this slurry hydrate for as long as possible prior to adding to the active system.
Maintenance:
increase in density is required, generally Barite is used.
For an unweighted GYP system, all solids control removal equipment should be run
available, the centrifuge should be big enough to process the circulating volume of the active
system.
3. The viscosity in the GYP systems can also be supplemented with additions of Kelzan XCD
Polymer, but generally is not recommended as the primary viscosifier.

added as required. Both products work well in the GYP systems.
Because of the semi-flocculated nature of a GYP based system, effective solids

control equipment is vital. High speed linear motion shale shakers, and high volume
centrifuge(s) are highly recommended with these types of muds.
5. Because of the semi-flocculated nature of the system, the Yield Point (YP) of a GYP mud will
7. Generally the pH of the system is maintained in the 8.5-9.5 range with Lime only. The
higher the pH, the less soluble Calcium becomes. Generally the Calcium content of the
mud should run between 400-600 mg/L.
8. The fluid loss is normally run in the 6.0-10.0 cm 3 range with Drispac/Staflo and Starpak DP
in a 1:3 ratio respectively.
Normal concentrations:
Drispac SL or Staflo Exlo: 3.0-4.0 kg/m3

Starpak DP: 9.0-12.0 kg/m3
9. Daily additions of Gypsum will be required while drilling through the anhydrite section to
maintain the excess Calcium in the 400-600 mg/L range.
2.8 SALTWATER MUD SYSTEMS Return to Table of Contents
Saltwater muds are used primarily in areas where Salt stringers, or massive Salt sections are
drilled. Also if a Salt water flow is encountered, it may be necessary to convert an existing fresh
water mud system to a Saltwater mud in order to minimize any contamination.
Saltwater mud systems are not commonly utilized throughout Western Canada because of the
environmental problems disposing of a high Chloride system. In some cases though, they have
to be run because of drilling massive Salt sections. If a Salt mud is utilized today, the mud or
sump fluids at the end of the well are generally hauled away and pumped down a disposal well.
Salt can be encountered throughout Western Canada in the Middle to Lower Devonian
formations in S.E. Saskatchewan, Central Alberta, and the Northern area of Alberta. For
example, the Prairie Evaporite contains massive Salt in the Estevan, Sask. area. Also the
Wabamun Formation around the Drumheller, Clive, or Bashaw areas of Central Alberta may
contain Salt throughout the anhydrite/evaporite sections. The Muskeg Formation in the Trout,
Kidney or Senex areas of Northern Alberta is usually massive Salt.
Make Up:
Two situations may occur when making up a Saltwater mud system.
1. The first situation occurs when Salt is not predicted but encountered, or if only stringers of
Salt are encountered while drilling with a conventional Gel Chemical system. If Salt is
encountered, adjustments will have to be made in chemical control, but will depend upon the
severity of the contamination.
2. Bentonite added to a mud containing over ±10000 mg/L of Salt exhibits a marked
decrease in hydration and dispersion. As the Salt content increases, clay hydration
and dispersion decreases to a further extent. As the Salt concentration reaches
approximately 50,000 mg/L and above, viscosity and fluid loss control from Bentonite
and natural Bentonitic clays become negligible.
3. When Salt is encountered with a Gel base mud system, a marked increase in funnel
viscosity, Yield Point, Gel Strengths, fluid loss, and Chloride content occur. A decrease in
pH should also be noted.
dispersion required will depend upon the amount of Salt drilled, and the solids content of the
mud.
5. If the Salt contamination is less than 10000 mg/L, Bentonite may still be utilized for viscosity
and fluid loss control, although more of it will be required than with a conventional fresh
water mud system.
6. If the Salt contamination is above 10000 mg/L, higher concentrations of thinners; i.e.: Desco
CF and/or Alcomer 74 will have to be made to control the viscosity and fluid loss control.
If Bentonite is being used as the primary viscosifier, a separate premix tank independent of
the rig tank must be used to prehydrate the Bentonite in fresh water prior to adding to the
active system.
If the fluid has to be saturated with Salt, adding prehydrated Bentonite in fresh water
will dilute the Chloride content of the mud. Alternative viscosifiers such as Salt Gel or
Kelzan XCD Polymer should be considered.
7. The second solution occurs where a massive Salt section is expected, and the hole is
displaced to a saturated Saltwater system prior to penetrating the Salt section. The will
avoid extensive hole washout, and contamination problems with a Gel base mud.
In areas such as the Prairie Evaporite in S.E. Saskatchewan, or the Trout/Senex area of
northern Alberta, this can be done easily with produced Brine water that is available in the
area. The Brine water is displaced to the hole just prior to penetrating the Salt section. If the
Brine water is not completely saturated, then ensure the fluid is brought to saturation with
sacked Salt prior to penetrating the Salt Formation.
8. If Brine water is not available, then fresh water will have to be brought to saturation with
sacked Salt as required. This will require approximately 311 kg/m 3 (26% by weight) of
sacked Salt.
Maintenance:
1. As the salinity increases in the fluid, so does the density. Saturated Saltwater with no drill
solids will weigh approximately 1200 kg/m3. Refer to the Sodium Chloride salinity chart at
the end of this section.
In areas where a high density may be required without any solids incorporated into the fluid
such as a workover or completion fluid, then the fluid can be formulated to a specific density
with sacked Salt as required.
2. As with any other mud system, the funnel viscosity should be maintained just high enough
for effective hole cleaning.
The viscosity may be maintained with additions of prehydrated Bentonite, Salt Gel, or Kelzan
XCD Polymer.
If Bentonite is used as the primary viscosifier, it must be prehydrated in fresh water first prior
to adding to the active system. A MBT value of approximately 40-60 kg/m 3 is normally
maintained.
Note: Adding prehydrated Bentonite with freshwater over to the active system with
dilute the Chloride content of the Saltwater mud system. If a Salt saturated system is
being run, further additions of sacked Salt will have to be added to the active system
to ensure the system remains saturated with salt.
Salt Gel may also be used in a Saltwater mud system as the primary viscosifier. Salt Gel is
a Hydrous Magnesium Silicate (Sepiolite Clay). In comparison to Bentonite, Salt Gel is
slightly less effective in its viscosifying power, and it does not have the ability to reduce the
fluid loss of the mud system. It is more temperature stable, more inert to thinning in the
presence of conventional thinners, and it more tolerant to mud contaminants. Salt Gel can
be added directly to the Saltwater mud system, and will not dilute the chloride content of the
mud.
Kelzan XCD Polymer is not affected by the salinity of the mud system, and may be added as
a primary or secondary viscosifier along with the prehydrated Bentonite or Salt Gel.
3. The PV (Plastic Viscosity) should be maintained as low as possible with effective used of the
solids control equipment on the rig, and dilution. Also the Yield Point and Gel Strengths will
run higher than conventional Gel Chem. Mud because the fluid is normally in a semi-
flocculated state.
Desco CF and/or Alcomer 74 both work well in Saltwater mud systems as thinners or
dispersants.
4. Saltwater muds can be very corrosive in nature, unless the fluid is saturated.
A pH of approximately 9.5-10.0+ will aid in reducing the corrosion level in a Saltwater mud.
This may be achieved with additions of Caustic Soda or Lime.
Note: It should be noted though, that it takes approximately twice as much Caustic
Soda to maintain the pH in the desired range as compared to a conventional fresh
water mud system. This is due to the mass action of the Sodium ion (from the Salt)
on clays, thereby releasing free Hydrogen ions, which in return will lower the pH of
the fluid.
A supplementary corrosion inhibitor is recommended when utilizing Saltwater mud system.
Corrosion rings should be installed and monitored for the degrees of corrosion.
5. Fluid loss additives such as Drispac, Staflo, or Starpak DP are commonly used in Saltwater
mud systems. If Drispac/Staflo and Starpak are used in conjunction, they are normally
added in a 1:3 ratio respectively.
Starch is another commonly used fluid loss additive for use in Saltwater mud systems. It
should be noted though, that if Starch is being used, that a Bactericide should be used to
prevent the Starch from bacterial fermentation.
6. Chloride titration’s should be made to determine if additions of sacked or bulk Salt will be
required to maintain the Salt content in the range that was programmed. Refer to the
Salinity chart at the end of this section to determine the amount of Salt required for a specific
salinity.
7. Saltwater muds have a tendency to foam more than fresh water mud systems.
The degree of foaming sometimes may be decreased by increasing the pH and Pf

alkalinity of the mud.
A defoamer should always be stockpiled on location when utilizing a Saltwater mud system,
in the event it may be required.
PROPERTIES OF SALT (NaCl) SOLUTIONS
% Salt Density Salt Salt Chlorides Water Freezing

(kg/m3) Content NaCl Cl- Volume Point
(kg/m3) (mg/L) (mg/L) (m3) (C)
1 1006 8.56 10050 6100 0.998 -0.6
3 1018 25.68 30660 18600 0.996 -1.8
4 1030 45.65 41070 24920 0.993 -2.4
6 1042 62.77 62480 37910 0.981 -3.7
7 1054 79.89 73500 44600 0.976 -4.4
9 1066 99.86 95760 57500 0.969 -5.8
11 1078 116.98 118700 71950 0.952 -7.4
12 1090 134.10 130300 79070 0.952 -8.2
14 1102 154.07 153100 92900 0.948 -9.9
15 1114 174.04 165800 100500 0.940 -10.9
17 1126 194.02 190600 115500 0.933 -12.9
18 1138 211.14 202700 123000 0.926 -14.0
20 1150 231.11 229600 139320 0.919 -16.5
21 1162 251.08 242800 147200 0.909 -18.6
23 1174 271.05 269700 163500 0.902 -20.7
24 1186 291.03 283300 171900 0.895 -15.0
26 1198 311.00 311300 188900 0.888 -3.9
2.9 CLAY FREE POLYMER MUDS (“CLEAR FLUID”)
Clay free Polymer mud systems have become more popular over the past few years, particularly
with the increase in directional or horizontal drilling. With the extended reach of the directional
and horizontal wells today, there is a lot of “virgin” reservoir that is penetrated and produced.
These horizontal reservoirs generally are “barefoot” completions, or produced through “slotted”
liners. These reservoirs can therefore be more susceptible to formation damage than
conventional vertical wells.
The Clay Free Polymer or “Clear Fluids” as they are sometimes called, are used to a large extent
for this purpose. Solids are kept to a minimum to minimize any damage to the potential
productive reservoir. The fluid loss of the fluid is kept low to reduce the amount of filtrate to the
productive zone. The Polymers used in these fluids have proven to be ideal for sufficient hole
cleaning throughout horizontal sections.
Two Polymers are generally utilized for viscosity control in these mud systems. Kelzan XCD
Polymer or Xanvis Polymer are generally for primary viscosity control. Both work very well for
viscosity control in these applications.
Xanvis Polymer is a “cleaner or more refined” form of the Kelzan XCD Polymer. Kelzan XCD
when acidized will leave a 3-5% residue that cannot be removed. Although minor, this residue
can theoretically cause some damage to the potential productive zone. In the production
process of manufacturing Xanvis Polymer, this residue is completely removed and when
acidized, this Polymer allows for a complete “non-damaging” Polymer.
This is advantageous for minimizing any potential formation damage. There is a premium to pay
to achieve this though, as Xanvis Polymer is substantially higher in price than the conventional
Kelzan XCD Polymer. Both products are very expensive as it is, and are both utilized in the
horizontal drilling applications.
Make Up:
1. Generally in the horizontal well applications, the intermediate hole is drilled building angle to
horizontal (90) with a Gel Chemical or Gel Polymer mud system. Intermediate casing is
then generally run prior to drilling the potential productive zone horizontally.
2. While WOC, the Clay Free Polymer mud should be premixed as follows and allowed to
prehydrate for as long as possible.
3. Dump and clean all the mud tanks thoroughly. Premix the following;
Kelzan XCD Polymer: 1.5-2.0 kg/m3

Drispac / Staflo: 2.0-3.0 kg/m3
Starpak: 6.0-9.0 kg/m3
Ultraseal XP: 3.0-4.0 kg/m3
4. Let this slurry hydrate and shear for as long as possible prior to displacing to the hole at mud
up depth.
Maintenance:
1. Displace the Polymer slurry to the hole at mud up depth. Build additional volume with fresh
water.
2. When displacing, watch the shakers closely for Polymer “blinding”. Coarser screens may
initially have to put on the shale shaker until the Polymer fluid passes through the bit a few
times.
3. Drill ahead through the productive zone(s) with the Clear Polymer Fluid.
4. Additions of Kelzan XCD Polymer will be required to viscosify the slurry to the 35-50 sec/L
range. Funnel viscosities in this range have generally been sufficient to drill the horizontal
section of hole.
5. The Yield Point will generally run in the 5-10 Pa range with these types of systems. Hole
cleaning in a horizontal section is generally not a problem as long as the annular velocity is
maintained high enough.
6. A neutral pH is run with this system, unless H2S is anticipated.
7. It is imperative that the density remain as low as possible throughout the horizontal section
of hole to minimize any formation damage to the potential productive zone. Generally a high
speed linear motion shale shaker, and a high volume centrifuge is required to successfully
run these systems.
8. A low fluid loss is required to minimize any formation damage. The fluid loss is generally run
less than 7.0 cm3 with additions of Staflo/Drispac and Starpak DP as required.
Staflo/Drispac and Starpak DP is normally added in a 1:3 ratio respectively.
9. Additions of 3.0-4.0 kg/m3 of Ultraseal XP is also commonly run to aid in fluid loss control
with ideal particle size distribution. Ultraseal XP will also minimize any seepage losses
throughout the horizontal interval, without plugging up the mud motor.
10. This fluid is normally not subject to bacterial fermentation when circulating. If the fluid is left
static for an extended period of time though, such as logging, DST, etc., the fluid may begin
to ferment. If the fluid starts to smell, a Biocide will be required.
A Glutaraldehyde Biocide such as T-352 Biocide is the most environmentally friendly Biocide
on the market, and when treated, can pass the Microtox.
Recommended treatment: 0.1-0.5 litres/m3.
2.10 STABLE-K MUD SYSTEM Return to Table of Contents
Stable-K is a specialized liquid product designed specifically for use as a replacement for
Potassium Chloride (KCl) or Potassium Sulfate (K 2SO4). Stable-K provides excellent shale
and clay control, without the logistics, handling and mixing problems associated with large
volumes of sacked KCl or K2SO4. Stable-K is compatible with all gels, crosslinkers, and
breaker systems typically utilized in well stimulation and workover operations. It will not
greatly affect fluid pH and, being non surface active, does not adversely affect formation
wettability. Stable-K may be used in fresh water, acid or brine systems, and will not hinder
the performance of acid corrosion inhibitors.
While Stable-K does not contain any Potassium, it is composed of a sophisticated, mildly
cationic complex that function as KCl to control shale and clay activity. Unlike KCl or K 2SO4,
Stable-K may be easily mudded up “on the fly” therefore eliminating premixing. If Stable-K is
mixed in fresh water without any Salts, the fluid can be easily disposed of without adverse
effects on the environment. A 2% KCl solution contains 9700 mg/L of Chloride ion, while a
functionally equivalent fluid containing Stable-K is Chloride free. This significantly reduce
Chloride ion concentration greatly lessens the environmental risks associated with the use of
KCl fluids.
Stable-K Physical Properties:
Product Form @ 70F Clear Liquid Solubility

Density 1055 kg/m3 Fresh Water Soluble
Flash Point, F, (TCC) <200 High TDS Brine Soluble
Pour Point, F -40 Hydrocarbon Insoluble
pH 9.0-10.0 Ionic Charge Mildly Cationic
Application:
Stable-K is typically applied at a concentration of 0.5 to 10 litres per cubic metre of fluid,
depending on the percent of equivalent KCl being replaced, and the shale and clay
quantities present in the wellbore and operation being performed. Where a 3% Potassium
Chloride (KCl) is required to inhibit the shales, Stable-K is added to fresh water at a
concentration of 3 litres per cubic metre. A mixing chart outlining the recommended use
concentration of Stable-K for a specific KCl replacement is a given quantity of water is
presented below.
Total Fluid Quantity of Stable-K Required for KCl Functional Equivalent
1% KCl 2% KCl 3%KCl 4%KCl 5%KCl

1 m3 1 litre 2 litres 3 litres 4 litres 5 litres
4 m3 4 litres 8 litres 12 litres 16 litres 20 litres
80 m3 80 litres 160 litres 240 liters 320 litres 400 litres
2.11 POLYGLYCOL MUD SYSTEMS Return to Table of Contents
These are anionic water based Polymer fluids, which use specialized Polyglycols to provide
improvements in wellbore stability, lubricity, filtration control and formation damage. The
Polyglycols are a range of liquid products, which effect improvements in wellbore stability by
Hydrogen bonding within clay mineral layers, inhibiting the formation of a water hydrational layer,
and thus preventing expansion of clay layers. To fully exploit this Hydrogen bonding effect, the
Polyglycols are used in saline fluids, preferably with the presence of a inhibiting Cation such as
Potassium Sulfate or Potassium Chloride.
Polyglycols also exhibit a cloud point behavior. When above a critical temperature (the cloud
point) the Polyglycol becomes insoluble in the saline base fluid, and forms dispersed Polyglycol
droplets, which can inhibit shale by a secondary function of preventing water migration. The
“clouded” Polyglycol fluid will effectively reduce filtration by forming a water repellent filter cake,
and also acts as a lubricant. The use of Polyglycol and PHPA Polymers in these systems,
further enhance inhibition by providing an encapsulation of shales.
A correctly formulated and controlled Glycol system can exhibit inhibitive properties similar to
those of an oil base drilling fluid. The high levels of wellbore stability, good lubricity, and low
formation damage have seen these systems used in a number of extended reach, and horizontal
wells through reactive shale/clay formations.
These systems are normally run Gel free and non-dispersed. The pH is also normally kept low
(7.5-8.0) to minimize clay hydrational effects due to Hydroxyl ions. A well controlled Polyglycol
fluid, particularly if combined with a Potassium Salt such as Potassium Sulfate, will maintain a
high degree of cuttings integrity, allowing good solids control to be achieved. In addition, the use
of the Polyglycol will increase the solids tolerance of the fluid. These in combination allow
maintenance of mud properties, and hole conditions at low dilution rates. These fluids, because
of their limited dilution requirements, and optimum property maintenance, are often utilized in a
manner similar to oil based drilling fluids. They are recycled between sections, and wells, further
reducing the economics of using such fluids, and greatly reducing the environmental impact of
these low toxicity fluids.
Make Up:
2. If Potassium Sulfate was used for the upper flocculated water portion of the hole, then utilize
as much clear sump water as possible to fill the tanks. Fill the tanks ± ¾ full with water.
Note: Quite often the Polyglycol is used while clear water drilling for shale inhibition
throughout the water drilling portion of the hole. Use this fluid for make up at mud up
depth.
3. Add the required amount of K 2SO4 (Potassium Sulfate) through the hopper to bring the
Potassium concentration up to the desired level. Generally a minimum concentration of 35-
40 kg/m3 (3.5-4.0% by weight) will be required. The Potassium ion concentration should be
no lower than 16000 mg/L.
4. Add or increase the concentration of the Polyglycol to 3% by volume (30 litres/m 3). This is
generally the accepted level of Polyglycol that will be required for shale inhibition in Western
Canada.
5. Some foaming may occur but should easily be controlled with small additions of a Defoamer.
A stockpile of Defoamer should be on location in the event it may be required.
6. If a PHPA Polymer has been programmed for added shale inhibition, it should be added now
normally in a concentration of 1.5-2.0 kg/m3.
6. Then add approximately 1.5-2.0 kg/m3 of Kelzan XCD for primary viscosity control. The
Potassium Sulfate / Polyglycol systems are normally run clay free; i.e.: no Bentonite in the
mud system.
7. After the Kelzan XCD has been mixed, fluid loss reducing Polymers should then be added.
For these systems, Drispac and Starpak DP are normally mixed together in a 1:3 ratio
respectively. Concentrations of ±3.0 kg/m 3 of Drispac Regular and ±9.0-10.0 kg/m 3 of
Starpak DP are normally mixed for an initial concentration. All Polymers should be mixed
slowly through the hopper at a rate of ± 25-30 min.’s/sx.
8. Potassium Sulfate / Polyglycol systems can be corrosive in nature. Corrosion rings should
be installed and monitored with these types of mud systems.
9. An Oxygen Scavenger such as Corinox or Sodium Sulfite is normally added to control
corrosion levels to an acceptable level with the Polyglycol systems. Corinox is an unique
dual purpose corrosion prevention chemical mixture in a liquid form. It has the ability to
scavenge dissolved Oxygen effectively, as well the capability to absorb onto active corrosion
sites (anodes) on drill pipe, casing, and tubing in water base muds.
Maintenance:
increase in density is required, generally Barite or Calcium Carbonate is used.
For an unweighted Polyglycol system, all solids control removal equipment should be run
normally achieved with additions Kelzan XCD Polymer only. Normal concentrations: 1.5-2.0
kg/m3.
As with the Potassium based mud systems, effective solids control equipment is vital.
High speed linear motion shale shakers, and high volume centrifuge(s) are highly
recommended with these types of muds.
4. Because of the Polymer nature of the system, the Yield Point (YP) of a Polyglycol mud will
5. The pH of the mud system should remain neutral unless H2S is anticipated.

Caustic Soda or Lime as required.
6. In order to minimize the possibility of differential sticking, and to minimize the overall amount
6.0-8.0 cm3 range with additions of Drispac and Starpak DP as required.
Drispac and Starpak DP are normally added in a 1:3 ratio respectively.
Drispac Regular is also normally added in these systems to supplement the viscosity. If a
decrease in fluid loss is required, without any additional viscosity increase, then utilize
Drispac SuperLo.
7. Note: If a neutral pH has been a programmed, or if the fluid is sitting static for an
extended period of time; i.e.: testing, logging, etc., the Polymers in this system may
begin to ferment.
If the fluid begins to smell, a bactericide will be required. A common bactericide that
can be “de-activated” at the end of the well without environmental repercussions is T-
352 Glutaraldehyde.
The recommended treatment is dependent on the severity of the bacterial

contamination. As a pretreatment, add 0.1-0.5 litres/m 3 to the mud system and
monitor with microbial dipslides. For combating contaminated fluids, add 0.5-2.0
litres/m3 per treatment until bacterial control is achieved
8. As drilling progresses, daily additions of Potassium Sulfate will have to be made to ensure
the Potassium ion does not fall below 16000 mg/L (35-40 kg/m 3), or as outlined in the mud
program. The Potassium ion should be monitored closely.
9. The Polyglycol concentration should also be monitored and maintained at 3% by volume (30
litres/m3).
10. Continue to add and maintain 1.5-2.0 kg/m 3 of PHPA Polymer throughout the interval for
added shale encapsulation.
11. Corrosion rings should be installed and monitored while drilling with the K 2SO4 / Polyglycol
system. The corrosion level should be controlled as outlined by the drilling program with an
Oxygen scavenger such as Corinox or Sodium Sulfite as required.
2.12 SILICATE MUD SYSTEMS Return to Table of Contents
The majority of Silicate mud systems run have been on offshore operations around the world,
where highly active or “gumbo” type of clay formations are drilled. They are quite expensive, run
in conjunction with KCl (Potassium Chloride) and therefore have been somewhat limited for use
on onshore operations such as Western Canada, where less active hydratable clays are drilled.
For the sake of this manual through, the system will be documented.
Silicate mud systems is a solution of Sodium Silicate in water (30.3% by weight). Sodium
Silicate is normally added to conventional Salt / Polymer mud systems to enhance shale
inhibition. Silicate muds with 3-10% by weight KCl or K 2SO4 give exceptional shale recovery,
approaching that achieved with the Invert mud systems. They are therefore suitable for drilling
highly reactive clay and dispersible chalk formations.
The primary shale inhibitor in the system is the Sodium Silicate which precipitates or Gels on
contact with divalent ions and lower pH in the formation, providing an effective water barrier
which prevents hydration and dispersion
Secondary shale inhibition is achieved by the cation exchange of the Potassium with the
formation clays, thereby reducing the swelling tendency of the clays by direct interference with
the swelling mechanism.
Additions of PAC fluid loss Polymers also provide inhibition by encapsulation, and preventing
dispersion of clay particles into the fluid.
Standard anionic Polymers for fluid loss or viscosity control are fully compatible with Sodium
Silicate. Conventional ionic thinners are not effective in Silicate systems. Additions of water,
whole mud or non-viscosified premix is recommended to reduce the viscosity.
Conventional water soluble lubricants are also not compatible with Silicate fluids.
Sodium Silicate is highly inhibitive and is run as a non dispersed system, therefore higher than
usual Yield Points and low shear end rheology values will be required to ensure hole cleaning.
The pH of the system is higher than conventional muds, being in the 11.0 - 12.0 range. (This pH
is due to the Oxide in the Silicate itself).
The Silicate will precipitate out divalent ions present in the hardness from seawater (if used, for
offshore operations), thus reducing the concentration of Silicate in the system. For this reason
freshwater is recommended for fluid preparation. However seawater may be used if pretreated
with Caustic Soda and Soda Ash.
The concentration of Silicate in the mud can be measured, using oilfield recommended tests as
outlined in Chapter 1, Section 1.31. From this concentration, Sodium Silicate in the system is
calculated. Sodium Silicate may be added directly to the mud or through premixes to maintain
the desired concentration. (  4.0 – 6.0 % by weight Sodium Silicate by volume).
Make Up:
Generally for offshore operations, the initial delivery of KCI brine and Sodium Silicate solution
will be as a concentrate, ready to be cut back with fresh water. The brine concentrate normally
contains up to  200 kg/m3 of KCI, and  I5% by volume Sodium Silicate, and a base
concentration of Polymers (final Polymer concentrations to be advised).
The mixing order of Polymers under normal conditions is not critical, but depends more on the
mixing and shear facilities on the rig.
1. Take required volume of KCI / Sodium Silicate brine into the mud tanks and cut back with an
equal volume of fresh water to give approximately a  100 kg/m3 KCI and 7.5% Sodium
Silicate solution. This high of concentration of Potassium Chloride is normal for the highly
active hydratable clays for offshore operations. This high of concentration would not be
required for Western Canada.
2. If the use of fresh water is not possible, seawater can be used, however, this must be
treated with Caustic Soda and Soda Ash to remove any hardness before adding to the KCI /
Sodium Silicate brine.
3. If this is not done, the Silicate will be precipitated out by the divalent ions in the seawater,
thereby reducing the concentration of Sodium Silicate in the fluid. This can, if necessary, be
rectified by further additions of Sodium Silicate.
4. Add the Polymers to achieve the final concentration as indicated in the mud program. These
Polymers should be added slow enough to avoid the formation of “fish eyes”. The addition
of Polymers can result in a small reduction of measured Sodium Silicate in the filtrate, due to
the Silicate complexing with the Polymers. Additional Sodium Silicate may be required to
maintain the desired concentration in the mud.
4. Add Barite if required, to the correct density, and then adjust the properties if required with
Polymers.
If the mud is being prepared without the use of KCl / Sodium Silicate concentrate, the preferred
order of mixing would as follows:
1. Prepare KCI brine cut back to the required concentration with fresh water or seawater
(treated with Caustic Soda and Soda Ash to treat out hardness).
2. Add the Polymers to the specified formulation, and shear for as long as possible.
3. Add the Sodium Silicate as required.
Note: Specific personal safety precautions should be taken when handling undiluted
Sodium Silicate.
4. Add Barite as required.
Formulation:
The Sodium Silicate / KCI system uses conventional Polymers for fluid loss and viscosity control.
A typical formulation for the Sodium Silicate fluid to drill out a 444.5 mm hole section is as
follows:
KCl: 70-115 kg/m3 (depending upon activity of the shale and mud program)
Sodium Silicate: 5% by weight
Fresh Water: As required
Caustic Soda: As required to treat out the hardness
Soda Ash: As required to treat out the hardness
Drispac/Staflo Reg: 4.0-4.5 kg/m3
Drispac/Staflo SL: 4.0-4.5 kg/m3
Kelzan XCD Polymer: 4.0 kg/m3 (or as required to achieve a 6 rpm value)
Note: No prehydrated Gel is used generally in field formulations, since after displacement,
better control of rheology & fluid loss is obtained once drill solids are built in the system.
This then avoids having flocculation of the system when mixing, and no depletion of
Silicate is due to being taken up by any mixed Gel.
A typical laboratory formulation of unweighted Sodium Silicate system, prepared from
concentrated KCI brine, cut back with fresh water, gives the approximate results listed below.
600 rpm 101

300 rpm 79
200 rpm 68
100 rpm 53
6 rpm 20
3 rpm 16
PV 22 Pa
YP 28.5 Pa
pH 11.7
Total Hardness 0
API Fluid Loss 12.0 cm3
Maintenance:
1. The desired Yield Point and low shear values (6 rpm) are readily obtained by treatment as
required with XCD Polymer.
Any reduction of undesirable high rheological values should be effected by dilution as

required with Brine concentrate or fresh whole mud dilution.
It is important to note that, due to the highly inhibitive nature of the Sodium Silicate
mud, it is likely that incorporated drill solids will have little effect on rheology. Fluid
viscosity will be derived almost entirely from Polymer concentrations used, and
higher than usual Yield Point and low shear values will be required to ensure
adequate hole cleaning.
2. Maintain fluid loss control by treatment as required with Drispac / Staflo (Reg) or LV
depending on the viscosity requirements of the mud.
Note that the freshly prepared solids free fluid will exhibit relatively high fluid loss values,
until drill solids have been incorporated into the mud system.
3. Maintain Sodium Silicate concentration in the recommended range by addition of Sodium
Silicate brine concentrate or by direct addition of the undiluted product.
It is imperative that 'in and out" Sodium Silicate concentrations are monitored and
recorded on a regular basis while drilling, to gauge the rate of depletion and treatment
requirements.
Note that laboratory work has established that there is some Sodium Silicate depletion with
increasing Polymer concentrations This effect appears to be are marked with Starches and
Xanthum Gum products (Kelzan XCD), than with anionic Polymers such as PAC.
It is anticipated that a properly treated Sodium Silicate fluid should result in excellent cuttings
integrity and gauge hole conditions.
4. Maintain KCl, concentration within the recommended range by addition of brine concentrate
or direct addition of powdered KCI to the active system.
Monitor and record “in and out" KCI concentrations an a regular basis while drilling, to
determine the depletion rate and treatment requirements.
5. It is important to note that the highly inhibitive nature of the Sodium Silicate fluid will result in
a higher quantity of cuttings being produced when drilling the highly active shales and
consequently higher than usual loadings at the shale shakers may be experienced during
this interval.
Use all available solids control equipment as efficiently as possible to minimize undesirable
mud density increases from drilled solids accumulation and reduce dilution requirements.
6. As previously stated, it is anticipated that drilled solids incorporation should have minimal
effect on fluid rheology.
As a general guideline it is recommended that a “dump and dilute" conditioning treatment

may be required when MBT values greater than 60 kg/m 3 (Bentonite equivalent) are
measured.
7. The pH of the Sodium Silicate system is buffered in the range 11.0-12.0. As the pH is not
derived from Hydroxyl ions, this is not in itself hazardous. However, the recommended safe
handling procedures must be adhered to particularly when handling undiluted Sodium
Silicate.
8. As Sodium Silicate precipitates in contact with Calcium and Magnesium, the system will
contain zero hardness.
9. Silicates have an industrial application as a corrosion inhibitor of metals, and additional
corrosion reducers will not be required in the drilling fluid. There will be no free oxygen in the
system, and any Silicate reaction with ferrous material forms a Silicate coating which
prevents any further reaction.
10. The Silicate system will have a naturally high pH. However this is from SiO 2 and not from the
Hydroxyl (OH-) radical, and therefore will not suppress bacterial growth. If the Silicate system
is to be stored for any length of time, conventional treatment of Biocide should be added as
for conventional water based Polymer muds.

Chapter 3 Oil Base Mud Systems Return to Table of Contents
TOPICS PAGE
3.1 OIL MUD APPLICATIONS 1

3.2 RIG MODIFICATIONS 1
3.3 FORMULATION 2
3.4 DISPLACEMENT 3
3.4.1 Recommendations Prior to Displacement 3
3.4.2 DISPLACEMENT 4
3.5 OIL MUD TESTING PROCEDURES 4
3.5.1 DENSITY and MARSH FUNNEL VISCOSITY 4
3.5.2 RHEOLOGY AND GEL STRENGTH MEASUREMENT 5
3.5.3 FLUID LOSS 5
3.5.4 ELECTRICAL STABILITY 6
3.5.5 OIL MUD ALKALINITY 7
3.5.6 OIL MUD CHLORIDE CONTENT 8
3.5.7 OIL MUD CALCIUM CONTENT 8
3.5.8 OIL MUD RETORT 9
3.5.9 OIL MUD HYDROGEN SULFIDE DETERMINATION 10
3.5.10 “HOT or QUICK” LIME TEST 11
3.5.11 ANILINE POINT DETERMINATION 12
3.6 OIL MUD CALCULATIONS ( Envirofloc Internal Water Phase Only ) 12
3.6.1 CALCULATION OF WATER PHASE SALINITY 12
3.6.2 WATER ACTIVITY 13
3.6.3 CORRECTED SOLIDS 13
3.6.4 OIL / WATER RATIO 18
3.6.5 CHANGING THE OIL / WATER RATIO 19
3.6.6 HIGH AND LOW GRAVITY SOLIDS ( Weighted Invert )
20
3.7 OIL MUD CALCULATIONS ( Mixed Salts - Internal Water Phase Only ) 23
3.7.1 CALCIUM SOURCE 23
3.7.2 LIME CONTENT 24
3.7.3 WHOLE MUD CALCULATIONS ( Mixed Salt Content 24
3.7.4 LIQUID PHASE CALCULATIONS 25
3.7.5 CORRECTED OIL / WATER (OWR) RATIO 26
3.7.6 INERT SOLIDS CALCULATIONS 26
3.7.7 EXAMPLE CALCULATIONS 27
3.8 INVERT PROPERTIES AND MAINTENANCE 38
3.8.1 MUD DENSITY 38
3.8.2 FUNNEL VISCOSITY 38
3.8.3 PLASTIC VISCOSITY 39
3.8.4 YIELD POINT and GEL STRENGTHS 39
3.8.5 ELECTRICAL STABILITY 40
3.8.6 FILTRATION 40
3.8.7 ACTIVITY / SALINITY 40
3.8.8 RETORT 41
3.8.9 EXCESS LIME CONTENT 41
3.9 OIL MUD ENGINEERING GUIDELINES 42
3.10 OIL MUD FORMATION LOSSES 44
3.10.1 SEEPAGE LOSSES 44
3.10.2 CONVENTIONAL OIL MUD “LCM” PILL (Whole Mud Loss) 45
3.10.3 DIASEAL “M” SQUEEZE (Oil Muds) 46
3.11 OIL MUD PRODUCT CROSS REFERENCES 47
CHAPTER 3
OIL BASE MUD SYSTEMS
An oil base mud is defined as a mud, which contains oil as the continuous, or “outer” phase.
Usually diesel oil is used as the continuous phase. These muds usually contain water emulsified
into the oil as the non-continuous or “internal” phase. The amount of water emulsified into the oil
determines the type of oil mud. Oil mud containing greater than 5% water by volume, are called
Invert Emulsion muds. In addition to oil and water, oil muds contain emulsifiers, Hot Lime,
preferential oil wetting agents, sometimes filtration control additives, oil wetting gellants, and
possible weight material if required. Oil muds are normally used to solve specific problems
which either cannot be solved by water base muds, or because oil muds offer a more
economical solution.
3.1 OIL MUD APPLICATIONS Return to Table of Contents
1. To drill water sensitive swelling or sloughing shales.

2. To protect production zones while coring or drilling.
3. To decrease torque or drag while drilling directional wells.
4. To prevent loss of circulation in subnormally pressured formations.
5. To obtain native state cores.
6. As a spotting fluid to free differentially stuck pipe.
7. To leave between tubing or casing as a packer fluid for corrosion protection.
8. To leave between casing and open hole as a casing packer fluid.
9. To drill through Hydrogen Sulfide bearing formations.
10. To drill deep, hot holes.
11. To minimize areas where excessive hole washout is a problem.
12. To drill formations that contain contaminants, such as Salt, Anhydrite, etc.
13. To reduce melting when drilling through permafrost.
14. As a workover fluid.
15. As a perforating and completion fluid.
3.2 RIG MODIFICATIONS Return to Table of Contents
Before drilling out the surface casing, the following rig modifications should be made to help
control costly mud losses on the surface, reduce maintenance, and minimize potential pollution
problems.
1. A kelly cock or mud saver should be installed.

2. A mud can with a return line to the mud tanks should always be used on trips, especially to
pull a wet string.
3. A catch pan should be installed on the top of the bell nipple. This should be large enough to
extend beyond the edges of the table. This device will catch mud, which falls through the
table and will divert it into the drilling nipple.
4. If possible a racking pan should be provided for the drill pipe. A return line from this pan
must be run to the flowline or into the catch pan beneath the table.
5. A pipe wiper should always be used on trips.
6. Due to the high cost of diesel, and water being a contaminant, all water lines that might allow
water entry into the active system, should be plugged. Rig crews should be educated in the
importance of keeping water from draining into the mud tanks. Washing off the shaker
screens should be done with diesel.
7. A pill tank or slugging pit should be available on the rig to eliminate pulling wet pipe on trips.
8. The mud tanks should be checked thoroughly prior to drilling out, to ensure that all mud guns
are wedged down properly, the gates between compartments or to the sump do not leak,
and the centrifugal pumps are in good working order.
9. The mud gates should be packed thoroughly with a Diesel-Gel sludge to ensure no leakage.
10. The lease should be properly ditched around the rig to ensure no spilling. A
separate pit, buried or surface tank should be positioned to collect the cuttings from the
shaker and the underflow from the centrifuge(s).
11. An adequate supply of upright storage tanks for transferring liquid Invert or Brine water
should be spotted on location in a convenient location. A small pump should be rigged up to
the storage tanks, in order that they may be circulated prior to adding to the premix and
active tanks.
12. Check that all rubber parts are oil proof (hydril, pump parts, etc.) Change centrifugal pump
packing lubricant from water to grease.
13. If possible, install a pneumatic or hand bung pump to provide accurate metering of liquid
emulsifiers or conditioners into the active system.
14. Any welding should be done on the rig prior to filling the mud tanks with premixed Invert.
15. The rig crews should be supplied with slicker suits, and proper oil resistant footwear, and
gloves. Oil absorbent material such as "Floor Dry” or Alfob “W" Absorbent should be
available for the stairs, walkways and rig floor.
16. A safety meeting should be arranged at the location so that all personnel concerned know
and understand the use and cost of an Invert mud system.
3.3 FORMULATION Return to Table of Contents
1. Open all of the mud guns and the suctions on the mixing tank to thoroughly drain any water
that may be present. Clean the tank(s) and seal the gates shut with a mixture of Bentonite
and water to a “sludge” consistency.
2. Add the desired volume of diesel fuel in the mixing tank using proper precautions. (See
recommended specifications for diesel fuel). Add the diesel oil through the hopper if
possible.
3. Run all the subsurface guns, mixing hopper, and agitators to obtain the maximum amount of
shear possible.
4. Add the required amount of emulsifiers through the hopper. Mix thoroughly until the solution
is homogeneous.
5. Add “Hot Lime” or “Quick Lime” as it is sometimes called (Calcium Oxide; CaO) through the
hopper using proper precautions. Mix thoroughly.
6. In a separate tank or compartment, premix the Brine water for the internal phase to the
proper concentration. The Brine water may be made up of Calcium Chloride 97%, Calcium
Nitrate (Envirofloc), or a combination of both Salts.
7. Transfer the required amount of Brine water in the Diesel mixture, preferably through the
hopper. Let this mixture shear through all shearing devices for a minimum of ¾-1 hour.
The longer the fluid is sheared, the tighter the emulsion will be.
8. Add the required amount of gelling agent (organophyillic clay) through the hopper.
9. Continue vigorous mixing for 1-2 hours in order to make a homogenous and stable emulsion.
Check the sample for separation, etc.
10. If weight material is required, add through the hopper at this time. Do not add any weight
material while adding Brine water. Barite may become water wet, and could settle to the
bottom of the tanks if mixed at the same time as the brine water. Shear the mud for as long
as possible.
11. Check for settling of Barite at the bottom of the mixing tank. If the mud is too thin or Barite is
settling, add additional Organophyllic Clay slowly through the hopper to thicken the fluid.
12. If the fluid is too thick, more diesel fuel or an oil wetting agent may be added to thin the fluid.
Note: If Envirofloc (Ammonium Calcium Nitrate Decahydrate) is used as the make up for
the Brine water phase, it must be mixed in a well-ventilated area. Ammonia gas may be
released when Hot Lime and Envirofloc (Calcium Nitrate) are mixed together.
RECOMMEDED DIESEL OIL SPECIFICATIONS FOR AN OIL BASE DRILLING FLUID
Properties Typical Specifications Acceptable Range

Preferred
Gravity, API 36.0 33.0-39.0
Color, Robinson 25 20-30
Flash Point, PM C 67 54 minimum
Pour Point, C -21 -12 to –9*
Viscosity @ 38 C, SSU 35.5 **
Carbon (10% Bottoms) 0.01 **
Ash, % Nil **
Bomb Sulphur, % 0.16 0.15-0.32
Corrosion 3Hr @ 100 C J3 **
Cetane Number 50.8 **
Suspended Sediment 0.1 **
Dissolved Sediment 0.9 **
Bromine Number 1.43 **
Diesel Index 54.5 **
Aniline Point, C 65 57 minimum
% Aromatics (+Olefins) 21.8 18-30
* A lower pour point material may be suitable for use, but should be checked by a lab prior to
use. Diesel with pour points lower the -9 C usually indicates that a pour-point depressant
has been added. These depressants could cause a weakening of the emulsion with
increased viscosity and Gel Strength.
** Not Critical
3.4 DISPLACEMENT Return to Table of Contents
3.4.1 RECOMMENDATIONS PRIOR TO DISPLACEMENT
1. Clean the mud tanks and check that the gates do not leak.
2. Secure all the water lines.
3. Check that all rubber parts are oil proof (hydril, pump parts, etc.)
4. Install a diesel wash gun or diesel bucket at the shaker.
5. Install saver sub on kelly, mud bucket, and wiper rubber for the pipe when tripping.
6. Change centrifugal pump packing lubricant from water to grease.
7. In areas where excessive rain or snow is to be expected, pits should be covered.
8. If possible, install a pneumatic or hank bung pump to provide accurate metering of the liquid
emulsifiers into the mud system.
9. Provide absorbent materials for stairs walkways and rig floor.
10. If the mud tanks are covered, provide fans for proper ventilation.
3.4.2 DISPLACEMENT Return to Table of Contents
1. Preferably, the displacement should be made inside the surface or intermediate casing. Pull
up 10 metres into the casing.
2. Initially, put on relatively coarse screens on the shale shaker in the event some blinding does
occur until all the solids become oil wet. After a circulation or two, replace with fine mesh
screens if required.
3. Ensure that the return line is rigged up properly, so that the fresh water fluid in the casing
can be dumped to the sump.
4. Fill the slugging or pill tank with diesel. There should be enough volume to place a 150
- 200 metre spacer between the Invert and water base fluid.
5. Prime the main pump with Invert and line it up on the hole. The standby pump should also
be primed, and ready in case the main pump breaks down.
6. Start to displace with the Invert, making sure the fluid in the casing is being dumped to the
sump or a buried tank. Have enough premixed Invert on location to fill the hole and fill the
active mud tanks approximately 2/3 full.
7. Displace the Invert in either plug or turbulent flow, as laminar flow promotes channeling.
Excellent results have been obtained where plug flow has been utilized in open hole
displacements.
8. Slowly reciprocate and rotate the drill string. Try and maintain a constant pump pressure.
9. Watch the diesel spacer closely as it comes out of the flowline to the sump. It could be
relatively thick at the interface between the two fluids. Let the Invert cleanup somewhat
before putting it over the shaker.
10. Put the Invert over the shaker and circulate the hole. If plugging of the shaker screens
occur, wash with a brush or diesel gun (not water). Small amounts of an oil-wetting agent
should also be added into the shaker box.
11. As the mud gets warmer, and is sheared through the bit, the mud properties will improve.
3.5 OIL MUD TESTING PROCEDURES Return to Table of Contents
There are a few unique tests that are required for an oil base drilling fluid. Collect about 2 litres
of mud coming out at the flowline after passing through the shale shaker. Note the date, depth,
and time of sampling. Record the temperature of the mud sample at the time each
measurement is made.
3.5.1 DENSITY and MARSH FUNNEL VISCOSITY
1. The mud density and funnel viscosity are done in the same manner as on a water base mud
system.
2. To accurately monitor the density, it is recommended that a Tru-Weight Pressurized Mud
Balance be used periodically.
3. Clean the funnel and mud balance with diesel or solvent.
3.5.2 RHEOLOGY AND GEL STRENGTH MEASUREMENT
Equipment: Return to Table of Contents
1. 6 Speed VG Meter
2. Thermal Heating Cup
Procedure:
1. Due to the profound effect temperature has on an oil base mud, it is imperative for accurate
results that all rheology tests are done at a consistent temperature.
2. Pour a sample of Invert into a thermal heating cup.
3. Run the VG meter at 600 rpm to stir the sample of mud while it is heating to 65 C (150 F).
By heating the sample in this manner, it will ensure that both the mud and the “bob” of the
VG meter are at the same temperature for an accurate rheology.
4. Take the rheology and Gel Strengths when the temperatures constant at 65 C. The PV, YP
and Gel Strengths are taken in the same manner as a water base mud system outlined in
Chapter 1.
5. Clean the VG meter and thermal cup with diesel or solvent.
3.5.3 FLUID LOSS Return to Table of Contents
1. An Invert mud system normally has an API fluid loss of zero. Therefore, a HT-HP (High
Temperature – High Pressure) fluid loss should be run.
2. Run the HT-HP fluid loss the same as a water base mud system outlined in Chapter 1. The
temperature should be run at 5-10 C above the bottom hole temperature, and at a
differential pressure of 3500 kPa (500 psi), unless otherwise specified by the oil company.
3. Clean the HT-HP fluid loss cell with diesel or solvent.
3.5.4 ELECTRICAL STABILITY Return to Table of Contents
The Fann Model 23C has been upgraded to a Digital Fann Model 23D, or an OFI Model E30A.
The tests are performed in the same manner, but a lower voltage reading is displayed
when taken with the digital meters. The performance of the digital ES meters is superior to
that of the older Model 23C, because the automatic ramp of voltage is accurate and constant.
The Fann Model 23C makes it measurements with a spiky, non-symmetric wave form, while the
digital meters make their measurements with true sinusoidal wave forms, with symmetry about
the ground reference.
Because of the potential for confusion when comparing the measurements made with the
different types of ES meters, it is advisable to always note the type and model number of the
instrument used when reporting the ES measurement.
FANN MODEL 23C OPERATION:
Equipment:
1. A glass or plastic container

2. Fann Model 23C ES meter
3. Mallory No. TR136R (8.1 volts) battery or equivalent Duracell EL-4423 battery
Procedure:
1. Heat the sample to be tested to 65 C (150 F).

2. Pout a sample of mud into the container and immerse the probe to a depth of 25 mm (1
inch).
3. Turn the dial to zero. Depress the red button and hole down for 5-10 seconds before
starting to turn the dial. Continue to hole down the button, and slowly turn the dial to the
right to increase the voltage applied to the electrodes. When the red light glows, emulsion
breakdown has occurred.
4. Release the button and read the dial.
5. Multiply the voltage reading by 2 to obtain the emulsion stability.
6. Once the emulsified material in the “slit” between the electrodes is broken down, it must be
replaced with fresh fluid before repeat tests are made. For routine accuracy, this may be
accomplished by vigorously stirring the sample with the probe. Clean the probes and reset
the dial to zero prior to taking a second test.
7. Solvents such as kerosene or naphtha are excellent for cleaning the probe. More volatile
solvents may be harmful to the molded plastic. Use a soft cloth to clean the test material
from the “slit” between the probes, and dry thoroughly. NEVER use a metal object to clean
the probe. A severe electrical shock could result.
8. Do not subject the probe to temperatures above 150 C.
9. Battery life is estimated at 1 year of average service. Replace with Mallory No. TR136R or
equivalent Duracell EL-4423 battery.
FANN MODEL 23D OR OFI MODEL E30A OPERATION:
Equipment:
1. A glass or plastic container

2. Fann Model 23D or OFI Model E30A ES meter
Procedure:
1. Heat the sample to be tested to 65 C (150 F).

2. Immerse the probe in the sample, making certain that the fluid covers the electrode surfaces,
and briefly stir briskly with the probe.
3. Make sure the probe does not touch the sides or bottom of the container and push “ON” to
turn the instrument electronics on. There is no “OFF” since the instrument shuts itself off
approximately one minute after the last operation.
4. Push and release “TEST” to start the automatic ramp. Do not move the electrode during the
measurement. The ramp will stop at the breakdown voltage. Read and record the voltage
from the digital display. If the “LOW BATTERY” light flashes, the measurement should be
ignored. Replace the four 9-Volt alkaline batteries before proceeding.
5. Clean the probe thoroughly by passing a paper towel or rag between the electrode gap.
Rinse in kerosene or naphtha and wipe the probe again with a paper towel or rag.
3.5.5 OIL MUD ALKALINITY Return to Table of Contents
Equipment:
1. 50/50 mixture of Xylene / Isoproponal solution, or a 75/25 mixture of camping fuel / rubbing
alcohol, or normal Propoxy Propanol solution.
2. 250 ml Erlenmeyer flask or beaker
3. Magnetic Stirrer
4. 2 cm3 syringe
6. N/10 Sulfuric Acid Solution
7. Distilled Water
Procedure:
1. Pour 50-70 cm3 of the xylene / isoproponal mixture in the Erlenmeyer flask.
2. Disperse 1.0 cm3 of Invert mud into the solvent.
3. Stir vigorously with the magnetic stirrer for 1-2 minutes to break the emulsion.
4. Add 100-125 cm3 of distilled water, and 15-20 drops of Phenolphthalein indicator solution.
5. While stirring rapidly with the magnetic stirrer, slowly titrate with N/10 Sulfuric Acid until the
pink color just disappears. Continue stirring for another 5 minutes. If the pink color re-
appears, titrate a second time with N/10 H 2SO4 acid. Continue stirring for another 5 minutes.
If the pink reappears again, titrate a third time with N/10 H 2SO4 acid. The end point is
reached when the pink color does not reappear after stirring 5 minutes. After the third
titration, call this the end point.
6. Record the total amount of cm3 of N/10 Sulfuric Acid required as the POM.
Calculations:
Excess Lime Content (kg/m3) = POM X 3.7

3.5.6 OIL MUD CHLORIDE CONTENT Return to Table of Contents
Equipment:
1. Potassium Chromate Indicator Solution

2. Silver Nitrate Solution: 1.0 cm3 = 1000 mg/L Chlorides
(Use this solution only if ENVIROFLOC (Calcium Nitrate) or a mixture of ENVIROFLOC and
Calcium Chloride is used for the internal Brine phase).
3. Silver Nitrate Solution: 1.0 cm3 = 10000 mg/L Chlorides
(Use this solution only if Calcium Chloride is used for the internal Brine phase).
Procedure:
1. The Chloride titration is a continuation of the oil mud alkalinity measurement.

2. To the sample that has just checked for alkalinity, add 20 drops of Potassium Chromate
Indicator solution.
3. Titrate the solution with the weak Silver Nitrate solution (if Envirofloc is used as the internal
brine phase), or the stronger Silver Nitrate solution (if CaCl 2 is used as the internal brine
phase).
Calculations:
Chlorides of the Whole Mud (mg/L) = cm3 of AgNO3 x 1000 (for the weaker solution)
Chlorides of the Whole Mud (mg/L) = cm3 of AgNO3 x 10000 (for the stronger solution)
3.5.7 OIL MUD CALCIUM CONTENT Return to Table of Contents
Equipment:
1. Normal Propoxy Propanol solution or a 50/50 mixture of Xylene / Isoproponal solution

2. 250 ml Erlenmeyer Flask or Beaker
3. Magnetic Stirrer
4. 3 ml syringe
5. Calver II Indicator Powder (Calcium Indicator)
6. Calcium Buffer Solution (1.0 N Sodium Hydroxide)
7. Calcium Titrating Solution; EDTA, 1.0 cm 3 = 4000 mg/L Calcium
8. Distilled Water
Procedure:
1. Pour 50 cm3 of Normal Propoxy Propanol or Xylene/ Isopropanol solution into the
Erlenmeyer flask.
2. Disperse 1.0 cm3 of Invert mud into the solvent.
3. Stir vigorously with the magnetic stirrer for 1-2 minutes to break the emulsion.
4. Add 100-125 cm3 of distilled water, 30 drops of Calcium Buffer Solution, and 0.1—0.2 grams
of Calver II Indicator Powder.
5. While stirring rapidly with the magnetic stirrer, slowly titrate with Calcium Titrating Solution
until the color changes from a light purple to a deep blue.
Calculations:
Calcium Whole Mud (mg/L) = cm3 Calcium Titrating EDTA Solution X 4000
3.5.8 OIL MUD RETORT Return to Table of Contents
Equipment:
1. OFI or Baroid 50 ml Retort
Procedure:
1. Lift the retort assembly out of the insulator block. remove the mud chamber from the retort.
A crescent wrench may be necessary.
2. Pack the upper chamber with a very fine steel wool.
3. Fill the chamber with mud, gently replace the lid allowing for excess mud to escape. This is
the point where error is often introduced. Be sure that no air is entrapped in the chamber.
An accurate volume of mud is essential.
4. Wipe off any excess mud.
5. Coat the threads and matting surface below the threads of the mud chamber thoroughly with
Never-Seez to seal the connection and prevent loss of vapor. This will also facilitate an
easier opening of the retort after the test is completed.
6. Screw the condenser into the upper chamber of the retort.
7. Screw the condenser into the retort stem. Do not invert the retort.
8. Place the retort into the insulator block and put the insulating cover in place.
9. Add a drop of wetting agent to the 50 ml graduated cylinder and place it under the drain of
the condenser. Connect the retort to the power outlet, and turn on the power.
10. Heat the sample until liquid no longer drips form the condenser, or until the pilot light goes
out.
11. Unplug the retort and allow it to cool prior to running additional tests.
12. To quickly cool the retort, run cool water over the mud chamber and condenser. The mud
chamber can be cleaned with water. The graduated cylinder requires soap and water.
Remove and replace any mud caked steel wool. Clean the retort drain tube and condenser
with a pipe cleaner. Be sure to dry the inside of the retort and condenser before running the
next test.
13. If the unit is to be cleaned later, break the sample cup lose from the expansion chamber ½
turn, for easier removal once the unit has cooled down.
14. Do not transport the retort with the assembly inserted in the heating jacket.
Calculation (% expressed as a volume fraction):
1. % oil by volume = ml’s of oil X 2

2. % water by volume = ml’s of water X 2
3. % solids by volume = [50 – (ml’s of oil + ml’s of water)] X 2
or
% solids by volume = 100- (% oil by volume - % water by volume)
3.5.9 OIL MUD HYDROGEN SULFIDE DETERMINATION
Equipment: Return to Table of Contents
1. Garrett Gas Train

2. Drager H2S Analysis Tubes
3. Citric Acid Solution containing a De-emulsifier
4. Octanol in a Dropper Bottle
5. 10 ml and 20 ml Syringe
6. Magnetic Stirrer with a (¼ x 1 inch) Plastic Coated Stirring Rod
7. Teflon Sample Injection Tube
Procedure:
1. Place the Garrett Gas Train on the magnetic stirrer so that the stir bar will freely rotate to
vigorously agitate the contents in Chamber 1.
2. Install and puncture a CO2 cartridge in the carrier gas assembly.
3. Arrange the plastic injection tube through the rubber septum on the top of Chamber 1, to
allow the mud sample to be injected into the chamber.
4. Add 20 ml of Citric Acid solution, and 10 drops of Octanol into Chamber 1.
5. Select a Drager tube (low or high range) based on the table at the end of this section to
match the expected levels of Sulfides. Also select an appropriate mud sample volume from
the table at the end of this section.
6. Break the tips of the Drager tube, and install it with the arrow pointed downward into the
bored receptacle. Install the flowmeter tube with the word “TOP” upward.
7. Install the top of the Garrett Gas Train, and hand tighten all screws evenly to seal.
8. Attach the flexible tubing to the dispersion tube, and to the Drager tube.
9. Adjust the dispersion tube in Chamber 1 to approximately 3.0 cm 3 above the bottom of the
stir rod.
10. Put the mud sample in the syringe and place it into the injection tube. Hold the syringe
plunger in place with your hand. Gently flow the gas for a 10 second period to purge air
from the system. Check for any leaks and then shut off the gas.
11. Start rapid stirring the fluid in Chamber 1. Slowly inject the Invert sample into Chamber 1.
Stir for at least 5 minutes or until the sample is well dispersed.
12. Start the carrier gas flow. Adjust the rate between 200 and 400 ml. per minute, or keep the
flowmeter ball between the red lines. One CO 2 cartridge should provide about 15-20
minutes of flow at this rate.
13. Observe changes in the appearance of the Drager tube. Note and record the maximum
darkened length before the front starts to smear. Continue the gas flow for a total of at
least 15 minutes. With prolonged flow, the stain front may attain a diffuse or feathery
coloration. In the high-range tube, an orange color may appear ahead of the black front in
sulfides are present in the sample. The orange region should be ignored.
14. Clean the chambers with warm water and a mild detergent. Clean the dispersion and
injection tubes with Varsol. Rinse the unit with distilled water, and allow it to drain dry.
Calculations:
Using the measure sample volume, the Drager tube’s maximum darkened length, and the tube
factor from the following table, calculate the active sulfides as H 2S in the sample as follows:
H2S (mg/L) = (Darkened Length *) (Tube Factor)

Sample Volume, ml
* In units marked on the Drager Tube
Drager Tube Identification, Sample Volumes, and Tube Factors
Sulfide Range Sample Volume Drager Tube I.D. Tube Factor

(mg/L) (ml) (see Tube body)
1.5-3.0 10.0 H2S 100/a 12
3-6 5.0 H2S 100/a 12
6-120 2.5 H2S 100/a 12
60-1020 10.0 H2S 0.2%/A 600*
120-2040 10.0 H2S 0.2%/A 600*
240-4080 10.0 H2S 0.2%/A 600*
* The Tube Factor 600 is based on a batch factor (stenciled on the box) of 0.40. For
another batch factor, a corrected factor should be calculated as follows:
Corrected Tube Factor: 600 (Batch Factor 0.40)
3.5.10 “HOT or QUICK” LIME TEST Return to Table of Contents
Hot Lime or Quick Lime (Calcium Oxide; CaO) is used in an Invert mud rather than hydrated
Lime [Calcium Hydroxide; Ca(OH)2]. Hot Lime acts as a catalyst to change the fatty acid
concentrates over to Calcium base soaps. Below is a simple check to determine whether the
Lime is “Hot”, meaning that it has not hydrated.
Equipment:
1. 100 ml Graduated Cylinder

2. 250 ml Graduated Beaker
3. Metal Thermometer
Procedure:
1. Weigh 40 grams of Hot Lime into the beaker.

2. Set the thermometer in the beaker.
3. Add 30 ml of water and gently stir for 30 seconds and let the beaker set for the reaction to
take place.
4. 54 C or higher indicates that the Lime is “Hot”.
3.5.11 ANILINE POINT DETERMINATION Return to Table of Contents
The aniline point should be determined, especially if utilizing crude oil, to minimize excessive
wear and deterioration of rubber components on the rig. An aniline point of 57 C is considered
the minimum accepted range for the oil make up in an Invert mud system.
Equipment:
1. 25 ml Pyrex Test Tube

2. Pyrex jacket; 37-42 mm in diameter, and 175 mm in length
3. Manually operated metal stirrer with a concentric ring on the bottom. The diameter should
be approximately 19 mm, and the length about 200 mm with a right angle bend at the top.
4. Aniline point thermometers with ranges from -35 C to +40 C, and from 25 C to 105 C.
5. Numbers 12 and 24 cork stoppers
6. Two 10 ml pipettes and two 5 ml pipettes
7. Rubber suction bulb for measuring aniline
8. Heat – an open flame, or an infrared lamp (250-375 watts)
9. Non-aqueous cooling bath to be used when aniline or mixed aniline point is below room
temperature
10. N – keptone reagent
Procedure:
1. Using a pipette, add 10 ml of aniline and 10 ml of sample into the air-jacket tube filled with
stirrer and thermometer. Center the thermometer in the test tube so that the immersion
mark is at the liquid level. The bulb should not touch the sides of the tube.
2. Stir the sample rapidly and heat until the sample is completely miscible. The cooling bath
must be substituted for the heat if the aniline sample mixture is completely miscible at room
temperature.
3. When the mixture becomes cloudy throughout and complete separation of aniline and
sample occurs, record the temperature. This will be the minimum equilibrium aniline solution
temperature.
4. Record the temperature in degrees C.
3.6 OIL MUD CALCULATIONS ( Envirofloc Internal Water Phase Only )
3.6.1 CALCULATION OF WATER PHASE SALINITY Return to Table of Contents
Calculations:
1. Envirofloc Concentration,(kg/m3) = Calcium Whole Mud (mg/L) X 0.0054
2. Water Concentration, (kg/m3) = Water Fraction X 1000
3. Water Phase Salinity (% by weight) = (Envirofloc, kg/m3 X 100)____

(Envirofloc, kg/m3 + Water, kg/m3)
Example:
1. Volume of Calcium Titrating EDTA Sol’n = 3.9 cm 3
2. Calcium Whole Mud, mg/L: = 3.9 X 4000

= 15,600 mg/L
3. Volume Fraction of Water (from retort uncorrected) = 0.13
4. Envirofloc Concentration, kg/m3 = 15600 X 0.0054

= 84.24 kg/m3
5. Water Concentration, kg/m3 = 0.13 X 1000

= 130 kg/m3
6. Water Phase Salinity (% by weight) = (84.24 X 100)

(84.24 + 130)
= 39.3 % by weight
3.6.2 WATER ACTIVITY Return to Table of Contents
The Water Activity of the Envirofloc water phase Invert can be determined from the graph
showing the % by weight Envirofloc versus Water Activity.
For the above example, the Water Activity (% by weight) of the mud is 0.79.
3.6.3 CORRECTED SOLIDS
Due to the volume expansion associated with Envirofloc (Calcium Nitrate) in solution, it is
necessary to correct the water and solids fraction as follows.
Fomula Abbreviations:
Rw = Volume Fraction of Water

Ro = Volume Fraction of Oil
Rs = Volume Fraction of Solids
D = kg of Water in Envirofloc
Wt = % Weight as a Decimal
Sg = Specific Gravity of the Brine
Ef = Expansion Factor
E = kg/m3 Envirofloc
Cs = Corrected Solids
Cw = Corrected Water
Calculations:
1. kg/m3 of Envirofloc, (E):
E = Calcium Whole Mud (mg/L) X 0.0054

2. kilogram of Water, (D):
D = E X 0.16674
3. Determine % Weight as a Decimal, (Wt):
Wt = E_________
{E + (Rw X 1000)} – D
4. Specific Gravity of the Brine, (Sg):
Sg = (Wt X 100) + 116.98

120.48
6. Expansion Factor, (Ef):
Ef = 1______
Sg X (1 – Wt)
7. Corrected Solids, (Cs):
Cs = Rs______
Ef – (D / 1000)
8. Corrected Water, (Cw):
Cw = (Rs – Cs) + Rw
Example:
From the Retort: Volume Fraction of Water, Rw = 0.16

Volume Fraction of Oil, Ro = 0.74
Volume Fraction of Solids,Rs = 0.10
From Titration, Calcium Whole Mud = 14080 mg/L
1. kg/m3 of Envirofloc, (E):
E = Calcium Whole Mud (mg/L) X 0.0054

= 14080 X 0.0054
= 76.03 kg/m3
2. kilogram of Water, (D):
D = E X 0.16674
= 76.03 X 0.16674
= 12.68 kg
3. Determine % Weight as a Decimal, (Wt):
Wt = E_________
{E + (Rw X 1000)} – D
= 76.03 _____
{76.03 + (0.16 X1000)} – 12.68
= 76.03_______
(76.03 + 160) – 12.68
= 76.03
223.35
= 0.34 % by Weight
4. Specific Gravity of the Brine, (Sg):
Sg = (Wt X 100) + 116.98

120.48
= (0.34 X 100) + 116.98
120.48
= 34 + 116.98
120.48
= 1.2531 Sg
5. Expansion Factor, (Ef):
Ef = 1______
Sg X (1 – Wt)
= 1________
1.2531 X (1 – 0.34)
= 1______
1.2531 X 0.66
= 1__
0.8270
= 1.2091 Ef
6. Corrected Solids, (Cs):
Cs = Rs______
Ef – (D / 1000)
= 0.10_________
1.2091 – (12.68 / 1000)
= 0.10_____
1.2091 – 0.01268
= 0.10
1.196
= .0836 ( % volume fraction)
7. Corrected Water, (Cw):
Cw = (Rs – Cs) + Rw
= (0.10 – 0.0836) + 0.16
= 0.0164 + 0.16
= 0.1764 (% volume fraction)
The corrected readings should then be as follows:
Volume Fraction of Water, Rw = 0.18 (rounded off)

Volume Fraction of Solids,Rs = 0.08 (rounded off)
3.6.4 OIL / WATER RATIO Return to Table of Contents
The oil / water ratio is the amount of each liquid which makes up the fluid phase of the Invert. A
corrected solids analysis must be performed prior to calculating the correct oil / water
(OWR) ratio.
Fomula Abbreviations:
Rw = Volume Fraction of Water (corrected)

Ro = Volume Fraction of Oil (corrected)
Calculations:
Oil Ratio = ____Ro_____ X 100

Rw + Ro
Water Ratio = ____Rw_____ X 100

Ro + Rw
Example:
Corrected Retort Readings:
Volume Fraction of Water, Rw = 0.18 (rounded off)

Volume Fraction of Solids,Rs = 0.08 (rounded off)
Oil Ratio = ____Ro_____ X 100

Rw + Ro
= _____0.74____ X 100
0.18 + 0.74
= _____0.74____
0.92
= 0.80
Water Ratio = ____Rw_____ X 100

Ro + Rw
= _____0.18____ X 100
0.74 + 0.18
= _____0.18____
0.92
= 0.20
The OWR (oil / water) ratio is expressed with the oil before the water as follows:
OWR = 80/20
3.6.5 CHANGING THE OIL / WATER RATIO Return to Table of Contents
To change the oil/water ratio, the following calculations may be used. The corrected retort
readings and the total circulating volume must be known. First determine the present OWR, and
then decide whether oil or water should be added to change the OWR. The volume of oil and
water in the mud system must be calculated as follows.
Calculations:
Total volume of oil in system, m3 = Volume Fraction of Oil X Total Circulating Volume
Total volume of water in system, m3 = Volume Fraction of Water X Total Circulating Volume
If oil is to be added to increase the OWR:
Volume of Oil, m3 + x = Desired Oil Ratio

Volume of Water, m3 Desired Water Ratio
If water is to be added to decrease the OWR:
Volume of Oil, m3 = Desired Oil Ratio

Volume of Water, m3 + x Desired Water Ratio
Example:
An OWR of 80/20 was determined. The mud program requires an 85/15 OWR. Therefore
additional diesel oil will be required to bring the OWR up to 85/15. The total circulating volume
of the system is 120 m3.
Corrected Retort Readings:
Volume Fraction of Water, Rw = 0.18

Volume Fraction of Solids,Rs = 0.08
Total volume of oil in system, m3 = Volume Fraction of Oil X Total Circulating Volume
= 0.74 X 120
= 89 m3
Total volume of water in system, m3 = Volume Fraction of Water X Total Circulating Volume
= 0.18 X 120
= 22 m3
Calculate the amount of oil to be added to increase the OWR:
Volume of Oil, m3 + x = Desired Oil Ratio

Volume of Water, m3 Desired Water Ratio
89 + x = 85
22 15
(15) (89 + x) = (85) (22)

1335 + 15x = 1870
15x = 535
x = 535/15
x = 36 m3
It will then require an additional 36 m3 of diesel oil to change the OWR from 80/20 to 85/15.
While adding the oil, additional emulsifiers, Hot Lime, etc. will have to be added to ensure a
stable emulsion exists.
3.6.6 HIGH AND LOW GRAVITY SOLIDS ( Weighted Invert )
Calculations: Return to Table of Contents
The following information is needed in order to determine the amount of each component in
weighted Invert mud.
Volume fraction of oil (corrected)

Volume fraction of water (corrected)
Volume fraction of solids (corrected)
Mud density, kg/m3
Calcium Whole Mud, mg/L
From the Calcium Whole mud, calculate the amount of Envirofloc as follows:
Envirofloc, kg/m3 = Calcium Whole Mud X 0.0054
The Water Phase Salinity can be calculated from the retort water fraction (uncorrected), and the
amount of Envirofloc in the mud as follows.
Water Phase Salinity = Envirofloc X 100__ _________

(0.833 X Envirofloc) + (1000 X Water Fraction)
Example:
1. Retort Results:
Oil Fraction = 0.62
Water Fraction = 0.16
Solids Fraction = 0.22
Mud Density = 1420 kg/m3
Calcium Whole Mud = 27600 mg/L
2. Envirofloc, kg/m3 = Calcium Whole Mud X 0.0054
= 27600 X 0.0054
= 149 kg/m3
3. Water Phase Salinity = Envirofloc X 100__ _________

(0.833 X Envirofloc) + (1000 X Water Fraction)
= 149 X 100________
(0.833 X 149) + (1000 X 0.16)
= 14900___
124.12 + 160
= 14900
284.12
= 52.4% by weight
4. If we use 1.0 m3 of mud as a basis for the calculation, the mass and volume of the
liquids can be accounted for directly from their known densities. The following chart
shows the kilograms and cubic metres of oil and water in 1 m 3 of mud.
Liquid 1 Cubic metre, m3 Density Kilograms

Oil 0.620 840 520.8
Water 0.160 1000 160.0
TOTAL 0.780 680.8
The solids which remain in the retort cup include dehydrated Envirofloc salt, low gravity
solids, and high gravity solids. The decahydrate salt; i.e. Envirofloc (Calcium Nitrate),
contains 16.67% by weight of water. Therefore the amount of dehydrated Envirofloc in 1
m3 of mud can be calculated as follows:
5. 100% (Envirofloc) - 16.67%(water) = 83.33% Pure Envirofloc

83.33% as a decimal fraction = 0.8333
Dehydrated Envirofloc = 0.8333 X 149 kg/m3

= 124.2 kg/m3
6. And the amount of dehydrated Envirofloc in an Envirofloc solution which is 52.4% by

weight (water phase salinity) is:
Dehydrated Envirofloc = 0.8333 X 52.4%

= 43.7%
7. The density of the dehydrated Envirofloc can be calculated from on of the following
formulas.
For Salinity > or = to 30% by Weight:
kg/m3 = [ -11.4 (Dehydrated Envirofloc, %)] + 3435

= [ -11.4 (43.7%)] + 3435
= ( -498.48) + 3435
= 2937 kg/m3
For Salinity < 30% by Weight:
kg/m3 = [ -20.3 (Dehydrated Envirofloc, %)] + 3731
8. From the mass and the density, we can calculate the volume occupied by the
dehydrated Envirofloc as follows:
Volume = 124.2
2937
= 0.042 m3
9. Thus far, the liquids and the dissolved salt accounts for 805 kilograms, and 0.822 m 3.
Oil 520.8 kg 0.620 m3

Water 160.0 kg 0.160 m3
Dehyd. Envirofloc 124.2 kg 0.042 m3
Total 805 kg 0.822 m3
10. The remainder of the mass and the volume is occupied by the undissolved solids. That
is, the low gravity solids and high gravity solids. These amounts of undissolved solids
are calculated as follows:
Mass, kg = 1420 (mud density) - 805

= 615 kg
Volume, m3 = 1.000 – 0.8222

= 0.178 m3
11. Therefore, the total density of the mixture of low gravity solids and high gravity solids is:
= 615 kg
0.178 m3
= 3455 kg/m3
12. The fractional part of low gravity solids in the undissolved solids is:
Fraction of low gravity solids = 4200 – 3455

4200 – 2600
= 0.466 % by volume
Note: Average relative density of high gravity solids = 4200 kg/m3

Average relative density of low gravity solids = 2600 kg/m3
13. Then, the volume of low gravity solids:
= 0.466 X Total Volume of Undissolved Solids

= 0.466 X 0.178
= 0.083 m3
14. And the mass of the low gravity solids is:
= 0.083 X 2600
= 216.0 kg/m3
15. The remaining mass and volume is high gravity solids:
The volume of high gravity solids is:
= 0.178 – 0.083
= 0.095 m3
The mass of the high gravity solids is:
= 615 – 216
= 399 kg/m3
Therefore on the mud check sheet the following would be reported:
Low Gravity Solids = 216 kg/m3

High Gravity Solids = 399 kg/m3
3.7 OIL MUD CALCULATIONS ( Mixed Salts - Internal Water Phase Only )
3.7.1 CALCIUM SOURCE Return to Table of Contents
If we are not familiar with the source of the Calcium Salt(s) used in the mud, a comparison of the
Calcium Source Number (CSN), and the whole mud Chlorides can be helpful in establishing the
Calcium source. Based on the information we have, the two possibilities are as follows.
1. Whole Mud Chlorides are less than the Calcium Source Number:
With today’s environmental concerns, this is the most common case. The mixed Calcium
Chloride/Envirofloc Inverts, straight Envirofloc Inverts, mixed Calcium Acetate/Envirofloc
Inverts, and the straight Calcium Acetate Inverts fall into this category.
Calcium Acetate based Inverts are very expensive, and generally only become cost effective
in high OWR (oil/water) ratio fluids. Assuming that Acetates are not used as a Calcium
source reduces the commonly referred to mixed Salt Invert (Calcium Chloride/Envirofloc) or
a pure Envirofloc based Invert; the latter of which is typical with Whole Mud Chlorides less
than 1000 mg/L.
Whole mud Chlorides greater than 1000 mg/L:
The Calcium salts are combined Calcium Chloride and Envirofloc. For this mixed Calcium
Salt Invert, the Calcium Chloride and Envirofloc concentrations are:
Calcium Chloride (kg/m3 whole mud) = 0.001565 X (mg/L Chlorides)
Envirofloc (kg/m3 Whole Mud) =
[0.005405 X (mg/L Activity Calcium)] – [0.003055 X (mg/L Whole Mud Chlorides)]

3.7.2 LIME CONTENT Return to Table of Contents
Same as section 3.5.5
Data Required:
Pm = ml of N/10 H2SO4 required to reach the end point for the alkalinity check
Calculations:
Lm = kg/m3 Lime in Whole Mud

Lm = 3.71 X Pm
3.7.3 WHOLE MUD CALCULATIONS ( Mixed Salt Content )
Mud Check Data Required: Return to Table of Contents
Mca = number of ml Titraver (EDTA) required to reach the end point for the Calcium
check.
Mcl = number of ml of 0.282 Silver Nitrate ( 1 ml = 1000 mg/L Cl) required to reach the
end point for the Chloride check.
Calculations:
1. Chlorides:
Clm = kg/m3 Whole Mud Chlorides

Clm = 10 X Mca
Note: If 0.0282N Silver Nitrate ( 1 ml = 10000 mg/L Cl) is used for the titration, the
multiplier is 1.0
2. Calcium:
Cam = kg/m3 Whole Mud Calcium

Cam = 4 X Mca
Note: If regular hardness titrating solution, or Titraver 400 is used, the multiplier if 0.40
3. Calcium Chloride:
Smc = kg/m3 Calcium Chloride in Whole Mud

Smc = 1.565 X Clm
4. Envirofloc:
Sme = kg/m3 Envirofloc in Whole Mud

Sme = (5.39 X Cam) – (3.05 X Clm) – (540 X Lm)
5. Nitrates:
Nm = kg/m3 Whole Mud Nitrates (NO3)

Nm = 0.631 X Sme
3.7.4 LIQUID PHASE CALCULATIONS Return to Table of Contents
Mud Check Required:
Rw = % Retort Water
Ro = % Retort Oil
Calculations:
1. Calcium Chloride
Swc = kg/m3 Calcium Chloride in Water Phase

Swc = 100 X Smc
Rw
2. Envirofloc
Swe = kg/m3 Envirofloc in Water Phase

Swe = 100 X Sme
Rw
3. Nitrates
Nw = kg/m3 Nitrates (NO3) in Water Phase

Nw = 100 X Nm
Rw
4. Total Equivalent Chlorides and Water Activity
Clwt = Total Equivalent Water Phase Chlorides, kg/m3

Clwe = Equivalent Envirofloc Chlorides, kg/m3
Read form Table 2 or Figure 1 using Nw
Clwt = Clwe + 100 X Clm

Rw
Aw = Water Activity
Read from Figure 2 using Total Equivalent Chlorides, Cl

Note: If the mud is a 100% Envirofloc Invert, Aw may be read directly from Table
1, and if it is a 100% Calcium Chloride Invert, Aw may be read directly from Table
2.
3.7.5 CORRECTED OIL / WATER (OWR) RATIO
Frc = Calcium Chloride Retort Water Factor Return to Table of Contents

Read from Table 2 or Figure 4 using Swc
Fre = Envirofloc Retort Water Factor

Read from Table 1 or Figure 3 using Swe
Rwc = Corrected % Retort Water

Rwc = (Frc + Fre – 1) Rw
OWR = Oil / Water Ratio
O = 100 X Rwc
(Ro + Rwc)
W = 100 X Rwc
(R0 + Rwc)
Brine Water Density:
Db = Salt Water Density, kg/m3
Db = 998___ + 100 (Smc + Sme + Lm)

(Frc + Fre – 1) Rw
Liquid Phase Density:
Dl = Liquid Phase Density, kg/m3

Dl = 8.50 + Db X W
100
3.7.6 INERT SOLIDS CALCULATIONS
Mud Check Data Required: Return to Table of Contents
Rs = % Retort Solids
Dm = Mud Density, kg/m3
Cs = Volume Fraction corrected Low Gravity Solids
Cs = ( Dm – Dl)
(2600 – Dl)
Cs = Rs – (Frc + Fre – 2) Rw
Note: If the alternative calculation for the volume fraction of low gravity solids is significantly
different, it is possible that the retort data was not corrected for entrained air or vapor losses.
LGS = Low Gravity Solids, kg/m3
LGS = 2600 X Cs
Weighted Invert Mud:
Cs = Volume Fraction Corrected Low Gravity Solids
Cs = Rs/100 – (Frc + Fre – 2) Rx /100
Ds = Average Solids Density
Ds = Dm – Dl (1 – Cs)
Cs
HGS = High Gravity Solids, kg/m3
HGS = 2.625 (4200 – Ds)
LGS – Low Gravity Solids, kg/m3
LGS = 1.625 (Ds – 2600)
3.7.7 EXAMPLE CALCULATIONS Return to Table of Contents
Unweighted Mixed Salt Invert
Mud Check Data:
Titraver 4000 or EDTA Sol’n = 4.43 ml

0.282 N Silver Nitrate = 0.96 ml
Pm = 3.2 ml of N/10 Sulfuric Acid
Retort Solids, Rs = 8.5%
Retort Water, Rw = 15.5%
Retort Oil, Ro = 76.0%
Mud Density = 1037 kg/m3
Whole Mud Calculations:
1. Lime Content:
Lm = 3.71 X Pm
= 3.71 X 3.2
= 11.87 kg/m3 Lime in Whole Mud
Mixed Salt Content:
1. Chlorides
Clm = kg/m3 Whole Mud Chlorides

Clm = 10 X Mca
= 10 X (0.96)
= 9.60 kg/m3 Whole Mud Chlorides
2. Calcium
Cam = kg/m3 Whole Mud Calcium

= 4 X Mca
= 4 X (4.43)
= 17.72 kg/m3 Whole Mud Calcium
3. Calcium Chloride
Smc = kg/m3 Calcium Chloride in Whole Mud

= 1.565 X Clm
= 1.565 X (9.60)
= 15.02 kg/m3 Calcium Chloride in Whole Mud
4. Envirofloc
Sme = kg/m3 Envirofloc in Whole Mud

= (5.39 X Cam) – (3.05 X Clm) – (540 X Lm)
= (5.39 X 17.72) – (3.05 X 9.60) – (540 X 11.87)
= 95.51 – 29.28 – 6.41
= 59.82 kg/m3 Envirofloc in Whole Mud
5. Nitrates
Nm = kg/m3 Whole Mud Nitrates (NO3)

= 0.631 X Sme
= 0.631 X 59.82
= 37.75 kg/m3 Whole Mud Nitrates (NO3)
Liquid Phase Calculations:
1. Calcium Chloride
Swc = kg/m3 Calcium Chloride in Water Phase

= 100 X Smc
Rw
= 100 X 15.02
15.5
= 96.90 kg/m3 Calcium Chloride in Water Phase
2. Envirofloc
Swe = kg/m3 Envirofloc in Water Phase

= 100 X Sme
Rw
= 100 X 59.82
15.5
= 385.9 kg/m3 Envirofloc in Water Phase
3. Nitrates
Nw = kg/m3 Nitrates (NO3) in Water Phase

= 100 X Nm
Rw
= 100 X 37.75
15.5
= 243.5 kg/m3 Nitrates (NO3) in Water Phase
4. Total Equivalent Chlorides and Water Activity
Clwe = Equivalent Envirofloc Chlorides, kg/m3 or (mg/L)/1000

= Read form Table 2 or Figure 1 using Nw
= From Figure 1, at Water Phase Nitrates = 243.5 kg/m3, read
= 138 kg/m3
Clwt = Clwe + 100 X Clm

Rw
= 138 + 100 X 9.60
15.5
= 138 + 61.94
= 199.9 kg/m3 (round off to 200)
Aw = Water Activity
= Read from Figure 2 using Total Equivalent Chlorides, Clwt

= From Figure 2 using Clwt = 200
= 0.75 Water Activity
Corrected Oil / Water Ratio:
Frc = Calcium Chloride Retort Water Factor

= Read from Table 2 using Swc
= Read from Table 2 using Swc = 96.90
Note: This example demonstrates interpolation for better accuracy. If the value (v), with
which a table of values is entered lies between two values (v 1) and (v2), then the desired
resultant value (r), will be between (r1) and r2), which correspond to (v1) and (v2)
respectively. The desired value (r) can be determined by the following equation.
r = (v – v1) (r2 – r1) + r1

(v2 – v1)
Note: In this instance, the values 96.90 and r 1 = 96.72 are close enough to consider the
values to be the same (i.e.: one could use v 1 = 1.0225 to be the value for Frc). However,
to demonstrate the interpolation procedure, the example can be carried out as follows.
So, applying this procedure to determine Frc, we obtain:
Frc = (96.90 – 96.72) (1.0240 – 1.0255) + 1.0255

(102.51 – 96.72)
= (0.18) (0.0015) + 1.0225
(5.79)
= 0.000047 + 1.0225
= 1.0225 Calcium Chloride Retort Water Factor
Fre = Envirofloc Retort Water Factor

= Read from Table 1 using Swe
= Read from Table 1 using Swe = 385.9
r = (v – v1) (r2 – r1) + r1

(v2 – v1)
Fre = (385.9 – 362.4) (1.2015 – 1.1826) + 1.1826

(391.7 – 362.4)
= (23.5) (0.0189) + 1.1826
(29.3)
= 0.0152 + 1.1826
= 1.1978 Envirofloc Retort Water Factor
Then;
Rwc = Corrected % Retort Water

Rwc = (Frc + Fre – 1) (Rw)
= (1.0025 + 1.1978 – 1) (15.5)
= (1.2203) (15.5)
= 18.9%
The corrected oil / water ratio (OWR) can now be determined
Oil (O) = 100 X Ro

Ro + Rwc
= 100 x 76
76 + 18.9
= 7600
94.9
= 80%
Water (W) = 100 X Rwc

Ro + Rwc
= 100 X 18.9
76 + 18.9
= 1890
94.9
= 20%
OWR = 80 / 20
Brine Water Density:
Db = Salt Water Density, kg/m3
Db = 998_______ + 100 (Smc + Sme + Lm)

(Frc + Fre – 1) Rw
= 998_________ + 100 ( 15.02 + 59.82 + 11.87)
(1.0225 + 1.1978 – 1) 15.5
= 998_ + 100 (86.71)
1.2203 15.5
= 817.8 + 559.4
= 1377 kg/m3 Salt Water Density
Dl = Liquid Phase Density, kg/m3
Dl = (8.5 X Oil) + Db X W
100
= (8.5 X 80) + 1377 X 20
100
= 680 + 275.4
= 955 kg/m3 Liquid Phase Density
Inert Solids Calculations:
Cs = Volume Fraction Corrected Low Gravity Solids
Cs = Density Mud – Dl__

(2600 – Dl)
= 1037 – 955
2600 - 955
= 82__
1645
= 0.050
Alternative volume fraction corrected solids in unweighted muds:
Cs = 8.5/100 – (1.0225 + 1.1978 – 2) (15.5)/100

= 0.085 – (0.2203) (15.5)/100
= 0.085 – 0.034
= 0 051
Note: The two methods for determining the faction of low gravity solids agree indicating
the validity of the equations. Sufficient accuracy of the calculation and accuracy of the
mud check data is required to perform the calculations. However, using the mud density
(Dm), and liquid density (Dl), is generally better, since vapor losses and entrained air
usually results in a higher retort solids content than the actual.
LGS = Low Gravity Solids, kg/m3
LGS = 2600 X Cs
= 2600 X 0.050
= 130 kg/m3
3.8 INVERT PROPERTIES AND MAINTENANCE
3.8.1 MUD DENSITY Return to Table of Contents
The density of an Invert mud can range from 930 to 2600 kg/m 3 by the addition of weight
material. Generally, the Invert muds utilized in Western Canada are unweighted (less than
1000 kg/m3), and perform very well with respected to penetration rates in the foothills. As
with any drilling fluid, an Invert Emulsion must meet certain rheological requirements
before weight material can be supported. The main cause of Barite settling in an oil mud
is poor suspension or Gel Strength characteristics. Another cause of Barite settling is
water wetting of the weight material. This can be caused by adding Barite without
additions of the concentrate component chemicals to maintain a “chemical balance”, or
adding Barite to an unstable emulsion.
Never add Barite at the same time Brine water is being added. The Barite may become
water wet, and settle to the bottom on the mud tanks. When Barite, or other weighting agents
such as Calcium Carbonate, etc. are being added to the mud system, small additions of an oil
wetting agent should be made to prevent water wetting of the solids. Also pilot testing on the
Invert should be made prior to the Barite additions to ensure the YP and Gel Strengths are high
enough to suspend the weight material.
For every cubic metre of volume gained from the Barite additions, each emulsifier component
and Hot Lime should be added in the correct proportions to ensure oil wetting of weight material,
stable flow properties, and a strong emulsion is maintained.
If the density of the fluid is to be dramatically altered, the OWR (oil / water ratio) may also need
to be changed. When mixing Barite, a high pressure or high shear mixing system is advisable.
Agitators and mud guns should be running in the active system, with periodic checks taken in the
mud tanks to ensure no settling occurs.
3.8.2 FUNNEL VISCOSITY Return to Table of Contents
In general, the Marsh Funnel viscosity of an unweighted oil base mud is a little lower than a
water base mud. A weighted invert should be about the same as that of a good water base mud
used for the same purpose. The funnel viscosity of an Oil Mud is affected more by temperature
than that of a water base mud because oil is subject to greater viscosity variations with
temperature changes than is water. A drastic drop of temperature, for example in the winter, can
reduce the flowline temperature enough to cause a significant increase in the funnel viscosity of
an oil mud, even though the viscosity of the mud down hole would not change. The mud
temperature should be reported along with Funnel Viscosity. This reporting is more important for
an oil mud than a water base mud.
The viscosity is decreased when oil is added, and increased when water and/or solids are added
to invert mud. That is, a higher OWR (oil/water ratio) will generally have a lower viscosity than a
lower OWR ratio. If water or oil is being added to change the viscosity or the OWR ratio, the
proportionate amount of concentrates must be added to maintain a tight emulsion.
If an increase in funnel viscosity and Yield Point is required for better hole cleaning,
Organophyllic Clay may be added. This material requires approximately two circulations to fully
yield and should be pilot tested to determine the proper concentration desired. Adding a very
small stream of water along with the Organophyllic Clay will aid in the yield of the product.
3.8.3 PLASTIC VISCOSITY Return to Table of Contents
The Plastic Viscosity (PV) of an oil mud is influenced primarily by the quantity and
viscosity of oil used, amount of water present, the temperature of the mud, and the
quantity and size of solids present in the mud system.
Incorporated drilled solids not only increase the PV and mud density, but also effect the water-
wet characteristics of the shale. These water-wet solids can agglomerate and occupy
considerable volume in the mud, thereby magnifying the PV increase. An oil-wetting agent or
secondary emulsifier will effectively disperse these clusters and lower the PV. Thus, when the
PV has increased to an undesirable point. and the OWR ratio and density remains relatively
unchanged, treatments of an oil wetting agent is recommended.
The PV is best controlled though, as with any system, with proper and effective use of the solids
control equipment.
3.8.4 YIELD POINT and GEL STRENGTHS Return to Table of Contents
The Yield Point (YP) and Gel Strengths of an Invert are normally maintained lower to that
of a comparable water base mud. For example, it is not uncommon to successfully drill
311 mm hole with an unweighted Invert with Yield Points ranging from 2-4 Pa.
To obtain consistent and meaningful data from the PV, YP and Gel Strengths, the rheology
should be checked at 65C (150F) with the VG meter. The temperature should be recorded on
the mud check sheet.
The YP is affected less than the PV by temperature changes. An increase in the Yield Point will
be apparent should water wetting of solids occur. Again noticeable fluctuations will be evident if
a tight emulsion is not present. Additions of water or Organophyllic Clay may be used to
increase the Yield Point. The clay will affect the YP more than the Funnel Viscosity.
Low Yield Points could promote the settling of Barite when accompanied by low Gel Strengths in
a weighted invert mud. Chemical changes to the system will affect the Yield Point more than the
Plastic Viscosity, therefore it is advisable to pilot test before any additions are made.
The Get Strengths play a slightly more important role in an oil mud than they do in an average
water base mud, i.e. they tend to be lower. High Gel Strengths or progressive Gel Strengths
may indicate flocculation of water wet solids, or a possible weakened emulsion. The initial Gel
Strength plays a significant role in Barite suspension.
An increase in water and/or solids content will increase the Gel Strengths. If additions of water
and/or Barite are authorized at the time, and there appears to be an increasing Gel Strength,
then it may well be that the quality of the emulsion is degrading or solids are increasing.
Note: Faster penetration rates, more stable hole conditions and a more economical fluid
will result from consistent flow properties. Care should be taken when making chemical
additions or altering the oil/water ratio to keep the rheological properties stable.
3.8.5 ELECTRICAL STABILITY Return to Table of Contents
This test determines the voltage potential required to initiate current flow in the mud. A stable oil
mud is one in which the water is well emulsified and therefore will not conduct electricity. As the
stability, or tightness of the emulsion increases, the greater will be the voltage potential required
to initiate current flow. However, it must be kept in mind that this test does not indicate whether
the system is in a good or poor condition. The reading obtained can be very unpredictable
because so many factors are involved. Therefore, it is difficult to place a true meaningful value
upon it.
As a guide over the long term, a decreasing voltage stability can indicate a weakening emulsion.
However an increase in water content or conductive solids can result in the same readings,
although the actual emulsion stability has not changed. In short, every facet of the oil mud has
an effect on the voltage stability reading. If they are not all considered, the number given by the
Emulsion Stability meter is of little value.
Generally an electrical stability of 400 volts or greater is acceptable. If the electrical stability
climbs over 1000 volts, the daily maintenance of additives can be reduced. Note that the newer
digital Emulsion Stability meters generally give a lower reading than the Fann Emulsion
Stability meter. To tighten the emulsion or increase the electrical stability, additional emulsifiers
and Hot Lime will be required.
Note: Free water in the HT-HP fluid loss test is the best indicator of emulsion instability.
3.8.6 FILTRATION Return to Table of Contents
If a relaxed fluid loss invert has been programmed, both API and HT-HP fluid loss should be
checked. On the relaxed filtrate systems, an API filtrate may be as high as 6-8 cm 3, and the HT-
HP filtrate as high as 20-25 cm3. Remember, the filtrate should be all oil.
For most Inverts used in Western Canada, the API fluid loss in normally zero, and the HT-HP
fluid loss at 150 C will be 6-10 cm3 . The filtrate again should be free of any water. The HT-HP
fluid loss is the best indicator of emulsion stability. This test should be conducted at bottom hole
tem plus 5-IO C or as indicated by the drilling fluid program. Indications of an increase in the
filtrate or water in the filtrate be attended to immediately. Additions of an asphalt will reduce the
filtrate, and in higher temperature situations will contribute to emulsion stability. Additions of the
concentrates and Hot Lime will remove water in the filtrate by increasing the a stability.
3.8.7 ACTIVITY / SALINITY Return to Table of Contents
The salinity of the water phase is normally formulated with Calcium Nitrate ( Envirofloc -
CaNO3) or Calcium Chloride (CaCl2) to balance the activity of the shale. Activity is a
measure of a shale’s affinity for water. Generally speaking the shale attempts to absorb
water from a mud to balance its salinity by osmotic forces. To counteract these forces,
the water phase of the invert contains sufficient salinity to balance the hydration and
osmotic forces of the shale, thus eliminating the absorption of water to the shale. The
Wapiabi and Blackstone shales commonly encountered in the Foothills of Western
Canada have activities of approximately 0.7.
Therefore the internal water phase activity should be adjusted to that of the shale with
additions of Calcium Chloride or Envirofloc (Calcium Nitrate) as required. The deeper the
well, the more compressed the shale becomes, therefore the activity of the Invert may
have to be lowered to balance the activity of the mud and formation. The mud may have
a lower activity than the shale, however, there are two schools of thought in regard to this
practice: either the shale becomes more brittle when dried out and weakens the wellbore,
or it hardens and becomes more stable.
The "activity" of the mud can be maintained or adjusted with CaCI 2 or Envirofloc, whichever is
required. Only powdered CaCl 2 can be added directly to the system to change the salinity.
Envirofloc should has to be added in solution.
3.8.8 RETORT Return to Table of Contents
The relationship between the oil/water ratio and weight is very important in the control of an oil
mud's rheological properties. Each company has its own formulation for these ratios related to
the required densities.
A little more time is usually required to obtain complete distillation of an oil mud than a water
base mud. High stability oil muds generally require slow initial heating to break the emulsion and
prevent the mud from boiling over during the early distillation process. Allow distillation to
continue for 10 minutes after the last distillate is observed.
It is often difficult to read the oil/water interface accurately. Sometimes there appears a milky
emulsion of the two phases at this point. Aerosol solution may help separate the phases.
Mechanically breaking the emulsion up with a stirring rod or simply allowing the graduate to
stand for an hour or so will help.
Use a high temperature style retort for best results.
NOTE: After the mud stabilizes the rheological properties desired should be allowed to
dictate the oil/water ratio to be used. That is, the oil/water ratio should be adjusted until
the appropriate Yield Point and Gel Strength is achieved. Having done this, check the
retort and determine the oil/water ratio. Once this ratio is stabilized the flow properties
will not change, as long as a proper chemical balance is maintained.
3.8.9 EXCESS LIME CONTENT Return to Table of Contents
Generally, maintaining an excess Lime content of 10-15 kg/m 3 in the oil mud is sufficient to
provide a tight emulsion from the concentrates.
If a H2S or CO2 bearing zone is anticipated, it is advisable to increase the excess Lime
concentration to 20-30 kg/m3. Careful monitoring of the Lime content should be made
throughout these intervals as both these gases, if allowed to influx into the wellbore, will lower
the alkalinity.
3.9 OIL MUD ENGINEERING GUIDELINES Return to Table of Contents
1. Premix all products so that the products have a chance to yield before going down hole.
Shearing the premix as much as possible for several hours will give a better initial rheology.
Add premixed Invert when the active volume is low.
2. The Calcium Nitrate (Envirofloc) should be dissolved in water prior to adding to the oil base
mud. Use the chemical barrel, pill or premix tank to prepare the brine for adding to the
active mud system.
It is recommended to saturate the water with Calcium Nitrate (Envirofloc). This will increase
the salinity of the water phase without lowering the OWR significantly.
3. If adding Barite or CaCO3 to the mud, add slowly a small amount of oil wetting agent to help
oil wet the solids. Discontinue adding all other products, especially water, while adding the
CaCO3 or Barite.
4. Watch the Yield Point closely in an oil base mud to ensure that effective hole cleaning and
weight material suspension is maintained. An organophyllic clay may be added to help
suspend the weight material without substantially increasing the yield value.
5. Small amounts (4-20 litres/min.) of diesel can be added to the active system when the Yield
Point or oil/water ratio gets high. This may be particularly useful in a high weighted oil mud.
6. Make no other additions while adding Barite or CaCO 3.
7. Vigorous agitation is necessary when adding materials to give maximum stability. The more
shear in an Invert, the better.
8. Always use a diesel spacer when displacing a fresh water mud from the hole or cementing.
9. If at any time the electrical stability falls below 400 volts, or if water is noticed in the filtrate,
add the appropriate emulsifiers and Hot Lime.
10. If weight material is not suspended properly, or if tight hole or hole fill is experienced, add
organophyllic clay.
11. Prior to working on the pumps, circulate at least "bottoms up" or as long as the pump is
going to be shut down.
12. A daily record is essential to properly control losses and reduce daily maintenance costs. It
is advisable to measure the tank volume several times per hour, to ensure that any losses
are detected immediately.
13. Hydraulics play an important role and shares equal importance with the mud program.
Excessive annular velocities should be avoided. The importance of circulating 5-10 minutes
before making a connection, especially when making fast hole or in any coal sections, is
imperative.
The pipe should be pulled slowly when tripping. Also circulating bottoms-up prior to a trip
will ensure minimum fill on bottom, and no tight spots coming out.
14. Be sure to do concentration calculations on the correct volume. An 80/20 OWR does not
mean the mud has 80% oil and 20% water, and thus these volumes should not be used to
calculate material concentrations. Solids content must be taken into consideration if using
"total volume" calculations. This is important to understand especially when calculating the
amounts of Envirofloc or Calcium Chloride to use.
15. When testing oil muds, it is important to follow the procedures exactly. Be sure to use the
exact volumes as indicated in the test procedures. A small error in volumes can produce a
large error in results.
16. If CaCO3 or Barite becomes water wet:
a. An effective treatment is to dilute the system with good uncontaminated premixed mud.
b. Reduce the water wet Barite or CaCO 3 content by discarding a portion of the mud, or by
centrifuging and discarding weight material or high gravity solids.
c. Treatments of emulsifier or an oil wetting agent will be beneficial.
17. Hot Lime must be added every time a emulsifier concentrate is added to the active system.
If H2S is anticipated, increase the excess Lime content to 20-30 kg/m³.
18. As water will thicken the system, care should be taken in this respect. Shale shakers should
not be washed with water. Water lines that leak or could contaminate the Invert mud should
be plugged off.
19. The rheology, funnel viscosity and emulsion stability should be checked at a constant
temperature as the viscosity of the fluid will vary greatly with temperature change.
20. The solids control equipment should be supervised and maintained in good working
condition at all times. Clean this equipment with diesel only.
21. Each of the additives in the oil base mud is present for a specific purpose. The mud will not
perform as intended if treated with more or one additive, or none of the other. Keep a good
chemical balance.
22. An oil base mud should look good. The Invert should always look “shiny” with small
dispersion rings. A grainy, dull, flat color indicates that something is wrong, and immediate
action should be taken.
3.10 OIL MUD FORMATION LOSSES Return to Table of Contents
Because of the high cost of an Invert drilling fluid, loss of circulation or the "potential" of
lost circulation zones is the single greatest drawback of an oil base mud.
Constant monitoring of the mud tanks should be made while drill ahead. The tanks should be
checked a minimum of 2 - 3 times every tour, with a record made of premix additions, surface
losses, and hole losses. The cuttings from the shale shaker and the underflow discharges from
the desilter and/or centrifuge(s) may be retorted to determine the approximate amount of Invert
mud that is being lost through the solids control equipment.
Various LCM materials have been added to prevent seepage loss in oil base muds, with
somewhat limited success. Cellulose LCM material such as Cellophane, Prima Seal, Fiber, and
to some extent Sawdust, tend to preferentially water wet in an Invert that could result in "balling
up" of the material. Materials which have generally been added to minimize loss of circulation
are:
1. Mica
2. Walnut Shell
3. Ultra Seal
4. Liquid Casing
5. Calcium Carbonate
Generally oil muds are treated with various concentrations of the above products on a tourly
basis. They are normally screened out with the shale shakers to prevent a solids buildup, and
minimize problems with the pumps.
If the rig has the capability, a highly concentrated 8-10 m³ pill can be made up in the pill tank with
the various LCM products, and the hole "swept" 2-3 times a tour, depending upon the severity of
the loss. The pill should be pumped back to the pill tank, where it can be reconditioned with
LCM material, and used again.
3.10.1 SEEPAGE LOSSES Return to Table of Contents
A close watch on daily or tourly seepage loss must be maintained to accurately know how much
is being lost to the formation. It must not be confused that seepage loss does not mean losses
occurred through the solids control equipment, retention of Invert on the cuttings, losses around
the lease, etc.
Once an accurate amount of seepage loss to the formation is determined, a procedure can be
set up as to the amount and type of LCM material that should be added to the Invert mud, in
order to minimize these losses.
The amount and concentration of LCM material to be added is strictly an economic choice. The
cost of the LCM material being added to the Invert mud must reduce the seepage loss to less
than the cost of the LCM material, or the treatment would be more expensive than the loss of the
Invert to the formation.
Below is a combination of materials that have been successfully used to reduce seepage loss.
1. 15-20 kg/m³ of fine grind "325 mesh" Calcium Carbonate, in combination with "0
Grind" Calcium Carbonate.
2. 5-15 kg/m³ of fine to medium grind Mica.
3. 15-75 kg/m³ Ultra Seal XP, depending on the severity of the seepage loss.
These products can be mixed together or separately through the hopper. Normally they
are screened out at the shale shaker or can be mixed as a pill prior to trips or surveys.
Ultra-Seal XP, and other lost circulation material should be stockpiled on location prior to drilling
ahead with Invert.
3.10.2 CONVENTIONAL OIL MUD “LCM” PILL (Whole Mud Loss)
The following is a recommended LCM pill when whole mud losses are encountered. LCM
material should not be added indiscriminately to an oil base mud. Approval from the operator
must be obtained prior to pumping any LCM pills.
1. Prior to spotting the pill, it is recommended that there should be no nozzles in the bit.
2. This pill should be isolated in a pill tank or separate premix tank. The LCM material can be
added through the hopper, or "gunned in" with a surface gun if available, or added
underneath the hopper discharge. Ensure all the LCM material is thoroughly mixed into the
mud before spotting the pill.
3. Mix the following materials into 10-15 m3 of Invert:
a. 30 kg/m³ Mica. Use a combination of 10 kg/m³ Mica Fine, 10 kg/m³ of Mica Medium,
and 10 kg/m³ of Mica Coarse.
b. 20-30 kg/m³ of fine #325 Grind to "0" Grind Calcium Carbonate.
c. 10-30 kg/m³ of Ultra Seal XP, “C” and Plus Grinds.
4. Pull up to just above the thief zone, and spot the pill slowly in the zone.
5. If this procedure fails, repeat the pill as above, only doubling the concentration of LCM
material. This pill should be pumped open ended. If not, ensure that there are no nozzles in
the bit.
6. If this procedure fails, another alternative should be considered, such as spotting cement,
etc.
3.10.3 DIASEAL “M” SQUEEZE (Oil Muds) Return to Table of Contents
Diaseal M may require some lead time for prompt delivery. If this pill is to be considered,
enough lead time will have to be given to ensure that the material is available.
Diaseal “M” Formulation With Diesel Oil

Material Required for a 10 m3 Slurry
Density Diesel Oil Diaseal “M” Barite Nut Plug / Mica

(kg/m3) (m3) (kg) (kg) (kg)
950 8.8 1250 0 450
1080 8.6 1170 1750 450
1200 8.3 1085 3490 450
1320 8.1 1000 5380 450
1440 7.7 925 7430 450
Due to the variations of oil and Barite, pilot tests should be made to determine exact
formulations. If the slurry becomes too thick, add up to 3.0 kg/m³ of an oil wetting agent to thin
the mud.
Approximately 40-70 kg/m³ of Mica or Nut Plug can be used in the above formulation without
change of properties. Absorbent LCM material such as Sawdust or Prima Seal should be
avoided as the slurry viscosity will increase.
3.11 OIL MUD PRODUCT CROSS REFERENCES Return to Table of Contents
Description M-I Baroid BH Inteq Dowell / Reef Mud Canamara Primary Application
IDF United
Oil Mud Versadrill Invermul Carbo-Drill Interdrill D Envirovert Chemoil Diesel oil Invert mud
System Name system
Mineral Oil Versaclean Enviromul - Interdrill N - - Mineral oil Invert mud
Mud system
Primary or Versamul Invermul Carbo-Mul Interdrill Enviromul I Chemul I Primary emulsifier in the
Basic NT Emul basic oil mud system
Emulsifier
Secondary or Versacoat EZ Mul Carbo-Mul Interdrill Enviromul Chemul II Secondary emulsifier
Organic HT Vistone II and wetting agent for
Surfactant invert muds
Emulsifier
Organophillic VG-69 Geltone II Carbo-Vis Interdrill Envirotone OMV-100 Viscosifier and gelling
Clay VG-Plus Emul Oilgel agent
VG-HT 3000
Oil Wetting Versawet Invermul Carbo-Tec L Interdrill Envirotreat Chemwet Improve oil wetting of
Agent O.W. OM solids and emulsion
stability
Asphaltic Resin Versatrol AK-70 Carbo-Trol Interdrill S - Gilsonite Controls HT-HT fluid loss
HT
Pulverized
Amine Treated Versalig Durotone Carbo Trol Interdrill - - Filtration Control
Lignite HT A-9
Oil Mud Versathin OMC - - - - Reduces viscosity and
Thinner gel strengths
LSRV Versamod Bara Resin ^-Up - - - Increases Yield Point,
Rheology Vis Gel Strengths, and
Modifier, carrying capacity
Viscosifier
Oil Mud Versa HRP X-Vis - Tru-Plex - Oilgel Increases Yield Point,
System 3000 Gel Strengths with
Viscosifier minimal Plastic Viscosity
Surfactant Clean-Up Bara-Klean Mil-Clean Idwash - C-3001 Detergent and degreaser
Cleaner for oil mud cleanup and
cuttings wash
Wetting Agent Versa SWA - - - - - Preferentially oil-wets
solids and reverse
potential water wetting
problems
Surfactant to Versatrim - - - - - Reduces oil retained on
Reduce Oil on cuttings
Cuttings

Chapter 4 Drilling Fluid Contaminants
TOPICS PAGE
4.1 MAKE UP WATER 1
4.2 ANHDYRITE CONTAMINATION 2
4.2.1 DETECTION 2
4.2.2 TREATMENT 3
4.3 CEMENT CONTAMINATION 4
4.3.1 DETECTION 4
4.3.2 TREATMENT 4
4.4 SALT CONTAMINATION 5
4.4.1 DETECTION 5
4.4.2 TREATMENT 5
4.5 CARBONATE / BICARBONATE CONTAMINATION 6
4.5.1 DETECTION 6
4.5.2 TREATMENT 7
4.6 HYDROGEN SULFIDE 7
4.6.1 DETECTION 8
4.6.2 TREATMENT 8
4.6.3 GENERAL PRECAUTIONS 11
4.7 HIGH SOLIDS 11
4.7.1 TREATMENT 11
4.8 CONTAMINANT SUMMARY 12
4.9 QUICK REFERENCE - RECOGNIZING AND TREATING CONTAMINANTS 13
4.9.1 CEMENT CONTAMINATION 13
4.9.2 MAGNESIUM CONTAMINATION 13
4.9.3 ANHYDRITE CONTAMINATION 14
4.9.4 SALT CONTAMINATION 14
4.9.5 CARBONATE / BICARBONATE CONTAMINATION 14
4.9.6 HYDROGEN SULFIDE 15
4.9.7 SALT WATER FLOW OR GAS KICK CONTAMINATION 15
4.9.8 CHEMICAL TREATMENT AND MUD PROPERTY CHANGES 16
5. CHAPTER 4
DRILLING MUD CONTAMINANTS
The composition and treatment of drilling fluids depends on the formations encountered, or
added intentionally during the drilling operations. Almost any of these materials under certain
circumstances can be considered contaminants. This chapter summarizes the various
contaminants and describes methods of chemical control and removal of water-soluble
contaminants.
If large quantities of contaminants are expected or accidentally encountered during

drilling, certain factors must be taken into account depending on the contaminants.
These factors are considered individually in the following discussions of each type of
contaminant.
In general, a contaminant is anything that causes undesirable changes in the mud

properties. In this sense, each of the essential components of water base muds may
become a contaminant in some situations. Solids are by far the most prevalent
contaminant in drilling mud. Bentonite added in excess, drill cuttings, or Barite may lead
to high rheological properties, and affect drilling rate. Water or excess chemical
treatment can lead to drastic mud changes and cause unnecessary and unscheduled
Bentonite additions.
Some contaminants can be predicted and pretreated. The predicable contaminates are
cement, make up water, massive salt or anhydrite, and gases such as Hydrogen Sulfide or
Carbon Dioxide. These contaminants can be chemically removed in some cases before
they have a chance to attack the clay or organic deflocculants. Pretreatment have
advantages as long as it is not excessive, and does not adversely affect mud properties.
Other contaminants are unpredictable and unexpected, such as those which result from a
small feed in to the mud, or a gradual build up of a contaminant. Eventually the
contaminant shows its effect by altering the mud properties of the mud system. This
change most often occurs when a drilling fluid is most susceptible, i.e.: when
deflocculants (thinners) are slightly depleted, or after a long trip, etc. when the fluid is
allowed to remain static and subjected to elevated downhole temperatures, or after an
additional contaminant enters the system. It is always necessary to keep complete
accurate records of drilling fluid properties, to see the gradual onset on contamination
and avoid deterioration of an otherwise good mud system
4.1 MAKE UP WATER Return to Table of Contents
Water is the controlling ingredient in all water base mud systems because it dissolves,
suspends, and surrounds all other ingredients making up the system.
Make up water containing any contamination will adversely affect the clay particles in a
mud system just as though the contaminants were picked up while drilling. For this
reason the mud engineer prior to spudding the well should check all unknown sources of
water. In many cases it will prove economical to use a more distant water source than to
chemically treat out brackish or alkaline water.
The common contaminants found in make up water include:
1. Calcium and Magnesium salts.

2. Sulfates
3. Carbonates and Bicarbonates
4. Chlorides (Salt)
There are basically two ways of handling the problem of contaminated make up water.
1. Treat out the undesirable contaminant with Caustic Soda, Soda Ash or Barium Carbonate.
For example, to determine the amount of Soda Ash required to treat out excessive total
hardness (Calcium and Magnesium Salts) in the make up water, use the following formula:
Soda Ash (kg/m3) = (Total Hardness, mg/L x .00014)
2. Leave the contaminants in and add sufficient amounts of dispersant such as SAPP, Desco
CF, Alcomer 74 or Lignite to control the flow properties.
If there are any doubts as to the purity of the make up water, a one litre sample should
immediately be sent to a water analysis laboratory. The sample will be analyzed for
impurities and a recommended treatment passed on to the parties involved.
4.2 ANHDYRITE CONTAMINATION Return to Table of Contents
Anhydrite can be found in thick beds, in stringers, in the make up water, and sometimes as the
cap rock of a salt dome. The chemical composition of Anhydrite is Calcium Sulfate (CaSO 4). It
is primarily the Calcium that causes the problem with the mud properties. The Calcium ion
attracts onto the negatively charged clay platelets, and initially tends to flocculate or "clobber"
Bentonite. As the anhydrite concentrations increase toward a maximum calcium solubility of
approximately 600 mg/L, a "base exchange" or change in the Bentonite characteristic occurs.
4.2.1 DETECTION Return to Table of Contents
If the mud is fresh water Gel Chemical system, anhydrite will affect the mud properties as
follows:
1. Funnel viscosity increase

2. Yield Point increase
3. Gel Strength increase. Will tend to be flat and fragile, i.e.: a flash Gel Strength (high
10 second Gel Strength that is close to the 10 minute Gel Strength).
4. Water loss increase
5. Decrease in the pH
6. Calcium ion increase
7. Sulfate ion increase
8. Small white cuttings over shale shaker.
4.2.2 TREATMENT Return to Table of Contents
1. If possible, the mud engineer should be on location prior to and while drilling any anhydrite
sections. If the contamination is not severe, usually the treatment involves adding Soda Ash
(Na2CO3) to precipitate the Calcium ion as Calcium Carbonate.
CaSO4 + Na2CO3  CaCO3  + Na2SO4
Prior to penetrating the anhydrite, the pH should be increased to approximately 10.0-10.5

with Caustic Soda. The higher the pH, the less soluble Calcium becomes. A pretreatment
of approximately 2.0-3.0 kg/m3 Soda Ash is generally made. While drilling through the
anhydrite, the mud engineer should check the properties closely at the flow line and suction
tank, and treat accordingly with Soda Ash and Caustic Soda as required.
2. If the anhydrite contamination is severe and the section to be drilled is quite

thick, the mud system may be allowed to “GYP” over and dispersed to control any
flocculation. Exact properties, the required level of dispersion and whether the Calcium ion
will be treated out or not, will be determined in the drilling fluid program.
With the new environmental regulations regarding the amount of Sodium allowed in the soil
(Sodium Absorption Ratio), only small amounts of Soda Ash, if any should be used to treat
out the soluble Calcium. Most often, no Soda Ash is mixed, and the Calcium level climbs
depending upon the amount of anhydrite drilled. The mud properties are then controlled with
additions of thinners, and Calcium tolerant fluid loss additives such as Drilstar HT and/or
Starpak DP.
3. Barium Carbonate (BaCO3) may been used for treating small amounts of
Anhydrite contamination, but is not a common chemical used in Western Canada. The
primary advantage of this product is that the Calcium ion and the (SO 4)-2 radical are both
precipitated.
CaSO4 + BaCO3  CaCO3  + BaSO4 
The disadvantage of the product is that it is quite expensive and can be quite toxic. It
requires approximately 4.1 kg/m3 of BaCO3 to precipitate 2.85 kg of Anhydrite, which makes
it economically impractical to treat appreciable quantities of Anhydrite.
4. Care must be taken not to add too much Soda Ash (Sodium Carbonate) while treating out
anhydrite as a Carbonate problem may occur. It is always best to leave a little soluble
Calcium in the mud system, i.e.: 60-80 mg/L Calcium to ensure this problem does not exist.
Soluble Sodium Sulfate (Na2SO4) formed in the reaction from the Soda Ash treatment, could
cause flocculation problems with prolonged treatments, which may require a higher level of
dispersion.
4.3 CEMENT CONTAMINATION Return to Table of Contents
In most drilling operations cement contamination occurs one or more times when casing is
cemented, and/or plugs are drilled out. One advantage to encountering cement over other
contaminants, is the fact that it is always known when the cement is to be drilled. The extent of
contamination and its effect on mud properties depend on several factors. These include solids
content, type and concentration of dispersants, and quantity of cement incorporated.
Cement contains compounds of Tricalcium Silicate, Calcium Silicate and Tricalcium Aluminate,
all of which react with water to form large amounts of Calcium Hydroxide Ca(OH) 2. It is the
Calcium Hydroxide (Lime) released by cement reacting with water that causes most of the
difficulty associated with cement contamination.
Lime in drilling fluids causes chemical reactions, which are detrimental to rheological and fluid
loss properties. As with the anhydrite contamination, the Ca +2 ion in the Lime will flocculate
Bentonite, and the presence of the Hydroxyl ions (OH-) will increase the pH drastically.
Fresh water Gel Chemical systems will be flocculated by cement, resulting in the following
changes of the mud properties:

2. Yield Point increase
3. Gel Strength increase - Flat and fragile
4. Water loss increase
5. Dramatic increase in pH
6. Pf alkalinity increase
7. Calcium ion increases.
Chemical treatment must be used to remove the cement contamination. The aim of the
treatment is to control the pH while removing Calcium and the excess Lime from the
system as an inert, insoluble Calcium precipitate. This is done primarily with Sodium
Bicarbonate (commonly referred to as Bicarb).
Ca(OH)2 + NaHCO3  CaCO3  + NaOH + H2O
1. To chemically remove 100 mg/L of Calcium originating from Lime (Cement) would require
approximately 0.21 kg/m3 of Bicarb. Quite often a pretreatment of 1.5-2.0 kg/m 3 is made to
the active system prior to drilling out the cement. After the initial circulation, the interface
between the mud and cement may be badly flocculated; therefore the mud is normally
dumped to the sump for a short period of time. Care must be taken not to over treat with
Sodium Bicarbonate, as a Bicarbonate ion problem may occur, making viscosity control
difficult.
2. SAPP (Sodium Acid Pyrophosphate) is another very good product for controlling cement
contamination. SAPP is a very powerful phosphate thinner having a pH of approximately
4.0. It will have a threefold effect combating cement contamination by dispersing (thinning)
the mud, lowering the pH, and sequestering (removing) the Calcium at the same time.
Treatments will vary, but normally a concentration of 0.25-0.75 kg/m 3 SAPP is sufficient to
thin the mud. A treatment of 0.28 kg/m 3 SAPP will chemically remove 100 mg/L of Calcium
originating from the cement. SAPP has a temperature limitation of approximately 85 C.
3. Materials such as Alcomer 74 or 72L can also be used to deflocculate or disperse cement
contaminated mud. Both have a low pH of approximately 4.0 but require a higher level of
concentration than SAPP to effectively disperse the mud. When cement is completely set or
hard, only about 10% is normally available for contamination. Whereas, when cement is soft
(green), as high as 50% of the cement may be dispersed and available to react.
Because pH values are high when drilling cement, the quantity of Calcium ion in solution
rarely exceeds 300 to 400 mg/L. For this reason, much of the cement drilled remains as
discrete particles and is available to replace the calcium that has been treated out of
solution. High concentrations of excess Lime may require many days to remove, particularly
if mechanical solids removal devices such as mud cleaners, fine screen shakers and
centrifuges are not used.
4.4 SALT CONTAMINATION Return to Table of Contents
Salt is not a common occurrence in Western Canada, but can be encountered in Rainbow Lake,
Zama Lake, Senex or Kidney areas of northern Alberta; south central area of Alberta such as the
Bashaw, Clive or Drumheller areas; to the south eastern Estevan area of Saskatchewan.

2. Gel Strength increase
3. Fluid loss increase
4. Decrease in pH and Pf alkalinity
5. Chloride ion increase
6. Fluctuation in density - if a salt water flow is encountered
7. "Grainy" appearance to mud.
Salt cannot be precipitated by chemical means. If salt is encountered, treatments of a

dispersant such as Desco CF or Alcomer 74 and Caustic Soda are usually required. It is
generally not feasible or practical to dilute the Salt content with fresh water. The required
amount of thinner or dispersant will depend upon the concentration of Salt encountered,
but the pH should be maintained at 10.0-11.0 with Caustic Soda, as required. If
supplementary fluid loss control is required, do not use CMC. A polyanionic cellulose
polymer such as Drispac or Staflo, or the modified starches such as Drilstar HT or
Starpak DP, work much more effectively in a Salt environment.
In concentrations above 10,000 mg/L Salt, the hydration of Bentonite becomes severely
limited. In a case as this, utilize a premix tank to prehydrate all the Bentonite in fresh
water prior to adding to the active system. Generally, Attapulgite or Sepiolite Clay (Salt
Gel) is not recommended because most rigs do not have adequate mixing facilities to
shear the product sufficiently. The fluid loss characteristics also become very difficult to
control. If the salt section to be drilled is thick, switching the mud system over to
saturated salt water or an invert mud may be more beneficial and economical.
Salt muds can be corrosive in nature, unless the fluid is saturated. Corrosion rings should be
run and monitored when running a Salt mud system. Maintaining a high pH will reduce the
corrosion of a Salt mud, but it takes approximately twice as much Caustic Soda to maintain a pH
in the same range as compared to a water base mud system. An Oxygen corrosion inhibitor
such as Corinox or KD-40 should be run when utilizing a Salt Water mud system.
4.5 CARBONATE / BICARBONATE CONTAMINATION
Carbonate problems occur from a variety of sources. Every oil and gas bearing formation
contains C02 gas as a result of either oxidation or anaerobic bacteria attack on the
hydrocarbons. Limestone formations that have been subjected to heating effects from volcanic
activity or acidizing will contain C0 2 gas. Lignosulfonates will give off C0 2 when subjected to
high temperatures. Lignite is a prime source due to its humic acid content. Both dispersants
are subject to bacteria attack, which can release C0 2 as part of the degradation process.
Mechanical solids control and mixing equipment tend to aerate the mud, consequently
injecting a certain amount of C0 2 into the system. Overtreatment with Soda Ash or Sodium
Bicarbonate could also cause a Carbonate / Bicarbonate buildup.
Carbon Dioxide enters a water base mud system and immediately changes its chemical
composition depending upon pH. Below a pH of 6.3, C0 2 ions are predominant; from a pH of
6.3-10.3 Bicarbonate (HC03-) ions dominate; and a pH above10.3, Carbonates (C0 3=) are the
major ion. Most of our Gel Chemical and dispersed systems have a pH of higher than 10.0,
therefore in most cases; excess Carbonates cause the mud difficulties associated with this
problem.

A Carbonate / Bicarbonate mud problem has been one of the most difficult contaminates to
identify in the field. Characteristically, the problem will show that the Yield Point and Gel
Strengths will steadily increase in a pattern similar to a fine solids buildup. Large amounts of
water in the past have been added to thin the mud; and subsequent massive additions of
chemicals were required to compensate for the dilution. As in the case with any problem, early
identification is essential to proper remedial treatment.
It is important to note that no one individual mud test will pin point a Carbonate problem. Several
indicators will establish the possibility of the problem such as:
1. Disparity between the Pf / Mf alkalinity

2. Increase in the Yield Point
3. Increase in the 10 minute Gel Strength
4. Solids (retort) are normal
5. Pm alkalinity is lower than the Mf
The best method for detection is to utilize the Garret Gas Train as outlined in Chapter 1, section
1.13.3. Also outlined in the section are the Pf / Mf and Pl / P2 calculations to determine the
amount of soluble Carbonates / Bicarbonates in the mud system.
As a general rule, anything less than a 1000 mg/L of Bicarbonates or Carbonates will not cause
any mud difficulties. Treatment of a Carbonate problem is accomplished with the incorporation
of Lime into the mud system.
CO3-2 + Ca(OH)2  CaCO3  + 2(OH)-
This treatment can be difficult, depending upon the solids concentration, etc. and pilot testing
should be done before adding the Lime to the active system. The Lime should be mixed in water
through the chemical barrel to ensure it is evenly distributed throughout the system. A
concentration of 0.25-0.75 kg/m3 is normally a sufficient treatment.
4.6 HYDROGEN SULFIDE Return to Table of Contents
Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S) occurs in various formations throughout Western Canada. Hydrogen
Sulfide is particularly harmful because it not only can disrupt mud flow properties; it accelerates
corrosion, and is toxic. Extreme safety is required when encountering H 2S gas. Not only is
it destructive to metal components, but it can kill people. Therefore, the importance of
exercising all safety precautions when handling Hydrogen Sulfide cannot be
overstressed.
TOXICITY OF HYDROGEN SULFIDE TO MAN
% H2S 2-15 Min. 30 Min. – 1 Hour 4 – 8 hours 8 – 48 hours

0.5 – 1.0% Respiratory tract
50-100 mg/L irritation
1.0 – 5.0% Irritation of eyes. Throat irritation Sharp pain in Hemorrhage and
100-150 mg/L Loss of smell eyes; coughing death *
0.5-2.0% Loss of smell Throat and eye Hemorrhage and
150-200 mg/L irritation death *
2.5-4.5% Irritation of eyes. Dull pain in head. Death *
350-450 mg/L Loss of smell Weariness
5.0-6.0% Respiratory Severe pain in
500-600 mg/L disturbances; eyes and head;
Collapse dizziness; death *
6% + Collapse *,
600-1500 mg/L unconsciousness,
death *
* Data secured from experiments on dogs, which have susceptibility similar to man
1. Hach Sulfide Test (Chapter 1; Section 1.8.2)
The Hach Test is a very simple test that can be conducted on both whole mud and filtrates.
A sample of mud or filtrate is acidified and then bubbled by adding Sodium Bicarbonate to a
small container fitted with a lid holding a lead-acetate treated paper. The expelled gas is
passed through the lead-acetate paper. By comparing the shade of the darkened paper with
a standard, a close approximation of the amount of Sulfides can be determined. Due to
variations in the pH of muds, a fixed amount of acid added to the mud may vary the results
of the test.
2. Garret Gas Train – Water Base Muds (Chapter 1; Section 1.8.2)
This is a more sophisticated way of measuring the Sulfides in muds and filtrates than the
Hach Test measures. It can be very beneficial when a small amount of Hydrogen Sulfide is
being induced into the mud. Sulfides can be detected by this method at lower
concentrations than by the Hach Test.
3. Garret Gas Train - Invert Muds (Chapter 3; Section 3.5.9)
The Garret Gas Train can also be utilized to detect soluble Sulfides in Invert muds. Invert
Emulsion muds can be treated with various solvents and the water phase separated and
titrated for alkalinity. By monitoring the alkalinity of Invert Emulsion muds, a high level of
Lime can be maintained to combat Hydrogen Sulfide.
Treatment of the drilling mud is very important when drilling in areas where Hydrogen Sulfide
may be encountered. If the Hydrogen Sulfide can be reacted chemically in the annulus then it
will not have to be dealt with on the surface. If the reaction is fast enough and pretreatment
concentration is adequate, then pipe failure also can be avoided.
1. The only permanent solution to controlling H 2S gas is to increase the mud density
sufficiently to prevent further intrusion into the wellbore. If an influx is taken, the severity of a
H2S problem is directly related to the pH of the mud system. That is, H 2S gas will react with
the Hydroxyl ions of the existing mud to dissociate into Bisulfide (HS -) or Sulfide (S-) ions,
which are not detrimental to rig personnel or metal goods, Therefore, a high pH of 10.5-11.0
should be maintained at all times while drilling through any potential H 2S bearing zone.
While the S= species is harmless to life and metal goods, it should be emphasized that the
potential for danger is present. If the pH was to drop to a low enough value; for example,
from a water flow or C02 gas, the S= species would revert back to the H2S gas.
2. There are a number of specifically designed products to precipitate out Sulfides, and pick up
Hydrogen to minimize stress cracking of high tensile strength metal. Some of the more
popular products mud products that are used to treat H 2S is Zinc Carbonate or Zinc
Chelated compounds. The drilling fluid program will state recommended concentrations and
handling procedures with the various products.
Treatment of a Small Influx of H2S with Alkalinity (Water Base Muds):
Drilling any formation containing H2S could release H2S into the drilling fluid. Small amounts of
H2S can be controlled with mud alkalinity, which will neutralize the acid gas. The amount of H 2S
the mud system can tolerate may be calculated as follows:
mg/LH2S = 682 X Pm
SG
Where: Pm is the ml of N50 Sulfuric Acid (H2SO4) to neutralize 1 ml of mud

: SG is the specific gravity of the mud
NB: Caution should be exercised when using this method to treat H 2S, as it is a reversible
reaction.
Pretreatment with Zinc Carbonate:
In the case where pretreatment is required for larger volumes and/or higher concentrations of
acid gases, the use of ZnCO3 (Zinc Carbonate) is recommended.
An initial treatment of 3.0 kg/m3 ZnCO3 is sufficient to treat out 500 mg/L of soluble H 2S.
Rules of Thumb Treatment for Zinc Carbonate:
a. For concentrations of H2S less than 100 mg/L:
kg/m3 of ZnCO3 = H2S

166
Where H2S = mg/L of H2S in the filtrate
b. For concentrations of H2S greater than 100 mg/L:
kg/m3 of ZnCO3 = H2S

166
Where H2S = mg/L of H2S in the filtrate
The same formula can be used to calculate the required amount of ZnCO 3, but treatment
requires the addition of 35 kg of Gypsum plus 15 kg of Lime for every 100 kg of ZnCO 3 added to
the system.
These 2 chemicals need to be mixed at the same time to prevent any rheological effects from a
Carbonate build up. The additional Lime is required to maintain the hydroxyl level for effective
H2S scavenging. The pH of the mud system should be maintained in the 10.5-11.0 range.
Mixing Procedures for ZnCO3:
Zinc Carbonate should be added directly to the system through the hopper. It should be
added no faster than 10-15 min.’s/sack and slower if the solids content exceeds 6% by
volume.
Prior to encountering a possible H 2S bearing zone, it is recommended that the mud system may
be pretreated with ZnCO3. The Sulfide content of the mud should be determined with the Garret
Gas Train.
A concentration of 3.0 kg/m3 will remove approximately 500 mg/L H2S. An excess amount of
ZnCO3 should be maintained in the system.
The addition of ZnCO3 mixed faster than 10-15 min’s/sack can result in aeration of the system.
Monitor the addition rate closely - the slower the product is added the better.
Because of the slight solubility of Zinc Carbonate, some flocculation of the mud can be
expected. The degree of viscosity and Gel Strength increase will be determined by the
solids content of the mud. Additions of Desco CF or Alcomer 74 should be used to
maintain the viscosity in the desired range.
Environmental Consideration when Using Zinc Carbonate:
Under the new sump guidelines, the addition of any heavy metal requires the sump to be
sampled before any disposal can take place.
The allowable amount of Zinc is 600 kilograms.
To assist in calculating the amount of Zinc added to the system with the addition of Zinc
Carbonate, it is reasonable to use the following formula:
Zinc, kilograms = Zinc Carbonate X 0.57
Regulation ID #G50 also deals with the soil loading for heavy metals and set the land spreading
maximum of 300 kg/hectare for Zinc.
Treatment of a Influx of H2S with Alkalinity (Oil Base Muds):
In some areas where Hydrogen Sulfide may be encountered it has become a practice to use oil
base muds. This seems to provide protection for metal goods. However, the solubility of
Hydrogen Sulfide in oil is greater than it is in water and more pressure dependent. Therefore,
more Hydrogen Sulfide could be carried in an oil mud and released all at once when pressure is
removed, causing a large volume of free hydrogen sulfide at the surface. By adding excess
Lime to Invert muds (20-30 kg/m3), one can take advantage of having high alkalinity for reacting
with Hydrogen Sulfide. This necessitates a complicated test for residual alkalinity in the oil-base
muds and still leaves a potential problem of flashing dissolved hydrogen sulfide out of the mud
as pressure is reduced.
4.6.3 GENERAL PRECAUTIONS Return to Table of Contents
1. Each person whose work may put him where H 2S may be present, should be well
informed of the characteristics of H2S, its dangers, safety procedures, recommended first
aid procedures, etc.
2. Instructions in the use of protective equipment should be given to all employees.
3. Protective equipment should be available when working where H2S may be present.
4. Before entering air suspected of containing Hydrogen Sulfide, a test should be made to
determine whether or not the gas is present and its concentrations.
5. Do not try to determine the presence of the gas by its odor. The sense of smell is rapidly
paralyzed by H2S.
6. Personnel should use the buddy system and wear air masks in any area that is known or
suspected to have in excess of 20 mg/L H2S.
7. Poison gas signs should be widely used at well locations, on leases and on all buildings or
other locations where H2S is or may be present.
8. Prevent the escape of H2S fumes into the air of work areas by leaks, etc.
9. Adequate ventilation systems should be used to keep the gas removed from the work area.
10. Never enter a tank, cellar, building or other enclosed or low place where the gas has
accumulated without wearing proper respiratory protection equipment and a safety belt
secured by a life line held by a responsible person outside.
11. Air masks should be used while working in high places whenever the slightest danger of H 2S
exists, as H2S can quickly render a worker unconscious and cause him to fall off a tank or
other elevated area.
4.7 HIGH SOLIDS Return to Table of Contents
Drilled solids are the number one contaminant of any mud system. It is the one problem the
mud engineer has to contend with from spud to total depth. Adverse effects caused by drilled
solids account for the major portion of drilling fluid maintenance expenditures. These
detrimental effects include the following:
1. Increased drilling fluid maintenance costs.

2. Difficulty in maintaining proper rheological properties.
3. Reduce penetration rates.
4. Increased frequency of differential sticking.
5. Increased circulation pressure losses.
6. Increase in the severity of contaminants such as anhydrite, salt, cement, etc.
1. The following attached chart is a guideline of the recommended solids content of a fresh
water mud for a given density.
2. The sand trap and shaker tank should be dumped and cleaned regularly to keep the solids
content and mud density in an economical range. Keep the pit equalizers a high as possible
and always add a good stream of water while drilling.
3. Refer to the chapter on Solids Control.
RECOMMENDED SOLIDS CONTENT FOR WATER BASE MUDS
4.8 CONTAMINANT SUMMARY Return to Table of Contents
Treating chemical contaminants is a difficult process. As was discussed under the various
contaminant sections, the accurate detection of the contamination concentration is complicated
by interfering ions. The test results may indicate a concentration, which is too high or too low,
depending upon the contaminant and the mud composition. The same ions, which mask the test
results also, interfere with the treatment process. Buffers and other unexpected compounds in
solution can negate the treatment or produce unexpected results.
To maximize the chances of successfully treating a contaminant, it is recommended to adhere to

the following:
1. Proven test procedures with solutions and equipment of known quality and accuracy should
be used.
2. Always undertreat a contaminant. An additional smaller treatment is preferable to the
problems caused by overtreatment.
3. Addition of the additives slowly over one or two circulations insures an even distribution
throughout the mud system.
4. Adequate time must be allowed to achieve expected results before concluding that the
additive is ineffective.
5. Pilot test whenever possible and practical.
6. It is necessary to keep a detailed record of all treatments and test results so that the
unexpected mud rheology changes caused by delayed chemical reactions can be identified.
7. Precipitates frequently remove organic additives from the mud and should be replaced as
required.
8. Chemical treatments should not be used as replacement for good solids control.
9. Observe the order of chemical additions in two stage treatments.
4.9 QUICK REFERENCE - RECOGNIZING AND TREATING CONTAMINANTS
4.9.1 CEMENT CONTAMINATION
Detection:
1. Increase in funnel viscosity, Yield Point, and Gel Strengths.

2. Increase in pH, Pm, and Pf (particularly Pm).
3. Increase in fluid loss.
4. Increase in excess Lime and soluble Calcium (later).
Treatment:
1. Depending on the type of mud system in use, SAPP or other thinners such as Desco CF or
Alcomer 74, and Sodium Bicarbonate may be used to lower the pH and precipitate out the
soluble Calcium. The clay particles are then free to react with the thinner or deflocculant in
use.
2. Large treatments of water, Desco CF or Alcomer 74 to control flow properties. Additions of
Bentonite and fluid loss additives are made to obtain the desired fluid loss after flow
properties are under control.
4.9.2 MAGNESIUM CONTAMINATION Return to Table of Contents
Detection:
1. Unstable Yield Point and fluid loss.

2. High levels of hardness after treating Calcium with Soda Ash.
Treatment:
Note: The following treatment is for minor levels of contamination, such as from
seawater. Do not use Caustic Soda when treating massive Magnesium contamination
such as from Carnalite
1. Raise the pH to 11.0 with Caustic Soda or Caustic Potash (KOH) to remove Magnesium.
2. Maintain the pH at this level to prevent Magnesium from resolubilizing from Mg(OH) 2.
4.9.3 ANHYDRITE CONTAMINATION Return to Table of Contents
Detection:
1. Increase in funnel viscosity, Yield Point, and Gel Strengths.

3. Increase in soluble Calcium.
4. Possible decrease in Pf and pH.
Treatment:
1. Precipitate or sequester soluble Calcium with Phosphates (SAPP) or Soda Ash. Reduce
viscosity with treatments of a thinner such as Desco CF or Alcomer 74, and Caustic Soda.
Lower the fluid loss with PAC materials such as Drispac or Staflo, and supplemented with
the more Calcium tolerant fluid loss additives such as Drilstar HT or Starpak DP.
2. Allow the anhydrite to remain in the system to give a soluble Calcium level of 400-600 mg/L.
Control the viscosity with dispersants, pH and Caustic Soda, and the fluid loss with Drispac,
Staflo and/or Drilstar HT or Starpak DP.
4.9.4 SALT CONTAMINATION Return to Table of Contents
Detection:
1. Increase in funnel viscosity, Yield Point and Gel Strengths.

3. Increase in soluble Chlorides and Calcium.
4. Decrease in pH and Pf.
Treatment:
1. Dilute the Salt concentration with water if the Salt formation is to be cased off shortly after
drilling. Treat the fluid with dispersants for viscosity control. Add Caustic Soda and Lime in
a 1:2 ratio for pH and Pf control. Use the Starch base fluid loss additives such as Drilstar HT
or Starpak DP and prehydrated Bentonite for fluid loss control.
2. If the Salt section is not to be cased off, and the formation is to be left exposed for a long
period of time, saturate the system with Sodium Chloride (Salt) to prevent further hole
enlargement. Control the viscosity with treatments of Desco CF, plus Caustic Soda and
Lime. Control the fluid loss additions of Drispac and/or Drilstar HT and Starpak DP, and
prehydrated Bentonite additions. If Starch is used for fluid loss control only, maintain the
Chlorides at saturation (±190,000 mg/L) to prevent fermentation of the Starch. If not, then a
Biocide will have to be utilized.
4.9.5 CARBONATE / BICARBONATE CONTAMINATION
Detection: Return to Table of Contents
1. High Gel Strengths.

2. Increase in Pf with a constant pH.
3. Increase in the difference between the Pf and Mf alkalinity.
4. Increase in the Carbonate or Bicarbonate levels.
Treatment:
1. Raise the pH to 10.3 to 11.3.

2. Add Lime and/or Gypsum – two soluble sources of Calcium to remove Carbonates.
4.9.6 HYDROGEN SULFIDE
Detection:
1. Decreasing alkalinities.
2. Slight foul odor (rotten eggs) at the flowline.
3. Mud or pipe turns black.
Treatment:
1. Increase the pH to 10.5-11.0 with Caustic Soda.

2. Buffer with Lime.
3. Add a H2S scavenger such as Zinc Carbonate.
4.9.7 SALT WATER FLOW OR GAS KICK CONTAMINATION
Detection: Return to Table of Contents
1. Increase in the mud pit level.

2. Increase in the rate of returns form the wellbore.
3. Increase in Chloride content of the mud.
Treatment:
1. Shut down the pump.

2. Pick up off bottom to clear the kelly bushing.
3. Close in the well with the BOP.
4. Measure the drill pipe pressure, and calculate the additional mud density that will be required
to balance the kick.
5. Increase the mud density to the required density while circulating the kick out at a reduced
pump rate.
6. If it is a gas kick, remove the gas form the system by use of the surface circulating
equipment and degassers.
7. If it is a Saltwater flow, dump the salt water at the surface (if possible). Then condition the
fluid with additional dispersants and Caustic Soda. Dilution of the NaCl ion concentration
with freshwater may be required. Small treatments of Lime and Caustic Soda may also be
required for pH and Pf control.
Contaminant Contamination Ion Treatment Treating
Concentration
(kg/m3)
Carbon Dioxide Carbonate Gyp to maintain pH mg/L X Fw X 0.00285
Bicarbonate Lime to raise pH mg/L X Fw X 0.00121
Anhydrite or Gypsum Calcium Soda Ash mg/L X Fw X 0.00265
SAPP mg/L X Fw X 0.00277
Sodium Bicarbonate mg/L X Fw X 0.002097
Lime or Cement Calcium and Hydroxyl Sodium Bicarbonate kg/m3 Excess Lime X 3.23
SAPP kg/m3 Excess Lime X 3.281
Citric Acid kg/m3 Excess Lime X 5.4
Hard or Seawater Calcium or Magnesium Caustic Soda mg/L X Fw X 0.00285
Hydrogen Sulfide Sulfide ( H2S, HS-, S2-) Zinc Carbonate plus mg/L X Fw X 0.002596
sufficient Caustic Soda
to maintain a pH of
10.5-11.0
1. Fw is the fractional % of water from the retort.

2. Excess Lime (kg/m3) = 0.074178 {Pm – (Pf X Fw)}. Return to Table of Contents
4.9.8 CHEMICAL TREATMENT AND MUD PROPERTY CHANGES
Contaminant WT FV PV YP Gels FL pH Pm Pf Mf Cl- Ca+2 Solids Treatment

Cement            pH  Bicarb,
11.5 SAPP, Desco
Citric Acid
Anhydrite              Caustic,
Dilution and
Thinner, or
Soda Ash
Salt              Caustic,
Water
Dilution,
Thinners
Carbonate or              pH < 10.3:
Bicarbonate Lime
pH 10.3-11.3:
Lime and
Gyp
pH> 11.3:
Gyp
H2S              Caustic,
Lime, ZnCO3
Solids – Old              Dilution and
Solids Control
Equipment
Solids – New              Dilution,
Solids
Removal
Equipment,
Thinners
 Increase  Decrease  No Change  Slight Increase  Slight Decrease


Chapter 5 Mud Related Drilling Problems
TOPICS Return to table of contents PAGE
5.1 STUCK PIPE 1
5.1.1 BRIDGING 1
5.1.2 DIFFERENTIAL STICKING 2
5.2 LOSS OF CIRCULATION 6
5.2.1 CONVENTIONAL "LCM" PILL 6
5.2.2 GUNK SQUEEZES 7
5.2.3 CALCIUM CARBONATE (CaCO3) PILL - "CEMENTING UNIT REQUIRED" 8
5.2.4 CALCIUM CARBONATE (CaCO3) PILL - NO CEMENTING UNIT REQUIRED 9
5.2.5 DIASEAL "M" PILL 9
5.2.6 THIXOTROPIC CEMENT SQUEEZE 11
5.2.7 SEPIOLITE (Sea Mud / Salt Gel) LCM PILL 12
5.2.8 “ULTRA SEAL” LCM PILL 12
5.2.9 ULTRASEAL “POLY PLUG” GEL SEALANT 13
5.3 SHALE PROBLEMS AND BOREHOLE STABILITY 15
5.3.1 RUBBLE ZONES 15
5.3.2 SHALE HYDRATION AND DISPERSION 16
5.4 COAL 18
5.5 FOAMING 19
5.6 BARITE PLUG 20
5.7 CORROSION 21
CHAPTER 5
MUD RELATED DRILLING PROBLEMS
5.1 STUCK PIPE Return to table of contents
The drill string can be stuck for may reasons including poor hole cleaning due to inadequate mud
carrying capacity, sloughing shale, key seating and/or differential pressure sticking.
5.1.1 BRIDGING
Bridges can be caused by poor cleaning or by sloughing of the walls into the wellbore. The key
to a muds lifting capacity is indicated by the appearance of formation solids coming over the
shale shaker. An unusually large amount of shale indicates that the hole is washing out.
Rounded edges on large cuttings show that these pieces have been tumbling in the hole for a
long time and are not being lifted out effectively. Long splinters or fissured shale may indicate
that the shale is "popping" into the wellbore, indicative of overpressured shale. At times large
amounts of material can remain in the hole without any surface indication that a hole cleaning
problem exists.
Large pieces of rock, which are not removed from the hole often, become lodged between
stabilizers or reamers and the hole. If this occurs while drilling, the torque required to rotate the
drill string will increase rapidly. If pieces of rock become lodged while making a connection or
during a trip, the additional pull of the hook will appear as a drag. A sudden increase in pump
pressure can sometimes be observed, as bridges form and restrict mud flow up the annulus.
Methods of preventing stuck pipe due to sloughing shale or inadequate hole cleaning may
include the following:
a) Increase the viscosity and particularly the Yield Point of the mud. There is no exact yield
value that can be specified, as every situation is unique, but generally an upper Yield Point
of ±15 Pa should clean most cuttings or cavings from the wellbore. Again watch the shale
shaker closely to determine the characteristics of cuttings.
b) If possible annular hydraulics should be improved, to provide faster cuttings transport. Pump
liners may have to be changed or larger bit nozzles utilized so that more fluid may be
circulated without excessive pump pressure buildup. Critical velocities should be calculated
to avoid turbulent flow that could increase shale problems by tearing up or eroding the hole.
c) Use viscous pills to sweep the hole when drilling. This is a common and effective practice
when drilling with flocculated water.
d) Increasing the mud density may be beneficial in some cases to balance the pore
pressure of the shale, and to help hold formations in place to stabilize the
wellbore.
e) Reducing the water loss may help to minimize the hydration of shales and
wetting along bedding planes with could disperse and slough into the wellbore.
f) The drill string itself should be evaluated to minimize flexure of the string against the sides of
the wellbore, which might tend to physically knock shale from the walls of the borehole.
g) Keep the hole full at all times. Avoid excessive surge or swab pressures by tripping slowly,
especially if a float is utilized in the string.
h) Use invert mud or inhibitive water base mud.
5.1.2 DIFFERENTIAL STICKING Return to table of contents
Differential pressure sticking of the drill pipe can be defined as the force that holds the pipe
against the wall of the borehole due to the differential pressure between the hydrostatic pressure
of the mud column and the formation pressure. The pressure differential acts in the direction of
the lower pressure in the formation. This pressure pushes the pipe toward the permeable
formation. As the pressure differential gets larger, the force exerted on the pipe gets larger.
Differential stuck pipe occurs most often at a point next to the drill collars. This is due to the drill
collars being larger; hence more surface area is in contact with the side of the wellbore.
The following are major factors in differential pressure sticking:
a) The pipe becomes stuck opposite a permeable formation.

b) The sticking occurs after an interruption of pipe movement.
c) The pipe comes in contact with a soft, mushy or non-resilient type wall cake.
If the pipe is differentially stuck, as opposed to other types of sticking, the following will occur:
a) Circulation, if interrupted, will be restored and maintained after sticking is noticed.

b) The pipe cannot be raised or lowered.
c) No large amounts of cuttings are circulated out.
The force required to move differentially stuck pipe could exceed the strength of the drill pipe.
Several preventative steps can be taken to minimize the chances of becoming stuck:
a) The mud density should be maintained as low as practical, taking into consideration wellbore
stability and potential well control problems.
b) Keep the pipe moving or rotating. Avoid undue shutdowns and/or slow connections. Use
spiral drill collars to reduce the contact area against the wellbore.
c) Maintain a low fluid loss and pay particular attention to the filter cake; i.e.: it should be thin,
tough and resilient. In areas where differential sticking is prevalent, the high temperature /
high pressure fluid loss should be maintained below 20 cm3.
d) Adding 2-8% oil to the mud system gives preferential oil wetting to the drill string, thereby
allowing better lubricity and minimizing the possibility of stuck pipe. New environmental
regulations may make adding oil to the mud prohibitive.
When the drill string become stuck, it is imperative to act quickly as the sticking coefficient
increases with time. To avoid costly and time consuming washover operations, a couple of
methods are generally used to free the pipe.
a) Spotting crude oil or diesel oil with a surfactant around the drill collars has gained wide
acceptance. There are many surfactants available; i.e.: Canfree, Pipelax, Kum Free, B-
Free, EZ Spot, Freepipe, etc. If a surfactant is not available on location, a straight diesel oil
pill should be spotted across the collars as quick as possible. If differential sticking is
suspected in an area, always keep 1 or 2 drums of a differential sticking surfactant on
location in the event it may be required.
Generally enough pill is mixed up to cover the entire length of the drill collars, plus an excess of
1.5 m3 (10 bbls) to be left on top of the collars, and another 3.0 m 3 (20 bbls) to be left inside the
drill collars. Normally 20-25 litres of surfactant is recommended per cubic metre of diesel oil (1-
2 gal/bbl).
The pill should be spotted leaving 3 m 3 (20 bbls) inside the drill string. The pipe should then be
worked by pulling up to a predetermined over pull weight, applying torque and releasing the
weight at regular intervals. The pill across the collars has a tendency to migrate up the hole;
therefore approximately 0.1 m3 (1/2 - 1 bbl) of excess fluid in the pipe should be pumped every
half hour.
An average waiting period is generally 10-12 hours. If the pipe does not come free in a
reasonable period of time (maximum of 2 pills), mechanical methods may be required to free the
pipe. If the spotting pill has to be weighted due to an abnormally pressure zone, or to increase
the pill density to that of the mud weight to minimize migration, the spotting procedure would be
the same although some of the products may be different. The mixing procedure of the various
products will be outlined in the drilling mud program.
b) Reducing the hydrostatic pressure and therefore the differential pressure with the use
of a packer has been tried as another alternative. Considerations regarding wellbore
stability and potential well control problems must be evaluated prior to implementing
this method.
After the free point is determined, the pipe is backed off and hoisted. A fishing string is
made up and run in consisting of the following:
- screw in sub - safety joint

- perforated joint - a hydraulic or disc valve
- packer - crossover sub
- jars - drill collars
After the packer is set, the hydrostatic pressure is relieved from the fish and the drill collars
should come free.
DIFFERENTIALLY STUCK PIPE
5.2 LOSS OF CIRCULATION Return to table of contents
Loss of circulation can be a frustrating and expensive problem. There are no “cure all” products
and/or procedures when combating loss of circulation. Every situation tends to be unique in
nature.
A few things should be considered though when analyzing the problem. When loss of circulation
is first noted, the conditions at the time the loss occurred should be studied. The time of the
occurrence (while drilling, circulating or tripping), the type of loss (seepage, partial or complete),
and the severity of the loss with respect to the exposed formations should be considered to
determine when the loss occurred, where (in the hole) the loss occurred, and the best remedy for
the situation.
Please review the following techniques for a few possible remedies to cure loss of circulation.
5.2.1 CONVENTIONAL "LCM" PILL Return to table of contents
Consider using a combination of LCM material with varying sizes to provide for an optimum
bridging agent with this type of pill. Small amounts of Lime may be used to slightly flocculate the
Bentonite, to increase the viscosity preventing the LCM material from settling out and plugging
the bit. It is cheaper to obtain the viscosity using small amounts of Lime. The Lime addition will
also provide a higher fluid loss than the Gel slurry thereby increasing the sealing rate.
The actual concentration of LCM in the pill may vary; the formulation listed below assumes no jet
or very large nozzles in the bit. Once the approximate point of loss is established, a 15 -30
m3 (100-300) barrel pill should be mixed as follows:
1. Fresh Water 15-50 m3

2. Soda Ash 0.50-0.75 kg/m3 Actual concentration will depend
upon the hardness of the water.
3. Caustic Soda 0.50-0.75 kg/m3 Increase pH to 9.0-9.5
4. Bentonite 70-75 kg/m3 Allow enough time to hydrate fully.
Initial viscosity should be ± 50-60
sec/L.
5. Sawdust 15 kg/m3 "Gun " in thoroughly.
6. Kwik Seal/ 15 kg/m3 Coarse to medium.
Prima Seal
7. Cellophane/Walnut 15 kg/m3 Medium to fine.
Shells/Mica
8. Lime 1.0-1.5 kg/m3 Raise viscosity to a approximately
±80-100 sec/L.
Once the pill has been mixed, spot just above the loss zone by pumping slowly; 160-320
litres/min. (1-2 bbl./min.) until the hole is full and circulation is regained. If the hole remains full,
close the hydril and squeeze the annulus with 300-500 kPa (50-75 psi) for 30 minutes. If this
procedure fails, repeat once. A second failure may indicate that another technique may be in
order.
CONTROL OF LOSS OF CIRCULATION
EFFECTIVE CONTROL OF MUD LOSSES INTO A PERMEABLE

ZONE REQUIRED A WIDE RANGE OF PARTICLE SIZES
5.2.2 GUNK SQUEEZES Return to table of contents
A Diesel Oil / Bentonite (DOB) or a Diesel Oil Bentonite / Cement (DOBC) squeeze may be
considered in cases of more severe losses. These pills are recommended to be pumped open
ended, but can be pumped through a bit with no nozzles, or large diameter nozzles. If possible,
drilling should continue without returns, through the entire thief zone. The amount to mix will
vary, but generally twice the open hole volume, or a maximum of 15 m 3 should be sufficient. The
Gel Cement mixture should be pre-blended in bulk form if possible. Sacked material may be
used, but it makes the pill more difficult to mix, and the slurry is not as homogenous.
A cementing unit should always be used to pump these pills.
The pill should be spotted just above the loss zone. A concentration of 900 kg/m 3 of Gel (300
lbs./bbl.) should be mixed per m3 of Diesel for the DOB squeeze. The same concentration
applies for the DOBC squeeze, but the Gel and the Cement should be pre-blended or mixed in a
1:1 ratio.
1. Pumping and mixing equipment should be free of any water to prevent contamination.
2. Pump a 2m3 spacer of Diesel fuel.
3. Mix and pump the DOB or DOBC squeeze.
4. Follow the squeeze with a 1m3 diesel spacer.
5. Displace the slurry down the drill pipe with water or mud at approximately 0.2-0.3 m 3/min. (1-
2 bbl's/min.).
6. When the pill reaches the bit, or if the annulus fills, close the hydril and slowly displace the
gunk squeeze into the thief zone.
7. Try and squeeze with up to 700-2100 kPa (100-300 psi) pressure. Do not exceed 3500 kPa.
8. When this is complete pull up and wait approximately 1 hour for the DOB squeeze, and up to
8 hours for the DOBC squeeze before drilling ahead.
5.2.3 CALCIUM CARBONATE (CaCO3) PILL - "CEMENTING UNIT REQUIRED"

Return to table of contents
This type of pill utilizes different sizes of grinds of CaCO 3 with Kelzan XCD Polymer for viscosity
control. It is a very competent type of pill as the bridging agents are actually limestone or
dolomite rock. The advantage of this type of pill is that all the ingredients are acid soluble.
Therefore, if the loss of circulation is in or close to the carbonate productive zone; i.e.: the Keg
River Formation in Rainbow Lake, Zama, or Shekilie areas, formation damage is kept to a
minimum.
This pill must be spotted open ended. A cementing or acidizing unit with pressurized
suctions, and batch mixing augers must be utilized. The largest size nozzle for the jet
mixer should also be utilized.
1. Run the drill pipe to just above the thief zone or into the intermediate casing.
2. Initially batch mix a 36 barrel (5.7 m 3) CaCO3 pill (18 barrels in each of the cementing unit's
tanks). The size of the pill may vary somewhat, depending upon the amount of open hole
and volume of the mixing unit's tanks. Batch mix as follows:
a. Mix 1 sack of Kelzan XCD Polymer.

b. Batch mix 30-35 sacks of (145 kg/m3) of "325" Grind" CaCO3 (Extra Fine Grind).
c. Then mix 20-30 sacks (110 kg/m3) of "Feed Grit" CaCO3 (Coarse Grind).
3. Displace the pill to the bottom of the drill pipe at approximately 0.5-0.6 m 3/min. (3-
4 bbl's/min.).
a. While displacing, add an additional 16-18 sacks (75 kg/m 3) each of "Poultry Grit" CaCO 3
(Extra Coarse Grind), and the next coarser size, "Hard Shell" CaCO 3 (1/4" diameter
sized CaCO3).
b. At the same time, small
amounts of Kelzan XCD Polymer may have to be added for additional viscosity control.
c. Near the end of the displacement, quickly add another 5 sacks of "325 Grind" CaCO 3
(Extra Fine Grind).
4. Slowly displace the pill into the thief zone at approximately 0.15 m 3/min. (1 bbl./min.). Leave
approximately 1-2 m3 (10-15 bbls.) inside the drill string for further squeezing.
5. Try to fill the annulus with the mud pump. Pump a maximum of the total annular volume, or
until the hole fills.
6. Close the hydril and squeeze 2-3 barrels ( 0.5 m 3) every 10 minutes until the pill is out of the
drill string. Generally, do not exceed 3500 kPa pressure on the annulus.
5.2.4 CALCIUM CARBONATE (CaCO3) PILL - NO CEMENTING UNIT REQUIRED

This type of pill is basically the same as the previous pill, except it is formulated with finer
grind Calcium Carbonate, and therefore can be mixed in a premix tank, rig tank or pill
tank.
1. Run the drill pipe to just above the thief zone.

2. All of the following materials can be batch mixed as follows:
a. Mix approximately 1.5-3.0 kg/m3 of Kelzan XCD Polymer for viscosity control.
b. Then mix 145 kg/m3 of "325 Grind" CaCO3 (Extra Fine Grind).
c. Mix approximately 110 kg/m3 of the next coarser "O" Grind CaCO3 (Fine Grind).
d. Follow with approximately 75 kg/m3 each of the next two coarser grinds of Calcium
Carbonate; i.e.: "Feed Grit" CaCO 3 (Coarse Grind) and "Poultry Grit" CaCO 3 (Extra
Coarse Grind).
3. Displace the pill to the bottom of the drill pipe at approximately 0.5-0.6 kg/m 3 (3-4 bbl's/min.).
4. Slowly displace the pill into the thief zone at approximately 0.15 m 3/min. (1 bbl./min.) Leave
approximately 1-2 m3 (10-15 bbl's) inside the drill string for further squeezing.
5. Try to fill the annulus with the mud pump. Pump a maximum of the total annular volume, or
until the hole fills.
6. Close the hydril and squeeze 2-3 barrels every 10 minutes until the pill is out of the drill
string. Generally do not exceed 3500 kPa pressure on the annulus.
5.2.5 DIASEAL "M" PILL Return to table of contents
Diaseal M is a blend of "diatomaceous earth" which forms a stable, high solids slurry. The slurry
dehydrates rapidly after being spotted in a thief zone, and leaves behind a solid, acid soluble
plug. The slurry will lose all of its water in 1 or 2 minutes on a standard API water loss test. This
equates to a water loss of approximately 1000 cm 3 and results in a cake more than one inch
thick. Bridging type LCM material and Barite can be added as needed. Bridging is needed in
impervious zones in the fracture or vug close to the wellbore, to initiate filtration and let Diaseal
M form a plug. In permeable loss zones, there is little need for LCM. The initial density of the
slurry is 1080 kg/m3. Barite may be added to increase the density to approximately 2275 kg/m 3.
Diaseal “M” is a very effective LCM pill, although sufficient time will be required to ensure that
this product is available in sufficient quantities in Alberta or B.C. If this pill is to be considered,
sufficient time must be required to ensure that the product is available.
FORMULATION TO PREPARE 1 m3 OF DIASEAL “M”
WEIGHTED SLURRY WITH FRESH WATER
Density Kilograms of Barite Water Required

(kg/m3) Diaseal “M” (kilograms) (m3)
1080 140 0 0.87
1200 140 171 0.84
1320 134 342 0.80
1440 120 513 0.77
1560 108 655 0.74
1680 97 826 0.70
1800 88 997 0.67
1920 80 1140 0.63
2040 71 1311 0.60
2160 63 1482 0.56
2280 48 1653 0.52
Squeeze Procedure:
1. Generally mix twice the open hole volume. This should cover all possible places where the
loss could be occurring (since that is seldom known exactly), plus it provides additional
volume for squeezing.
2. It is preferred to mix the slurry in a premix tank, or a ribbon blender if available. If the mud
tanks are used, clean them well before mixing the slurry. It is preferable to use a cementing
unit for displacement of the slurry. The slurry can be pumped through a bit with large or no
nozzles in the bit, but if possible, it is always best to pump the pill open ended.
3. Begin with approximately 80% of the prescribed water volume. To the water, add Diaseal
“M”, Barite, and the remainder of the water, followed by any additional LCM material.
4. If the LCM pill is to be weighted, it should be of the same density as the mud.
5. Some additional LCM will usually help. 15-60 kg/m3 total LCM is recommended, depending
upon the loss conditions. The higher the density of the LCM pill, the less supplemental LCM
material should be used. A mixture of medium Kwik Seal, Prima Seal, Walnut Shells or
Cellophane has proven to be good. Do not use any LCM material coarser than medium.
Actual concentration of supplemental LCM material will depend upon bit nozzle size, etc.
6. It is recommended that the adjustable choke pressure gauge be taken off the standpipe and
put on the “chicksan” line running from the cement truck to the wellhead. In this way,
accurate pressure readings can be seen on the drill pipe and casing from the choke gauges.
7. Run in with drill pipe to a depth that will leave one open hole volume equivalent of slurry
inside the casing above the casing shoe.
8. Pump the slurry at 0.3 m 3/min. (2 bbl's/min.) until it reaches the end of the drill pipe.
Observe the annulus and fill the hole with water before closing the hydril.
9. Close the hydril and pump at 0.15 m3/min. (1 bbl./min.). This will force the Diaseal M slurry
down the hole to the point of loss. Pump the full open hole volume, plus an additional 4
-5 m3, leaving the remainder of the slurry in the casing.
10. Leaving the hydril closed, shut the pump down for approximately 2 hours. This will allow
enough time for the water to leak from the slurry and form the plug.
11. Idle the pump and begin pumping at 40-50 litres/min. (1/4 bbl./min.) When 350 kPa pressure
is reached, shut the pump down and wait 10-15 minutes. Repeat this procedure to 350 kPa
one to two more times. Then try a higher pressure such as 500-700 kPa, stop the pump and
wait 15 minutes. Continue this procedure to progressively high pressures. There may be a
pressure bleedoff each time the pump is stopped, but with each successive squeeze, the
hole should stabilize at a higher holding pressure.
12. A 3500 kPa squeeze is very good. If it can be held for 30 minutes to an hour, it will aid in
setting a more permanent plug. It may be advisable to go ahead and squeeze to a higher
known equivalent mud density, if the higher density will be needed later in the hole.
13. Bleed the pressure off the annulus slowly, and then circulate the remaining Diaseal “M”
slurry out of the hole. Return back to bottom slowly. Any remaining Diaseal “M” may be
retained in the mud.
5.2.6 THIXOTROPIC CEMENT SQUEEZE Return to table of contents
Thix-Mix is a special blend of Class "A" and Gyp-Cement used to impart thixotropic properties to
the cement; i.e.: low viscosities are prevalent while pumping. But when movement is stopped,
the viscosity of the slurry becomes very high, or it thickens to the extent that it will resist flow
(5-10 minutes).
It is imperative that pumping is not interrupted while mixing or displacing the pill. Utilize a
standby cementing unit or the mud pump in the event that the primary cement unit should
break down. The slurry can be pumped through a bit with jet nozzles, but it is
recommended that the nozzles be left out, or pumped open ended.
1. Attempt to drill with partial returns or blind through the entire thief zone.
2. Pull up to just above the thief zone to spot the pill. If intermediate casing is set above the
loss of circulation zone, setting a Baker Model "K" retainer in the casing and "bullheading "
the cement through the retainer is recommended.
3. Mix a thixotropic cement plug of approximately twice the open hole volume as follows:
(based on Nowsco's slurry properties).
Water Requirement: 0.594 m3/tonne

Yield: 0.915 m3/tonne
Slurry Density: 1741 kg/m3
Thickening Time:
% CaCl2 Thickening Time

0 6:00 + 6:08
1 4:00 + 3:00
2 3:33 2:00
3 - 1:40
5.2.7 SEPIOLITE (Sea Mud / Salt Gel) LCM PILL Return to table of contents
The use of this high fluid loss slurry containing LCM can be advantageous in that a plug of LCM
and mud solids will be quickly deposited in the loss zone as the fluid rapidly de-waters after the
initial bridge forms. The following formulation is recommended:
Sea Mud/Salt Gel (Sepiolite) 60-70 kg/m3

Assorted LCM As required.
The type and amount of LCM will depend upon the situation, i.e.: nozzle sizes, open ended, etc.
PROCEDURE:
1. Fill the premix tank with water and mix 60-70 kg/m 3 of Sea Mud (Sepiolite) or Salt Gel
(Attapulgite Clay). This product requires shear to aid in yielding. Ensure that the fluid is
premixed at least 12-24 hours prior to encountering the potential LCM zone, if possible.
2. Add 1 sack of Lime to ensure that the slurry has a high fluid loss.
3. Initially, pretreat with LCM that is compatible with the nozzle sized (if present). Higher
concentrations and larger particle sizes and types can be employed only if open ended.
4. Spot the pipe above the zone and fill the pipe with the slurry.
5. Pump out 5-10 m3 slowly and wait 15-20 minutes. Repeat until all the slurry is displaced,
Repeat as required.
5.2.8 “ULTRA SEAL” LCM PILL Return to table of contents
SEEPAGE LOSSES ( 0 – 1.5 m3/hour):
Mix 30-35 kg/m3 Ultra Seal “XP” and sweep the hole.
PARTIAL LOSSES (1.5 – 3.0 m3/hour):
Mix 35-70 kg/m3 Ultra Seal “XP”, and spot across the thief zone.
HEAVY LOSSES:
Mix 70 kg/m3 Ultra Seal “C” and 35 kg/m3 of Ultra Seal “XP”. This pill should be spotted above
the thief zone, and staged out of the bit at a rate not to exceed 0.4 m 3/minute (SLOW PUMP
RATE).
TOTAL LOSSES:
Mix 85-171 kg/m3 Ultra Seal “Plus” into a minimum of 15 m3 of drilling fluid. Again, this pill
should be spotted above the thief zone, and staged out of the bit at a rate not to exceed 0.4
m3/minute (SLOW PUMP RATE).
5.2.9 ULTRASEAL “POLY PLUG” GEL SEALANT Return to table of contents
Ultraseal Poly Plug Gel Sealant is a combination of current cross-linking Polymer technology,
combined with patented fibers found in the Ultra Seal additives. The same basic chemistry also
produces superior Gels for total shut-off squeeze treatments that effectively seal off water or gas.
Ultraseal Poly Plug is a complete single sack system composed of selected sized fibers, Polymer
and a cross-linking agent in a single sack. The product can be easily mixed at the well site using
conventional rig equipment. The Gel Sealant invades the pore spaces for permeability reduction
in matrix rock, or reduces flow in secondary porosity of naturally fractured zones. It can be used
to selectively shut off a zone and to seal open hole sections in vertical as well as horizontal well
bores.
POLY PLUG MIXING PROCEDURES:
When mixing Poly Plug, slurries above 1680 kg/m 3, it is recommended to utilize a “blender” (i.e.:
RMX Dowell or Halliburton Blender). The Poly Plug is a high molecular weight Polyacrylamide
Polymer, crosslinking and LCM. Once mixed, the slurry has a high viscosity (± 120 sec/L
unweighted slurry). When adding a large amount of Barite, the viscosity will be ± 150 sec/L.
This high viscous slurry can overwhelm the centrifugal pump(s) running the hopper.
SLUGGING OR PILL TANK RECOMMENDATIONS:
1. The pill tank and all circulating lines must be clean and free of any drilling fluids.
Additionally, the tank must be free of any leaks. This will eliminate possible
contamination of the pill prior to pumping.
2. Add the appropriate amount of water to the tank.
3. Add the appropriate amount of Retarder if required – Ultraseal “XLR”.
4. Add the appropriate number of sacks of Ultraseal Poly Plug – 1 sack per initial bbl. of
water (6 sacks per cubic metre of water).
Note: If the pill is to be weighted, add half of the Poly Plug Gel Sealant. Weight the
slurry to the desired density and then add the remaining Poly Plug Sealant.
5. Control any foaming with an Alcohol de-foamer only, such as XL Defoamer. Do NOT use
Aluminum Sterate or Try-butyl Phosphate.
6. A 5 m3 high viscosity spacer should be built from the existing mud system. The viscosity
should be ± 120 sec/L. Place 2.5 m 3 of spacer in front of the pill, and 2.5 m 3 behind the pill.
This will minimize contamination while displacing.
7. Displace at a rate of ± 1 m 3/min. Reduce to a slow pump rate when the material is near the
thief zone.
8. The pill MUST be squeezed into the formation to prevent subsequent operations from
removing the crosslink Gel from the wellbore. Pull above the pill and squeeze until
pressure holds. Hole squeeze pressure for 4 hours. After waiting 4 hours, begin
washing through the plug. After 4 hours, the crosslink will have developed maximum
strength.
9. Fill the pill tank with water or mud to wash out the remaining Poly Plug. This can be
used as part of the displacement volume.
BLENDER RECOMMENDATIONS:
1. Fill the blender with water and flush blender.

2. Add the appropriate amount of water to the blender.
3. Add the appropriate amount of Retarder if required – Ultraseal “XLR” and circulate the
tank for 5 minutes.
4. Pre-treat the tank with 0.3-0.6 litres/m 3 of an alcohol base Defoamer XL Defoamer. Do
NOT use Aluminum Stearate or Tri-butyl Phosphate defoamers.
5. Add the appropriate amount of Poly Plug – 1 sack per bbl. of water (6 sacks per cubic
metre of water).
Note: The mix rate should be 1-2 minutes/sack of Poly Plug. This will minimize “fish
eyes”. Additionally, use the booster pumps for maximum shear.
6. If weighting the slurry, add 2/3 of the Poly Plug, and then begin adding Barite. It is
recommended to utilize a bulk truck and blow the weight material in. You can add the
remaining Poly Plug while adding the weight material. Pressure mud scales will be
required to obtain an accurate weight measurement.
7. A 5 m3 high viscosity spacer should be built from the existing mud system. The viscosity
should be ±120 sec/L. Place 2.5 m 3 of spacer in front of the pill, and 2.5 m 3 behind the pill.
This will minimize contamination while displacing.
8. Displace at a rate of ± 1 m 3/min. Reduce to a slow pump rate when the material is near the
thief zone.
9. The pill MUST be squeezed into the formation to prevent subsequent operations from
removing the crosslink Gel from the wellbore. Pull above the pill and squeeze until pressure
holds. Hole squeeze pressure for 4 hours. After waiting 4 hours, begin washing through the
plug. After 4 hours, the crosslink will have developed maximum strength.
Summary of lost circulation material tests (after Howard and Scott)

5.3 SHALE PROBLEMS AND BOREHOLE STABILITY
There is not a drilling fluid system available that will maintain a "completely" stable wellbore
under all geological and mechanical conditions in the foothills. This is due to physical factors,
not chemical factors relating to the drilling fluid. There are many variables involved to maintain
borehole stability. A checklist of information must be known to determine the proper action to
follow in altering the drilling fluid parameters or downhole equipment.
First, there should be a complete mud check taken and reported at regular intervals. The
viscosity variation (taken at the flowline and suction tank) of the mud should be monitored
closely and reported during the course of the day.
Drilling parameters such as whether the mud is in turbulent flow around the collars should be
looked at. Geological analysis of the formation is needed. The amount of background gas
should be known. Additional details are required on the bottom hole assembly (square drill
collars, stabilizers, reamers, keyseat wipers and any other downhole equipment) and whether
any recent changes have been made in the assembly. Details are needed in porosity (i.e.:
drilling breaks), therefore the possibility of excessive filter cake buildup. Deviation surveys, the
amount of torque or drag, how the hole acted coming off bottom, condition of the connections
and what type of shale is coming out of the hole (slivers, rounded or jagged chunks) must be
known. A close watch on hole cleaning must be observed. The drilling fluid must have a high
enough effective annular viscosity to clean the hole, especially in washed out section. Tripping
rates should be monitored with pressure losses calculated to keep the surge and swab
pressures at a minimum.
5.3.1 RUBBLE ZONES: Return to table of contents
Some of the most severe drilling problems occur from foothill rubble zones in the Blackstone,
Wapiabi, Brazeau, Lea Park and Fort St. John or Fernie Groups of Western Canada. The result
of these formations being forced up along fault lines is high formation dip angles, fractured,
crushed and stressed sections of shale that are sensitive to any form of physical disturbance.
Many operators use Invert or Inhibitive Potassium Sulfate / PHPA Polymer or Polyglycol muds to
drill these intervals, which will provide the greatest degree of borehole stability. Sloughing shale
can still occur using these muds. Listed below is a method used to drill a rubble zone with an
Invert mud. Success of this method is totally dependent on rig crew awareness of the problem,
its symptoms and how to combat it.
a) Maintain constant rheological properties and use the solids control equipment effectively to
keep a stable, uniform, low solids drilling fluid. The activity of the water phase should be no
higher than 0.75 prior to drilling the rubble zone.
b) On the last trip out of the hole prior to penetrating the zone remove all stabilization
equipment (if any), and add jars to the string.
c) Once the rubble zone has been penetrated, trip time should be kept at a 30 sec./stand
minimum to reduce surge and swab pressures, which can rapidly, break down this formation.
d) While drilling the rubble, watch closely for the following symptoms:
- increase in standpipe pressure

- torque increase
- tight connections
- fill on connections
- sudden drilling break indicating rubble or overpressured section.
If any one or more of the above symptoms occurs while drilling in the rubble zone, pick up
the string and make a five stand dummy trip, noting the amount of reaming and fill going
back to bottom. In any case, do not drill more than 2 metres into any rubble zone without
coming off bottom and ensuring the hole is clean before continuing. If little or no fill is on
bottom, then continue this procedure. Large chunks of shale must be broken up before the
drilling fluid will carry them to surface.
e) If hole conditions continue to deteriorate, weighting the mud system should be considered.
A leak-off test may be performed prior to weighting to determine maximum weight which may
be employed without losing circulation.
f) Mud weight alone may not solve the problem. Mud properties must be closely monitored to
ensure effective cleaning. The activity of various rubble zones in the foothills may be as low
as 0.40. If the sloughing is severe, consideration should be given to increasing the activity of
the water phase with Envirofloc (Calcium Nitrate) and/or Calcium Chloride. Watch returns at
the shaker while tripping and reaming. It may be necessary to pump "high viscosity pills"
periodically to clean the hole.
The above techniques should allow effective drilling of the Cretaceous shales and continue to
intermediate casing point with a minimum of problems.
5.3.2 SHALE HYDRATION AND DISPERSION: Return to table of contents
Shale is a mixture of many minerals, although clay minerals predominate. The clay minerals are
usually from the following groups, Montmorillonite (Smectite), Kaolinite, Illite, Chlorite or mixed
layer clays. It is the clay components that are responsible for the majority of hole problems.
a) Hydration:
These clays have the ability to absorb water; Smectite being the highest. Water absorbed
by the shale will increase the internal stress within the rock and reduce the strength, causing
an unstable wellbore. When a large hydration force is present, the shale is capable of
absorbing an enormous volume of water. The shale, being confined to overburden stresses,
can relieve the increased internal stresses only by expanding (hydrating), which leads to
sloughing or heaving shale conditions.
b) Dispersion:
An important cause of shale problems and a problem that should be diagnosed separately is
the dispersion of shale cuttings. Dispersion refers to a continuous and rapid disintegration of
the shale surface upon contact with a water base fluid. Dispersion and the hydration of
shales are not directly related, however the degree of dispersion tends to reflect the amount
of clay capable of swelling.
The effects of dispersion on the wellbore are often difficult to distinguish from those of
swelling and sloughing. Uncontrolled dispersion can lead to an excessive buildup of fine,
low gravity solids. Often this situation cannot be remedied with solids control equipment
alone and dilution is necessary.
SHALE CLASSIFICATION
Class Characteristics Clay Content

1 Soft, high dispersion Higher in Montmorillionite, some Illite
2 Soft, fairly high in dispersion Fairly high in Montmorillionite, high in
Illite
3 Medium hard, moderate dispersion, High in interlayered clays, high in Illite,
sloughing tendencies Chlorite
4 Hard, little dispersion, sloughing tendencies Moderate Illite, moderate Chlorite
5 Very hard, brittle, no significant dispersion, High in Illite, moderate Chlorite
caving tendencies
EXAMPLES OF PROBLEM SHALES
Clay Content (Density Percent)
Class Montmorillonite Illite Interlayed Chlorite

1 40.4 5.5 - -
2 25.4 42.0 - 6.7
3 - 35.0 15.0 15.0
4 - 14.8 - 3.2
5 - 48.3 - 8.3
c) Inhibitive Muds:
Generally, inhibitive muds have been utilized to maintain wellbore stability from shale
hydration and/or dispersion. The term "inhibitive" refers to minimizing the swelling or
dispersion tendencies of a shale.
This has been accomplished in Western Canada, primarily with the use of Potassium,
Ammonium, or Oil-Base muds. KCl (Potash) or Potassium Sulfate provides a source of
Potassium ions, and DAP or Ammonium Sulfate provides a source of Ammonium ions,
which act rapidly to slow down the hydration of drilled solids. A Polyacrylamide PHPA
Polymer (Alcomer 110RD or 60RD ) is a slower reacting inhibitive agent that largely stops
the hydration and dispersion, by forming a protective encapsulating film around the clay
particles. This film seals off the particle from further contact with water. Invert emulsion
muds provide the maximum inhibition by exhibiting an all oil filtrate and balancing the activity
of the shale.
d) Blacknight Mud System:
1. The Blacknite product in mud systems in a concentration of 2-3% by volume was designed
to allow maximum bore hole stability in an environmental friendly water base mud system.
2. The Blacknite product has the ability to bond to the shales and prevent water from
penetrating. This is achieved from the Glycol in the product, and also due to the fine particle
size distribution of the Gilsonite products. The particle size distribution of the Gilsonite seals
the micro fractures and does not allow the fluid or the solids into the formation. Blacknight
stabilizes the borehole as it attaches chemically to unsatisfied positive charges of the clay
platelets.
3. The Blacknite product blends to produce a drilling fluid with the lowest HT-HP fluid loss and
the tightest and thinnest filter cake possible. As the bottom hole temperature increases. The
Gilsonites softens for a lower HT-HP fluid loss and a tighter filter cake.
4. The Blacknite mud system is easy to maintain and keep the mud properties in line. There
are no Biocides or defoamers required in the Blacknite mud system, as Polymers are kept to
a minimum, and the mud system does not tend to foam.
5. The Blacknite mud system is compatible with all salts and can be run in a Potassium or
Calcium based mud system for added inhibition.
6. The Blacknite mud system can easily be dispersed, and allow the gas units to be kept to a
minimum. With no foam or gas trapped in the mud system, there is no problem running
solids or mixing equipment.
7. When drilling deep problem wells in the foothills, it is imperative that the hole and tank
volumes are consistent to allow proper well control procedures.
5.4 COAL Return to table of contents
Drilling deeply buried coal seams can result in expensive and lengthy fishing or sidetracking
operations.
Early reaction to a drilling break, experience on the brake handle, a good hole cleaning mud with
pump rates that ensure laminar flow and moderate annular pressure losses, a relatively slick drill
string, minimum surge and swabbing action, and a lot of patience are the keys to drilling coal
successfully.
Deeply buried coal seams react under compression due to overburden pressure much readily
than do shales. When unexpected coal seams are drilled, the coal stress relieves and can
explode into the wellbore in the form of chunks or slivers, and unless reacted upon immediately,
a stuck drill string will often result.
Take extreme caution in drilling coal. In wildcat areas, it is difficult to catch drilling breaks of less
than 0.5 metres, although in most of our areas, the approximately depth of coal seams is usually
known and anticipated. Suspect any abrupt drilling break, as coal seams until proven otherwise;
do not use an automatic driller. The best procedure is to drill into the seam no more than 0.5
metres, and circulate a sample to surface to verify whether or not it is a coal section. Ensure the
mud has enough carrying capacity to clean the hole. Shallow coal is more lignite in nature, and
will go into solution in a water base mud, and possibly lower the viscosity. Coal will not affect the
viscosity of an Invert Mud.
Never pull out of coal seam without rotating. Work the pipe up and down, rotating steadily to
crush the coal. Watch the shaker closely to observe the type of returns and whether the coal is
continuing to come over the shaker. Do not open too much coal until the annulus is clean.
Check the viscosity at the flowline and suction regularly; ensure it is high enough to clean the
hole.
Patience is the key to staying out of trouble.
5.5 FOAMING Return to table of contents
A small amount of foaming occurs in most drilling muds. Foaming occurs due to high interfacial
surface tension phenomena or mechanical air entrapment.
Most foaming occurs on the surface and normally does not adversely affect the mud. If the foam
or air bubbles become dispersed throughout the mud, the pump may stroke in an erratic manner,
which could cause serious mechanical damages.
Causes:
1. Air leak in mud pump

2. The discharges of the desilter/desander or mud hopper can whip air into the mud.
3. High chloride content in mud. Salt water muds have an inherent tendency to foam.
4. Lignosulfonates have a tendency to foam, especially in high concentrations.
5. Over treatment of mud detergents.
6. Air entrapped in drill pipe after tripping.
7. High pressure-low volume formations or swabbing when tripping may cause the mud to
become gas cut.
8. Thick mud containing a large amount of drilled solids are particularly susceptible to foaming.
9. Bacteria fermentation of the mud.
Effect On Mud Properties:
1. Viscosity increase
2. Plastic viscosity decrease
3. Yield Point and Gel Strength increase
4. Apparent solids increase
5. Mud will have a "fluffy" appearance.
Treatment:
1. The mud has to be thinned in order to permit effective removal and prevent a build-up of
foam. Lower the viscosity, YP and in particular the Gel Strengths with dispersants (Desco
CF, Alcomer 74 or 72L, etc.) or Lignite as required to allow the foam to dissipate.
2. Alcohol base defoamers (Defoamer Silicone, XL Defoamer, Foam Buster) or Aluminum
Sterate (oil soluble only; mix with diesel oil) may be added directly into the suction tank.
3. Avoid air leaks in pumps and suctions.
4. Prevent whipping air into mud. Submerge all surface guns, hopper and solids control
equipment discharges.
5. "Roll" the tanks with the submerged guns to allow the air or gas bubbles to escape into the
atmosphere.
6. If a wash gun is available, spray the surface of the mud with a fine spray of diesel or water.
5.6 BARITE PLUG Return to table of contents
A very critical situation can arise when a well begins kicking and losing circulation at the
same time. Increasing the mud weight to control the pressure zone will only complicate
the problem of lost circulation. When the pressure zone lies below the thief zone, Barite
plugging can be used to control the well. An extremely heavy, high water-loss slurry is
required for this technique. Barite settling and deposition will form a solid plug on the
open hole, weighting down and sealing off the pressure zone. In addition, the high fluid
loss results in rapid dehydration, bridging the hole and further aiding in sealing off the
pressured zone. Once a Barite plug is in place, normal steps for regaining circulation
may be taken with relative safety.
Barite plugs weighing from 2150 to 2875 kg/m 3 may be prepared using Barite, fresh water,
phosphate (SAPP) and Caustic Soda. No viscosifiers are used, and care must be taken to
prevent contamination of the slurry with mud, because rapid settling of the Barite once it is
spotted is a necessity. The plug should be set as close to bottom as possible and pumped
rapidly. The drill pipe then should be withdrawn to avoid sticking. Coarse grind Barite is not
recommended, because it will not stay suspended long enough to spot. Brackish or saltwater
should not be used because the settling rate is reduced drastically.
A cementing truck must be used to mix the slurry. Barite is mixed with fresh water containing 2.0
kg/m3 phosphate (SAPP) and 0.75 kg/m 3 Caustic Soda. The lines from the cementing truck can
be connected directly to the drill pipe through a plug valve. To minimize the possibility of stuck
pipe, the derrickman should be in the derrick and the elevators ready to come out of the hole
immediately after pumping is completed.
Barite Plug Formulation:
Material for 1m3
Density Water Caustic Soda SAPP Barite

(kg/m3) (m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg)
2150 0.65 0.75 2.0 1515
2280 0.61 0.75 2.0 1670
2400 0.57 0.75 2.0 1830
2520 0.57 0.75 2.0 1985
2640 0.53 0.75 2.0 2150
2750 0.49 0.75 2.0 2300
2875 0.41 0.75 2.0 2465
Procedures for Settling Plug:
1. Determine how many meters of plug in the open hole is desired (150 metres is usually
adequate).
2. Choose a slurry weight (higher weights are preferable).
3. Calculate cubic meters of slurry required and add 0.5 m3.
4. Calculate amounts of Barite, Phosphates, Caustic Soda and fresh water needed.
5. Calculate the length of the Barite plug with the drill pipe and collars in the hole. Calculate
the drill pipe capacity above the top of the plug (this is the mud needed to displace the
slurry).
6. Mix the slurry and pump it down the drill pipe (spot close to bottom and be ready to come out
quickly.)
7. Under displace by 0.5 m3.with mud.
8. Immediately pull up above the plug. Circulate until gas dissipates. Proceed with normal
operations.
5.7 CORROSION Return to table of contents
INSTRUCTIONS FOR USING DRILLPIPE CORROSION COUPONS
a) STORAGE, HANDLING AND PREPARATION OF COUPONS:
Drillpipe Corrosion Rings are made from CD seamless mechanical tubing, which is similar in
composition to drillpipe. The coupons are machined, and the surface is probably more sensitive
to corrosion than the drillpipe surface.
Corrosion Rings are used to study the corrosive effects of drilling fluids on the drillstring, to
determine the need for a corrosion inhibitor treating program, and to evaluate the effectiveness
of a treating program for the prevention or control of corrosion.
Pre-weighted coupons are available to fit all commonly used API drillpipe tool joints, and
different part numbers identifies the sizes.
Rings should be stored in a dry place, away from dampness, humidity and containers of
corrosive chemicals. If this is not possible, the storage life will be reduced. Each ring is
wrapped with an impregnated paper, which should preserve the coupon for about 2 years under
normal conditions.
Rings should not be removed from their packing until immediately before use, and it is not
recommended to touch the surface with the fingers, as this is likely to provoke localized
corrosion due to contamination from the skin, and brown fingerprints will develop on the
coupon. The use of gloves, when handling the rings is recommended.
The drillpipe Corrosion Rings may be rinsed with gasoline before use, in order to remove any
vapor phase inhibitor from the surface. However, this need not be regarded as essential.
b) INSTALLATION OF CORROSION RINGS IN THE DRILLSTRING
The normal method for installing a drillpipe Corrosion Ring is to place it in a tool joint prior to
going back in the hole after a trip. The coupons are so designed that they will not interfere with
the normal process of making up the tool joint.
The normal position in the drillstring is in one of the tool joints immediately above the collars, so
that the ring will be exposed as near as possible to the bit. Additional rings may be installed as
desired, near the surface and (for deep holes), or at intermediate points in the drillstring.
c) EXPOSURE TIME
The exposure time is not critical, so there is no need for any interference with the normal
progress of the drilling operations. However, for good results, it is recommended to expose the
coupons for an absolute minimum of 50-75 hours drilling time. Best results have been obtained
with 100-125 hours drilling time. The coupons may be left in the string for several trips, if
necessary.
d) RECORDING DRILLING FLUID PROPERTIES
The drilling fluid properties should be recorded at the beginning and end of the exposure period,
and the data should be written in the appropriate space on the coupon envelope.
Any bit or drillstring failures, which occur during the coupon exposure period, should be
described, and the description should be sent with the ring for examination. The description
should include the number and type of failures, such as a wash out, twist off, and/or lost cone
from bit.
e) REMOVAL AND INITIAL EXAMINATION OF COUPON
On removal of the coupon from the tool joint, it should be examined before cleaning, and the
appearance should be noted. Particular attention should be paid to the color of any deposits
other than drilling fluid residues, including the color of any spots or patches on the coupon. Any
visible cracks, deformities or mechanical damage should be recorded.
The coupon may be quickly rinsed and wiped with a rag to remove any drilling fluid and dried
completely with a paper towel to prevent the occurrence of any further attack upon the coupon
before it reaches the laboratory.
The coupon should then be wrapped in paper or paper towel, replaced in its envelope with some
Silica Gel if handy, and sent for examination.
f) CORROSION COUPONS - MUD ENGINEERS ON SITE MONITORING:
Equipment Needed:
1. Use of geologist's microscope, or magnifying glass

2. Iron Sulfide Detecting Solution
3. HCl (Hydrochloric Acid)
4. Magnet
*5. 2 Test Tubes
*6. Distilled water
*7. Sulfate Indicator Solution
*8. Calcium Indicator Solution
*Optional - Only if there are high concentrations (or build ups) of scale type deposits on
the ring.
A visual inspection with the aid of the geologist's microscope will tell whether the corrosion
rate is severe enough to cause concern. A little practice will be necessary, but it can be
done. Besides estimating the severity of corrosion, it is important to identify the corrosion
products and thereby determine the corrosive agents. With this information, it is now
possible to adjust the corrosion control program.
The following steps are suggested for on site analysis:
1. Run the ring for 75 to 150 hours. They must be exposed this long to reach a stabilized
corrosion rate.
2. When the ring is removed from the drillpipe, wash it carefully in soapy water to remove
traces of drilling mud, then dry thoroughly.
3. Place the ring under the geologist's microscope where there is a good light and add a
drop of the Iron Sulfide Detecting Solution to an area where there is a significant amount
of corrosion products. This test solution is Sodium Arsenite in a strong acid solution.
This step will tell two things:
a. If Iron Sulfide is present on the surface of the ring, a bright yellow precipitate is
formed. There should be no mistaking this because the precipitate is a brilliant
yellow and may appear to have a slightly “limey” tinge. Quite often H 2S gas is
evolved which can be easily detected by its odor.
b. A significant amount of odorless gas will probably be Carbon Dioxide, which is
generated by the reaction of the acid with a Carbonate compound. The Carbonate
compound could be Iron Carbonate or Calcium Carbonate. Iron Carbonate is
generally black or at least very dark in color; when it reacts with acid the reaction is
fairly slow. Very small bubbles form at the surface of the metal and grow as they
rise through the acid. This can be easily seen through a 12-power microscope.
Calcium Carbonate (scale) reacts much more rapidly with the acid, also giving of
CO2 gas; the reaction appears as a fizzing or foaming. Calcium Carbonate will be
fairly light in color, in some cases almost white. The presence of Iron Carbonate
indicates CO2 corrosion, while Calcium Carbonate is scale.
4. The next step is to scrape a small portion of the corrosion products onto a filter paper.
Pass a small magnet below and against the paper; if the material follows the magnet
when the latter is moved, the material is iron oxide or magnetite. Its presence is a clear
indication of oxygen corrosion.
*5. Do not throw away the material scraped from the ring. This should be transferred to a
clean test tube with about 4 cm 3 of distilled water and shaken thoroughly. This mixture
will probably be cloudy, so it will be necessary to pass it through a filter paper. Put about
2 cm3 of the filtered water into a test tube and add 2 drops of Sulfate Indicator Solution.
If the water turns cloudy or milky from the white precipitate, Calcium is present. Positive
tests for either Calcium or Sulfate indicate the presence of scale. It might be pointed out
that if Sulfate is present, it is almost certain that Calcium will be present.
* Optional - follow throughout if needed according to amount of deposit build up.
6. Should the mud engineer's report indicate a low alkalinity; i.e. the Pf low in relation to the
Mf, it may be possible to actually run a qualitative test to detect the presence of CO 2 in
the drilling mud. Simply mix some Lime in a water sample (2 or 3 grams in 100 cm 3
water) and then filter off some of this water through the filter press. Put 3 or 4 cm 3 of
mud filtrate in a clean test tube and add 2 drops of the Lime water to the sample. A
faintly cloudy appearance will be discernible at concentrations as low as 50 mg/L of CO 2.
Although not conclusive, recent experience in Northeastern British Columbia indicates
that this amount of Carbon Dioxide can be damaging. In any case, any detectable
amount of CO2 should be a matter of concern and reason enough to take immediate
corrective control measures.
H. OR - USE THIS OTHER METHOD STARTING AFTER STEP 2:
3. A sample of the deposits may be scrapped off, without scratching the coupon, and placed in
a titrating dish, or on a ceramic spot test plate.
The following tests may be carried out:
a. For Iron Sulfide:
Appearance - black, blackens fingers and is hard to wash off. Generally soft, and may be
“slimy”, but may also occur on the back of scaly deposits as harder, thin layers. Occurrence
on the back of scaly deposits may indicate that sulfate reducing bacteria is present.
Action of HCl (Hydrochloric Acid) - effervescence. Hydrogen sulfide evolved. Identify

Hydrogen Sulfide gas by the smell (rotten eggs), or by placing a Hydrogen Sulfide test paper
(from Hach Hydrogen Sulfide detection kit) over the gas being evolved. If the paper turns
brown or black, Hydrogen Sulfide was present.
Iron Sulfide Detecting Solution, can be used for positive identification of Iron Sulfide. One
drop of the solution is placed on the deposit to be tested. Effervescence will occur, and
Hydrogen Sulfide will be evolved if the deposit contains Iron Sulfide. In addition, a bright
canary yellow precipitate will form on the surface of the deposit, which identifies the deposit
as being or containing Iron Sulfide.
b. For Iron Oxide:
Appearance - can be yellowish or brownish red, or brown or black. The brighter and lighter
deposits may be softer, while the black deposits may be scaly. The deposits may consist of
combinations of different colored oxides.
Action of HCl - dissolves to form a yellow solution. Magnetite dissolves with difficulty.
Use of magnet - Black scaly deposits, if attracted by a magnet, contain magnetite or

magnetic iron oxide, which consists mainly of Ferric Oxide. Ferrous Oxides, Hydroxides and
Hydrated Oxides tend to be softer and lighter in color, and are not attracted by a magnet.
Action or Iron Sulfide detecting solution - dissolves to form yellow solution. No canary yellow
precipitate.
Record all information on corrosion report. Show Company man results. Using the
system below, you can assess part of the problem and increase treatment rates as
needed. Never decrease treatment until rings are weighed in the laboratory and results
forwarded to the rig.
FIELD ASSESSMENT (POINT SYSTEM):
(A) 1 Generalized (B) 1 80% Bright Metal

2 Generalized with pits 2. 60% Bright Metal
3 Localized 3 40% Bright Metal
4 Localized with pits 4 20% Bright Metal
5 Pitted 5 10% Bright Metal
Add (A) and (B) together.

Total Points Assessment Treatment
2 Negligible (Good Protection) No Change
3 Satisfactory Protection No Change
4 Poor Protection Increase Residuals
5 Moderate Corrosion Increase Residuals
6 High Corrosion Re-check Residuals and Contact
Corrosion Engineer
7 Severe Corrosion Re-check Residuals and Contact
Corrosion Engineer
Corrosion Engineer
Corrosion Engineer
Corrosion Engineer
With these steps, one should be able to control corrosion within 1 lb/ft 2/yr (25 mils/yr.).
CLASSIFICATION OF SEVERITY OF CORROSION
CORROSION RATE CLASSIFICATION CORROSION RATE RANGE

CATEGORY (mils/yr. – mpy)
LOW (Acceptable) 0 to 50
MODERATE 50 to 100
HIGH 100-150
SEVERE 150 and above

Chapter 6 Solids Control Return to Table of Contents
TOPICS PAGE
6.1 ABSTRACT 1
6.2 INTRODUCTION – SOLIDS CONTROL & RELATED EQUIPMENT 2
6.3 PARTICLE SIZE AND CUT POINT 3
6.3.1 CUT POINT 4
6.4 SEPARATION BY SCREENING 6
6.4.1 SCREEN SURFACES 6
6.4.2 SCREEN CLOTH 7
6.4.3 OPENING SIZE 8
6.4.4 PERCENT OPEN AREA 8
6.4.5 SHAPE OF OPENING 9
6.4.6 EQUIVALENT SCREEN MESH 9
6.4.7 SCREEN PLUGGING AND BLINDING 10
6.4.8 SCREEN CAPACITY 10
6.4.9 THREE-DIMENSIONAL SCREEN PANELS 11
6.4.10 STANDARDIZATION 11
6.5 SHALE SHAKERS 12
6.5.1 RIG SHAKERS 13
6.5.2 FINE SCREEN SHAKERS 14
6.5.3 SCREEN ORIENTATION AND SHAPE 15
6.5.4 SCREEN TENSIONING MECHANISM 16
6.5.5 VIBRATOR MECHANISMS 16
6.5.6 MAINTENANCE 17
6.5.7 GENERAL GUIDELINES 17
6.6 MUD CLEANERS AND MUD CONDITIONERS 17
6.6.1 APPLICATIONS 19
6.6.2 INSTALLATION 20
6.6.3 GENERAL GUIDELINES 20
6.7 SEPARATION BY SETTLING AND CENTRFIGUAL FORCE 21
6.8 SAND TRAPS 22
6.9 HYDROCYCLONES 24
6.9.1 HYDROCYCLONE CUT POINT 25
6.9.2 ROPE DISCHARGE 25
6.10 DESANDERS 25
6.11 DESILTERS 27
6.11.2 GUIDELINES 28
6.12 DECANTING CENTRIFUGE 29
6.12.1 SEPARATION PROCESS 29
6.12.2 UNWEIGHTED MUD APPLICATIONS 30
6.12.3 WEIGHTED OIL-BASE MUD APPLICATIONS 32
6.12.4 OPERATING PROCEDURES 32
6.13 AUXILLARY EQUIPMENT 32
6.13.1 AGITATION / MIXING EQUIPMENT 32
6.13.2 DEGASSERS 33
6.13.3 DRYING SHAKERS 35
6.14 BASIC ARRANGEMENT RULES 36
CHAPTER 6
SOLIDS CONTROL
6.1 ABSTRACT Return to Table of Contents
Of all the problems that could conceivably occur during the drilling of a well, mud contamination
from drilled solids is a certainty. The volume and type of solids present in drilling mud exert a
considerable influence over mud treating costs, drilling rates, hydraulics, and the possibility of
differential sticking, kicks, and lost returns. Solids control is one of the most important phases of
mud control – it is a constant issue every day, on every well. If drilled solids can be removed
mechanically, it is almost always less expensive than trying to combat them with chemicals and
dilution.
The primary reason for using mechanical solids control equipment is to remove unwanted drilled
solids particles from the mud in order to prevent drilling problems and reduce mud and waste
costs, thereby reducing overall drilling costs. The benefits of solid’s removal by mechanical
separation can best be seen in terms of two outcomes: 1) reduced total mud solids and 2)
reduced dilution requirements.
The presence of large amounts of drilled solids in a drilling mud usually spells trouble for the
drilling operation. These solids adversely affect the performance characteristics of the mud and
can lead to a multitude of costly hole problems.
Drilled solids decrease the life of a mud pump’s parts and thus, can decrease drilling efficiency
due to lost time for pump repairs. Continued re-circulation of drilled solids produces serious mud
problems because re-circulated solids will gradually be reduced in size. The smaller the solids
become, the more they negatively influence mud properties and hydraulic performance. The
greatest impact of the solids is seen in reduced ROP (rate of penetration). The higher the
drilled solids content the lower the penetration rate.
If mud solids are not properly controlled, the mud’s density can increase above its desired
weight, and the mud can get so thick that it becomes extremely difficult, or even impossible to
pump.
Since the earliest days of the oilfield, drillers have been trying to combat high solids content
through the use of settling pits. However, some drilled solids are so finely ground that they tend
to remain in suspension. This results in increased mud viscosity and Gel Strength, which, in turn
results in larger particles also remaining in suspension. Thus, the approach of removing cuttings
through settling alone is of limited practical value.
Solids control equipment was developed in order to more effectively remove unwanted solids
from drilling mud. A variety of devices (which are discussed later in this chapter) are available
which mechanically separate the solids particles from the liquid phase of the mud. Thus the
driller, depending on the particular situation and equipment used, can regulate to a finer degree
the amount and size of solids particles that are removed or maintained in any given drilling mud.
Such control of mud solids through mechanical separation allows the mud to perform its drilling –
related functions, and avoids the down hole problems caused by excessive solids contamination.
Effective solids control permits viscosity and density to be kept within desired levels, dramatically
increase the life of pump parts an drill bits, and promotes faster penetration – all of which
decrease the time and expense of drilling.
6.2 INTRODUCTION – SOLIDS CONTROL & RELATED EQUIPMENT

The goal of modern solids control systems is to reduce overall well costs by prompt, efficient
removal of drilled solids while minimizing the loss of liquids. Since the size of drilled solids
varies greatly – from cuttings larger than one inch in diameter to sub-micron size – several types
of equipment may be used depending upon the specific situation. The fundamental purpose for
solids removal equipment is just that – remove drilled solids. The end result is reduced mud and
waste disposal costs.
To reach this goal, each piece of equipment will remove a portion of the solids, either by
screening or centrifugal force. Each type of equipment is designed to economically separate
particles of a particular size range from the liquid. Also to operate effectively, each type of
equipment must be sized, installed, operated, and maintained properly.
The efficiency of the solids control system can be evaluated by comparing the final volume of
mud accumulated while using the equipment, to the volume of mud that would result if drilled
solids were controlled only by dilution. The overall results of solids removal can be monitored by
the use of flow meters to determine the actual mud volume built.
The efficiency of solids removal equipment and/or systems used can be evaluated in two ways:
1) Efficiency of drilled solids removal,

2) Efficiency of liquid conservation.
The greater percentage of drilled solids removed, the higher the removal efficiency. The higher
the solids fraction of the waste stream, the better. Both aspects should be considered.
For example, a desilter usually does well at removing solids, but at the cost of significant losses
of liquid; sometimes 80% of the volume of the waste stream will be liquid. By contrast, a
properly operating shale shaker or centrifuge typically removes 1 barrel or less of mud with each
barrel of solids. Most remaining equipment delivers a lesser degree of dryness than do the
shakers or centrifuges.
Most solids control systems include several pieces of equipment connected in series. Each
stage of processing is partly dependent upon the previous equipment functioning correctly so as
to allow the next stage to perform its role.
Should one piece of equipment fail, the equipment downstream will soon lose efficiency
or fail completely.
The first piece of equipment used to separate the solids from the mud is usually a vibrating
screen or series of screens. The cuttings that are larger than the mesh openings are removed
by the screen but carry an adhered film of mud. The screen mesh should be sized to prevent
excessive losses of whole mud over the end screen.
The second step is to remove the sand-sized, silt sized and larger clay particles that were not
removed in the shakers by using hydrocyclones. Hydrocyclones with a cone diameter of 6 to 12
inches are called desanders, and hydrocyclones with a cone diameter of less than 6 inches are
called desilters. These units should normally be sized to process 125% of the maximum flow
rate used to drill.
Sometimes a screen is used below a hydrocyclone to “dry-out” the cone’s discharge to minimize
the loss of fluid. The hydrocyclone and vibrating screen device is called a mud cleaner or mud
conditioner. If a location must be “sumpless”, then the screens are essential to minimize the
liquid waste volume.
The final step may be to remove the ultrafine silt and clay-sized solids with the use of a
decanting centrifuge. On a weighted mud, two centrifuges may be used in series: the first to
salvage Barite, the second to remove fine solids and reclaim the valuable liquid phase.
6.3 PARTICLE SIZE AND CUT POINT Return to Table of Contents
Modern drilling rigs may be equipped with many different types of mechanical solids
removal devices depending on the application and requirements of a particular project.
Each device has a specific function in the solids control process. Equipment commonly
utilized and the effective removal range for each are listed in Figure 6-1.
Figure 6-1 Particle Diameter and Ideal Equipment Placement

6.3.1 CUT POINT Return to Table of Contents
Notice the removal range, or Cut Point, is given as a range of the particle size removed.
Mechanical solids control equipment classifies particles based on size, shape, and density. It is
typical to refer to particles as being either larger than the cut point of a device (oversize), or
smaller than the cut point (undersize).
Figure 6-2 shows a typical cut point curve. The cut point curve represents the amount of solids
of a given size that will be classified as either oversize or undersize. Particles to the right of the
cut point curve, in the area labeled “A”, represent the removed, oversize solids. Particles to the
left of the curve, in the area labeled “B”, represent the undersize solids returned with the whole
mud.
Particular interest is given to three points along the cut point curve. The D 50, or median cut point,
is the point where 50% of a certain size of solids in the feed stream will be classified as oversize,
and 50% as undersize. The D16 and D84 are the points where 16% and 84%, respectively, of the
solids in the feed stream will be classified as oversize. These two points are statistically
significant because they are one standard deviation from the D 50 in a normal distribution. An
“ideal” classifier (the dashed line) would show very little difference between the D 50, D16 and D84.
Separation Efficiency is a measure of the D 50 size relative to the number of undersize particles
that are removed, or oversize particles that are not removed. The higher the separation
efficiency, the lower the false classification. An example will assist in understanding this
concept.
Figure 6-2 Typical Cut Point Curve
Figure 6-3 shows the cut point curves for two screens, each with the same D 50. Curve No. 1 is
almost vertical with a small tail at each end. This results in a very sharp, distinct cut point.
Almost all particles larger than the cut point are rejected, with very few undersize solids.
Curve No. 2 is an S-shaped curve with a large tail at each end. Even though the D 50 is the same
as for Curve No. 1, the D 16 and D84 are very different. Many solids larger than the D 50 are
returned with the undersize solids and many solids smaller than the D 50 are discarded with the
oversize solids.
If curves number 1 and 2 in Figure 6-3 illustrate typical removal gradients for two different types
of oilfield shale shaker screens, we can draw conclusions about separation performance. The
area between the curves marked “A” represents solids Screen No. 1 removes and Screen No. 2
returns. Likewise, the area marked “B” represents solids recovered by Screen No. 1, but
discarded by Screen No. 2.
Figure 6-3 Separation Curve
This is not to say that Screen no. 1 is “better” than Screen No. 2, or vice versa; it simply
illustrates that two devices with similar “cut point” (as measured by the D50, alone) may
perform very differently. As an example, consider solids removal from a weighted drilling
fluid using vibrating screens.
An effective solids control program for a weighted mud should remove as many undesirable,
sand-sized solids as practical, while retaining most of the desirable, silt sized Barite particles.
Referring back to Figure 6-3, Screen No. 2 would return all the sand in area “A” that Screen No.
1 would catch, and Screen No. 2 would remove the silt size material in area “B” (including all
weighting material) that Screen No. 1 would recover.
Therefore, in a weighted mud, Screen No. 2 would not perform as well as Screen No. 1. Further,
if the area to the right of both curves (representing total mass solids removal) were calculated,
Screen No. 1 could prove superior in terms of mass solids removal.
As shown by this example, it is important to view “cut point” as a continuous curve, rather than a
single point. This concept is equally true with screens, hydrocyclones, centrifuges, or any other
separation equipment – the relative slope and shape of the cut point curve are more important
than a single point on the curve.
6.4 SEPARATION BY SCREENING Return to Table of Contents
One method of removing solids from drilling mud is to pass the mud onto the surface of a
vibrating screen. Particles smaller than the openings in the screen pass through the holes of
the screen along with the liquid phase of the mud. Particles too large to pass through the screen
are thereby separated from the mud for disposal. Basically, a screen acts as a “go-no-go
gauge”: either a particle is small enough to pass through the screen opening or it is not.
The purpose of vibrating the screen in solids control equipment is to transport the cuttings off the
screen and increase the liquid handling capacity of the screen. This vibrating action causes
rapid separation of whole mud from oversized solids, reducing the amount of mud lost with the
solids.
For maximum efficiency, the solids on the screen surface must travel in a predetermined pattern-
spiral, elliptical, orbital or linear motion – in order to increase particle separation efficiency and
reduce blockage of the screen openings. The combined effect of the vibration and the screen
surfaces result in the separation and removal of oversized particles from drilling mud.
6.4.1 SCREEN SURFACES Return to Table of Contents
Screening surfaces used in solids control equipment are generally made of woven wire screen
cloth, in many different sizes and shapes. The following characteristics of screen cloth are
important in solids control applications. Screens may be constructed with one or more layers.
Non-layered screens have a single layer, fine mesh, screen cloth (reinforced by coarser backing
cloth) mounted on a screen panel. These screens will have openings that are regular in size
and shape. Layered screens have two or more fine mesh screen cloths, usually of different
mesh (reinforced by coarser backing cloth), mounted on a screen panel. These screens will
have openings that vary greatly in size and shape. To increase screen life, especially in the 120-
200 mesh range, manufacturers have incorporated two design changes.
1) A coarse backing screen to support fine meshes, and

2) Pre-tensioned screen panels.
The most important advance has been the development of pre-tensioned screen panels.
Similar panels have been used on mud cleaners since their introduction, but earlier
shakers did not possess the engineering design to allow their use successfully. With the
advent of modern, linear-motion shakers, pre-tensioned screen panels have extended
screen life and justified the use of 200-mesh screens at the flow line. The panels consist
of a fine screen layer and a coarse backing cloth layer bonded to a support grid (Figure 6-
4). The screen cloths are pulled tight, or tensioned, in both directions during the
fabrication process for proper tension on every screen. The pre-tensioned panel is then
held in place in the bed of the shaker.
Figure 6-4 Pre-tensioned Screen
Today, fine screens may be reinforced with one or more coarse backing screens. The cloth may
also be bonded to a thin, perforated metal sheet. This extra backing protects the fine screen
from being damaged and provides additional support for heavy solids loads. The screens
equipped with a perforated plate may be available with several size options for the perforation to
allow improved performance for a given situation.
Most manufacturers limit themselves to one support grid opening size to reduce inventory and
production costs. The opening size is typically 1” for maximum mechanical support.
Brandt/EPITM provides screen panels with a variety of openings to allow rig personnel to choose
the desired mechanical support and total open area (translating to more liquid flow), depending
on the application.
Mesh is defined as the number of openings per linear inch. Mesh can be measured by starting
at the center of one wire and counting the number of openings to a point one-inch away. Figure
6-5 shows a sample 8-mesh screen. A screen counter is useful in determining screen mesh
(see Figure 6-6).
6.4.2 SCREEN CLOTH Return to Table of Contents
Figure 6-6
Screen counter
and Magnified
View of Screen
Figure 6-5 Eight Mesh Screen Mesh
There are several types of wire cloth used in the manufacture of oilfield screens. The most
common of these are Market Grade and Tensile Bolting Cloth. Both of these are square mesh
weaves, differing in the diameter of wire used in their construction.
Market grade cloths use larger diameter wires and are more resistant to abrasion and premature
wear. Tensile bolting cloths use smaller diameter wire and have a higher Conductance. Since
screen selection is a compromise between screen life, liquid capacity, and particle separation,
both types are in wide use.
6.4.3 OPENING SIZE Return to Table of Contents
Size of Opening is the distance between wires in the screen cloth and is usually measured in
fractions of an inch or microns. Figure 6-7 shows a screen with a ½ inch opening.
Figure 6-7 One-half Inch Opening
Screens of the same mesh may have different sized openings depending on the diameter of the
wire used to weave the screen cloth. Smaller diameter wire results in larger screen openings,
with larger particles passing through the screen. The larger the diameter of the wire, the smaller
the particles that will pass through the screen. Remember, it’s the size of the openings in a
screen, not the mesh count, that determines the size of the particles separated by the screen.
Also, normally the larger the diameter of the wire used in the weaving process, the longer the
screen cloth will last.
6.4.4 PERCENT OPEN AREA Return to Table of Contents
Percent open area is the amount of the screen surface that is not blocked by wire. The
greater the wire diameter of a given mesh screen, the less open space between the wires.
For example, a 4 mesh screen made of thin wire has a greater percent of open area than a
4 mesh screen made of thick wire (see Figure 6-8).
Figure 6-8 Percent of Open Area
The higher the percent of open area of a screen, the greater its theoretical throughput. Open
area can be increased for a given mesh by using smaller diameter wire, but at the sacrifice of
screen life. The choice of any particular screen cloth therefore involves a compromise between
throughput and screen life.
Calculating the percent open area for layered screens is difficult and inaccurate. This is due to
the random and wide variety of openings present. Conductance of a screen is an experimental
measure of the flow capacity of a screen. The higher the conductance of a screen, the greater
its flow capacity.
6.4.5 SHAPE OF OPENING Return to Table of Contents
Shape of Opening is determined by the screen’s construction. Screens with the same number of
horizontal and vertical wires per inch produce square-shaped openings and are referred to as
Square Mesh screens. Screens with a different number of horizontal and vertical wires per inch
produce oblong – or rectangular – shaped openings and are referred to as Rectangular (or
Oblong) Mesh screens. This is illustrated in Figure 6-9.
Figure 6-9 Shape of Opening
Use of a single number in reference to a screen usually implies square mesh. For example, “20
mesh” usually identifies a screen with 20 openings per inch in either direction. Oblong mesh
screens are generally labeled with two numbers. For example, a 60 x 20 screen has 60
openings per inch in one direction and 20 openings per inch in the other direction.
It has become common industrial practice to add the two dimensions of an oblong mesh screen
and refer to the sum of the two numbers as the mesh of the screen.
For example, a 60 x 20 mesh screen is often called an “oblong 80” mesh. This screen has
oblong openings measuring 1040 x 193 microns, much larger than the square openings of
a “square 80” mesh screen (177 x 177 microns). The “oblong 80” will allow much larger,
irregularly shaped particles to pass through its openings than the 80 x 80 square mesh
screen.
6.4.6 EQUIVALENT SCREEN MESH Return to Table of Contents
Screen manufacturers now compare different types of screen through charts, such as the
one shown in Figure 6-10.
Figure 6-10 Equivalent Screen Sizes The oblong-mesh screens listed in the left-hand
column remove similar sized solids as the square-mesh screens listed in the right-handed
column. These screens are referred to as “equivalent”. In actual field use, the
conductance and screen life of the oblong mesh screens is noticeably higher than the
equivalent square mesh screen, but the shape of the cut point curve discussed earlier is
not as sharp or distinct.
In a similar fashion, a layered screen will often be designated by a single number, e.g. “layered
210” mesh. This implies a screen with openings smaller than a “square 200” mesh screen (74 x
74 microns). However, the actual opening size and shape of a layered screen is a combination
of the multiple screen layers and will produce a wide variety of opening sizes and shapes.
Therefore, the “ layered 210” mesh screen will remove some solids smaller than 74 microns, but
will also allow some particles larger than 74 microns to pass through the screen openings.
6.4.7 SCREEN PLUGGING AND BLINDING
Screen plugging and blinding, while present to some degree on rig shakers fitted with coarser
screens, is most frequently encountered on fine screen shakers. If the mesh openings plug with
near-size particles or if the openings become coasted over, the throughput capacity of the
screen can be drastically reduced and flooding of the screen may occur.
Plugging can often be controlled by adjusting the vibratory motion or deck angle, but sometimes
requires changing screens to a coarser or finer mesh. A coarser screen should be used only as
a temporary solution until the particular formation responsible for near-size particle generation is
passed. Changing to a finer mesh screen often presents a better, more permanent solution.
Solution blinding is caused by sticky particles in viscous mud coating over the screen openings,
or by the evaporation of water from dissolved solids or from grease, and requires a screen wash-
down to cure. This wash-down may simply be a high-pressure water wash, a solvent (in the
case of grease, pipe dope or asphalt blinding), or a mild acid soak (in the case of blinding
caused by hard water). Stiff brushes should not be used to clean fine screens because of the
fragile nature of fine mesh screen cloth.
Screen life of fine mesh screens varies widely from design to design, even under the best of
conditions because of differences in operating characteristics. Following these general
precautions can maximize screen life:
• Keep screens clean.

• Handle screen carefully when installing.
• Keep screens properly tensioned.
• Do not overload screens.
• Do not operate shakers dry.
6.4.8 SCREEN CAPACITY
Screen capacity, or the volume of mud that will pass through a screen without flooding, varies
widely depending on shaker model and drilling conditions. Drilling rate, mud type, density and
viscosity, bit type, formation type, screen mesh – all affect throughput to some degree. Drilling
rate affects screen capacity because increases in drilled solids loading reduce the effective
screen area available for mud throughput. The mesh of the screen in use is also directly related
to shaker capacity because, in general (but not always), the finer a screen’s mesh, the lower its
throughput. Increase viscosity, usually associated with an increase in percent solids by volume
and/or increase in mud weight, has a markedly adverse effect on screen capacity. As a general
rule, for every 10% increase in viscosity, there is a 2-5% decrease in throughput capacity.
Figure 6-11 shows the relationship of mud weight viscosity, and screen mesh on shaker
capacity.
Figure 6-11 Shaker Capacity vs. Mud Weight, Viscosity, and Screen Mesh
Mud type also has an effect on screen capacity. Higher viscosities that may be associated with
an oil-base invert emulsion mud, usually results in lower screen throughput than would be
possible with a water-base mud of the same mud weight. Some mud components such as
synthetic polymers also have an adverse effect on screen capacity. As a result, no fine mesh
screen can offer a standard throughput for all operating conditions.
Due to the many factors involved in drilling conditions, mud characteristics and features of
certain models, capacities on fine screen shakers can range from 50 to 800 GPM (190 – 3000
LPM). Multiple units, most commonly dual or triple units, can be used for higher throughput
requirements. Cascade shaker arrangements, with scalping shakers installed upstream from the
fine screen shakers, can also increase throughput.
6.4.9 THREE-DIMENSIONAL SCREEN PANELS Return to Table of Contents
To increase screen capacity without increasing the size or number of shale shakers, three-
dimensional screen panels are available. The design of these 3-D, Pinnacle™ shaker screens:
• Provides even distribution of fluid across the screen surface

• Eliminates unwanted fluid loss near the screen edges
• Improves dryness of solids discharge
• Allows the use of finer screens
3-D screen panels increase the usable screen area of a screen panel by corrugating the screen
surface. Similar to the surface of a pleated air filter or oil filter, 3-D screen panels are most
effective when installed as the submerged, feed-end screen on linear-motion shakers to take full
advantage of the additional screen area. Past the fluid end point, a three-dimensional screen
tends to “channel” the drilled solids, and increases solids bed depth and the amount of liquid
carried off the screen surface. Using a flat screen at the discharge end of the shaker eliminates
channeling, increases cuttings dryness, and decreases fluid loss.
6.4.10 STANDARDIZATION Return to Table of Contents
Standardization of screen cloth designations has been recommended by the API committee on
Standardization of Drilling Fluid Materials, in API RECOMMENDED PRACTICE 13E (RP13E),
THRID EDITION, MAY 1,1993. The purpose for this practice is to provide standards for screen
labeling of shale shaker screen cloths. The procedures recommended for labeling allow a direct
comparison of separation potential, the ability to pass fluid through a screen, and the amount
area available for screening.
The API screen labeling includes of the following:
1. Manufacturer’s designation;
2. Separation Potential and
3. Flow Capacity.
The Manufacturer’s designation contains the individual company’s procedures for naming their
screens. It may include the type of screen panel, composition and other data required by the
manufacturer.
The API separation potential is reported in the terms of three “Cut” points. The term “Cut” point
is not the same as the traditional cut point. The “Cut” point allows a ranking of a screen’s
separation potential that can be used to compare screen performance. Three values (D 50, D16,
and D84) imply the opening sizes and variation in opening size of the screen.
Flow capacity is the rate at which a shaker can process mud and solids. Under constant
conditions, a shale shaker has a flow capacity that depends upon screen conductance and area.
The area available for screening is the net unblocked area, in square feet, available for fluid
passage through the screen panel. Conductance defines the ease of passage of a fluid through
a piece of wire cloth. Conductance is calculated from the mesh count and wire diameters of the
screen. Transmittance is the product of conductance times the panel area.
These designations give the end user a more accurate assessment of solids removal capability
and liquid throughput capacities of competitive screens.
6.5 SHALE SHAKERS Return to Table of Contents
The first line of defense for a properly maintained drilling fluid has been, and will continue to be,
the shale shaker. Without proper screening of the drilling fluid during this initial removal step,
reduced efficiency and effectiveness of all downstream solids control equipment on the rig is
virtually assured.
The shale shaker, in various forms, has played a prominent role in oilfield solids control schemes
for several decades. Shakers have evolved from small, relatively simple devices capable of
running only the coarsest screens to the models of today. Modern, high-performance shakers of
today are able to use 100 mesh and finer screens at the flow line in most applications.
The evolutionary process has taken us through three distinct eras of shale shaker technology
and performance as shown in Figure 6-12. These eras of oilfield screening development may be
defined by the types of motion produced by the machines:
• Elliptical, “unbalanced” design.

• Circular, “balanced” design.
• Linear, “straight-line” design.
The unbalanced, elliptical motion machines have a downward slop as shown in Figure 6-12, A.
This slope is required to properly transport cuttings across the screen and off the discharge end.
However, the downward slope reduces fluid retention time and limits the capacity of this design.
Optimum screening with these types of shakers is usually in the 30-40 mesh (400-600 micron)
range. The next generation of machine, introduced into the oilfield in the late 1960s and early
1970s, produces a balanced, or circular, motion. The consistent, circular vibration allows
adequate solids transport with the basket in a flat, horizontal orientation, as shown in Figure 6-
12, B. This design often incorporates multiple decks to split the solids load and to allow finer
mesh screens, such as 80-100 square mesh (150 – 180 microns) screens to be utilized.
Figure 6-12 Shale Shakers
The newest technology produces linear, or straight-line,

motion, Figure 6-12, C. This motion is developed by a
pair of eccentric shafts rotating in opposite directions.
Linear motion provides superior cuttings conveyance
and is able to operate at an uphill slope to provide
improved liquid retention. Better conveyance and longer
fluid retention allow the use of 200 square mesh (74
micron) screens.
Today, shale shakers are typically separated into

two categories: Rig shakers and Fine Screen
Shakers.
6.5.1 RIG SHAKERS Return to Table of Contents
The rig shaker is the simpler of two types of shale shakers. A rig shaker (also called “Primary
Shale Shaker” or “Coarse Screen Shaker”) is the most common type of solids control equipment
found on drilling rigs. Unless a fine screen shaker replaces it, the rig shaker should be the first
piece of solids control equipment that the mud flows through after coming out of the hole. It is
usually inexpensive to operate and simple to maintain.
Standard rig shakers generally have certain characteristics in common (see Figure 6-13):
• Single rectangular screening surface – usually about 4’x5’ in size. Some designs
have utilized dual screens, dual decks and dual units in parallel to provide more
efficient solids separation and greater throughput. Depending on the particular unit
and screen mesh used, capacity of rig shakers can vary from 100-1600 GPM or more.
• A low-thrust horizontal vibrator mechanism, using eccentric weights mounted above,
or central to, the screen basket.
• Vibration supports to isolate the screen basket from its skid.
• Skid with built-in mud box (sometimes called a “possum belly”) and a bypass
mechanism.
• Method of tensioning screen sections.
Screen sizes commonly used with rig shakers range from 10 to 40 mesh. Figure 6-14 shows the
particle sizes separated by these mesh screens. In this graph the area to the left of each
Figure 6-13 Rig Shaker Components
line represents solids which are smaller than that mesh size. These would pass through the
screen and would not be removed. The area to the right of each line represents solids that are
larger than the mesh size and would be removed from the mud.
Figure 5-13
Rig Shaker
Components
In Figure 6-14, the area to the right of the 10-mesh line is confined, because it is limited by the
size of the page. In actual usage, this area is unlimited. This means that a 10 mesh screen will
remove all particles larger than 1910 microns – it doesn’t matter if they are the size of BB’s,
marbles or baseballs- they will be removed and discarded by a 10 mesh screen.
Figure 6-14 Particle Removal by Rig Shaker Screens
Rig shakers are generally adequate for top hole drilling and for shallow and intermediate
depth holes when backed up by other solids control equipment. For deeper holes and
when using expensive mud systems, fine screen shakers are preferred.
6.5.2 FINE SCREEN SHAKERS Return to Table of Contents
The fine screen shaker is the more complex and versatile of the two types of shale shakers.
Fine screen shakers remove cuttings and other larger solids from drilling mud, but are designed
for greatly improved vibratory efficiency over simple rig shakers. They are constructed to vibrate
in such a way that they can use screens as fine as 150-200 mesh and still give reasonable
screen life.
They are versatile pieces of equipment and can operate on all types of mud. Figure 6-15 shows
the range of particle sizes separated by the screens commonly used with fine screen shakers.
A fine screen shaker can be installed on the rig in one of four ways:
1. Instead of the conventional rig shaker for use from top hole to total depth, if it is of a
design capable of using coarse screens as well as fines screens.
2. Placed in series with the rig shaker by tapping into the flowline with a “Y”, thus
keeping the rig shaker available as a “scalping shaker”.
3. Replacing the rig shaker after top hole is completed.
4. Downstream from the rig shaker to accept fluid after it passes through the coarse
screen shaker (requires secondary pump).
Figure 6-15 Fine Screen Shaker Particle Separation
Because fine screen shakers have a wide variety of designs, they have few characteristics
in common. The various designs are differentiated by screen orientation and shape,
screen tensioning mechanism, placement and type of vibrator, and other special features.
6.5.3 SCREEN ORIENTATION AND SHAPE Return to Table of Contents
Screen orientation and shape refers to the arrangement of the screen or screens in the unit.
Screens are usually rectangular and may be single screens or multiple screens placed in series
or in parallel, as shown in figure 6-16.
Single deck, single screens (Figure 6-16 A & B) are the simplest design, with all mud passing
over one screen of uniform mesh. This type of shaker requires efficient vibrator mechanisms to
function properly under all possible drilling conditions and requires high throughput
(conductance) per square foot of screen cloth.
Units with screens placed in parallel (Figure 6-16 C, D & E) have two or more screen sections
acting as one large screen so that no cuttings can fall between them. All screen sections should
be the same mesh, since the coarsest mesh section determines the unit's screening ability.
Shakers with screens stacked in series (Figure 6-16 F) have a coarse screen above a finer
screen, with the finer screen being the controlling mesh size. The operating theory is that the top
screen will remove some of the cuttings from the mud to take part of the load off the bottom
screen, and thereby increase overall screening efficiency.
Figure 6-16 Shaker Screen Configurations
6.5.4 SCREEN TENSIONING MECHANISM Return to Table of Contents
Shakers are designed to use either a hook strip or a rigid panel screen. Hook strip screens are
made without a rigid frame and can prematurely fail if installed and allowed to operate with
uneven tension. The shaker manufacturer’s instructions for screen installation should be
followed, but the following steps may apply:
• Inspect the supports and tension rails to be sure they are in good condition and clean
• Position the panel on the deck and inspect the screen to be sure it lays flat
• Install both rails loosely to the hook strip
• Push one side of the screen against the positioning blocks, if present; and fully tighten
the screen against these blocks
• Evenly tighten the tension bolts on the other side
• Torque to the manufacturer’s recommended setting
Rigid panel screen installation should proceed as per the manufacturer’s instructions. Panel
screens can usually be installed or replaced much quicker than a hook strip screen since the
cloth is already pre-tensioned, and the mechanical devices lock the panel with much less manual
effort.
6.5.5 VIBRATOR MECHANISMS Return to Table of Contents
Vibrator mechanisms vary widely in design and placement, and greatly affect the throughput
efficiency of fine screen shakers. Most modern shakers utilize linear motion vibration with the
vibrator mechanism mounted above the screen bed. One important advantage of linear motion
is positive conveyance of cuttings across the screen surface, even when the surface is at a
positive angle. This generally allows the use of an uphill sloped screen deck, greatly increasing
throughput capacity and cuttings dryness.
Most vibrators are electrically operated, although a few are hydraulically operated. In some units
the vibration-inducing eccentric weights are separated from the drive motor, while in others
the eccentric weights and motor form an integral assembly. In some units, the nature of the
vibratory motions can be easily modified to take advantage of specific solids-conveying
characteristics, but most units have a fixed vibratory motion.
6.5.6 MAINTENANCE
Because of their greater complexity and use of finer mesh screens, fine screen shakers
generally require more attention than rig shakers. Nonetheless, their more effective screening
capabilities more than justify the higher operating cost. This is especially true when expensive
mud systems are used.
Besides periodic lubrication, fine screen shakers require the same minimum maintenance as rig
shakers while make a trip:
• Wash down screens.

• Check screen tension.
• Shut down shaker when not drilling to extend screen life.
• Dump and clean possum belly.
In addition, frequent checks must be made for screen plugging and blinding, screen flooding and
broken screens. All will occur more frequently on fine screen shakers than on coarse mesh rig
shakers.
6.5.7 GENERAL GUIDELINES
General rules in operating shale shakers – whether coarse screen rig shakers or fine screen
shakers – which have not already been mentioned, include the following:
• Use the finest mesh screen capable of handling the full volume from the flow line
under the particular drilling conditions. This will reduce solids loading on downstream
hydrocyclones, and screens, improving their efficiency. Several screen changes,
normally to progressively finer mesh screens over the course of the hole, are quite
common.
• Large cuttings which settle in the mud box (possum belly) of the shaker should never
be dumped into the mud system. (Dump them into the sump or waste pit)
• Except in extenuating circumstances (such as the presence of lost circulation
material), all mud should be screened. This includes make-up mud hauled in from
other locations.
• Unless water sprays are absolutely necessary to control screen-blinding, water should
not be used on the screen surface while drilling. Water sprays tend to was smaller
cuttings through the screen which would otherwise e removed by their clinging to
larger particles ( piggy-back effect).
For a more complete analysis of different types of screens and shakers, ask the solids control
representative for copies of the latest Product Bulletins.
6.6 MUD CLEANERS AND MUD CONDITIONERS Return to Table of Contents
In many cases, combinations of vibratory screening and settling/centrifugal force are used
together to provide an effective separation. The most familiar combination separator is the Mud
Cleaner or Mud Conditioner ( Figure 6-17). Mud cleaners were developed in the early 1970s to
remove fine drilled solids from weighted mud without excessive loss of barite and fluid. They
have also proved valuable tools in closed systems and other “dry” location applications. These
devices use a combination of desilting hydrocyclones and very fine mesh vibrating screens (120
– 400 mesh) to remove fine drilled solids while returning valuable mud additives and liquids back
to the active mud system.
Traditional mud cleaners use multiple 4” or 5” cyclones, mounted over a vibrating screen
are able to effectively process 400 – 600 GPM. The
process capacity is limited by screen capacity and it’s
ability to discard “ dry” solids. With the introduction of
linear motion vibrating screens, the capacity of the mud
cleaner screen has been greatly increased. This, in turn,
allows the use of additional hydrocyclones and higher,
overall process capacities.
The combination of hydrocyclones and linear-motion

vibrating screens is called a Mud Conditioner to
differentiate these machines from earlier mud cleaners.
Mud conditioners often combine both desander and
desilter cones mounted above the screen deck to take full
advantage of the higher process capacity, usually 1000 –
1500 GPM (3785 – 5675 LPM), and reduce the overall
size and weight of the unit, when compared to mud
cleaners.
After removal of large cuttings with a shaker, feed mud is

pumped into the mud cleaner/conditioner’s hydrocyclones
with a centrifugal pump. The overflow from the cyclones
is returned to the mud system. Instead of simply
discarding the underflow, the solids and liquid exiting the
bottom of the cyclones are directed onto a fine screen.
Drilled solids larger than the screen openings are
discarded; the remaining solids, including most barite in a
weight system, pass through the screen and are returned
to the mud system.
The cut point and amount of mass solids removed by a

mud cleaner/conditioner depends primarily on the mesh of
the fine screen used, Figure 6-18. Since there are many
designs of mud cleaners/conditioners available,
performance and economics will vary with machine and
drilling variables.
Figure 6-17 Mud Cleaners and

Mud Conditioners
6.6.1 APPLICATIONS Return to Table of Contents
Mud Cleaners/conditioners should be considered in these applications:
1. Whenever the application requires finer screens than the existing shaker can handle
2. Unweighted oil base mud
3. Expensive polymer systems
4. When the cost of water is high
5. Unweighted water base mud with high disposal costs and/or environmental
restrictions
6. When use of lost circulation material requires bypassing the shaker
7. Workover and completion fluids
Figure 6-18
Particle
Removal by
Mud Cleaner
Screens
Mud cleaners/conditioners are simply a bank of hydrocyclones mounted over a fine-mesh

screen. In many instances (even with modern fine screen shakers), a finer separation is
required than can be provided with existing shakers. The question to answer becomes how to
achieve the necessary level of screening at the lowest cost. The alternatives are:
1) Add additional similar shakers to handle the flow rate, 2) Replace the existing
shakers with more efficient units or, 3) Add a mud cleaner/conditioner downstream
from the existing shakers.
Any of these may be correct, but a thorough study of the capital cost (the actual cost of new
equipment, plus transportation, rig modifications, and installation) and the operating cost
(screens and other expendables, plus fuel) is necessary to make the proper choice. Also,
because of the cut points produced by some “modern” layered screens, the use of mud
cleaner/conditioners may be indicated downstream of linear motion shakers.
An increasingly important application of mud cleaners/conditioners is the removal of drilled solids

from unweighted water-base mud in semi-dry form. This system is commonly used in
areas where environmental restrictions prohibit the use of earthen reserve pits, and expensive
vacuum truck waste disposal from steel pits is the alternative. The mud cleaner/conditioner is
used to discard drilled solids in semi-dry form, which is classified as legal landfill in most areas,
and is subject to economical dry-haul disposal techniques (dump truck or portable waste
containers).
Using a centrifuge, with a mud cleaner/conditioner to form a “closed” system, which eliminates
discarding of any fluid, can carry this approach to dry-solids disposal further. In a closed
system, underflow from the mud cleaner/conditioner screen is diverted to a holding tank and
then centrifuged, which results in disposal of very fine, semi-dry solids and return of liquid to the
active system. Such a system virtually eliminates the need for reserve pits, minimizes dilution,
eliminates vacuum truck services, and meets environmental constraints when drilling within
ecologically sensitive areas.
6.6.2 INSTALLATION Return to Table of Contents
Installation of the mud cleaner/conditioner is made downstream of the shale shaker and the
degasser. The same pump used to feed the rig’s desander or desilter is often reconnected to
feed the mud cleaner/conditioner when weight material is added. (Most mud cleaner/conditioners
are designed to also function as a desilter on unweighted mud by rerouting the cone underflow,
or by removing or blanking off the screen portion of the unit. The mud cleaner/conditioner may
then be used to replace or augment the rig’s desilter during top hole drilling.)
Follow these guidelines when installing mud cleaner/conditioners to allow peak efficiency:
• Size the mud cleaner/conditioner cyclones to process 110-125% of the full circulating
flow rate
• Take the mud cleaner/conditioner suction from the compartment receiving fluid
processed by the degasser (weighted muds).
• When using mud conditioners that have both desander and desilter cones, use a
separate feed pump for the desander cones, and another feed pump for the desilter
cones. The desander cone suction should be from the degasser discharge
compartment. The desilter cone suction should be from the desander discharge
compartment.
• Keep all lines as short and straight as possible
• Install a guard screen with approximately ½” openings at the suction to prevent large
trash from entering the unit and plugging the cones.
• Position the mud cleaner/conditioner on the pit high enough so the overflow manifold
will gravity-feed fluid into the next downstream compartment at an angle of
approximately 45°.
• Avoid vertical overflow discharge lines from hydrocyclones.
6.6.3 GENERAL GUIDELINES Return to Table of Contents
To operate mud cleaner/conditioners at maximum efficiency, remember these fundamentals:
• Operate mud cleaners/conditioners continuously on the full circulating volume to

achieve maximum drilled solids removal.
• Operate mud cleaners/conditioners within the limits of the screen capacity. A mud
cleaner/conditioner with a cyclone throughput of 800 GPM (3028 LPM) is of little
value if the cone underflow exceeds the screen capacity, resulting in flooding and
high mud additive losses
• Feed the cone underflow to the screen at a single point. Multiple feed points on the
screening surface minimize use of the available screen area and reduce overall
capacity and efficiency.
• Screen throughput is reduced by increased solids content and viscosity. The cyclone
underflow plays a critical role in overall mud cleaner/conditioner efficiency. It is often
desirable to modify the performance characteristics of the cones to decrease the
amount of ultra fines in the cone underflow. This minimizes near-size screen plugging
and Barite loss due to “piggy-backing”.
• Do not judge screen efficiency simply on the basis of cuttings dryness or color. The
total amount of drilled solids in the discarded material, along with the ratio of Barite to
drilled solids, must be determined to correctly evaluate economic performance.
• Select the number of cones to be operated and the particular mesh screen to be used
according to drilling conditions. As a general rule, use the finest mesh screen
possible (to process the full circulating rate) and size the number of cones
accordingly.
In some instances, a number of cones will have to be blanked off in order for the desired screen
mesh to be used. This may involve an experimental determination of the number of cones and
screen mesh to optimize performance. In some cases, more than one mud cleaner/conditioner
will be needed.
6.6.4 MAINTENANCE Return to Table of Contents
Maintenance of mud cleaners/conditioners generally combines the requirements of desilters and

fine screen shakers:
• Periodic lubrication
• Check screen tension
• Inspect the screen to ensure it is free of tears, holes and dried mud before start up
• Shut down unit when not circulating to extend screen life
• Check feed manifold for plugging of cyclone feed inlets
• Check cyclones for excessive wear and replace parts as necessary
6.7 SEPARATION BY SETTLING AND CENTRFIGUAL FORCE

Using vibrating screens to remove drilled solids from mud uses only one characteristic of solids
particles – their size. Another factor, which affects separation, is particle density.
Solids control devices which take advantage of both particle size and particle density, speeds up
the settling process by application of centrifugal force.
These devices utilize Stokes Law as the basis for their operation. Stokes Law defines the
relationship of factors governing the settling velocity of particles in a liquid. This relationship may
be stated in its simplest form as :
• Larger particles (of the same density) settle more rapidly than smaller ones.
• High density solids settle more quickly than low density ones.
• High acceleration and low viscosity speed up the settling rate.
Settling pits, hydrocyclones, and centrifuges all utilize this principle in their operation. Settling
pits simply use the force of gravity to separate solids. The larger and/or heavier a solid is, the
faster it will settle through fluid in a settling pit. There is no way to speed up this natural settling
process other than reducing the viscosity of the fluid, or flocculating the solid particles with the
addition of chemicals. Settling pits are often large and require closure or remediation. The
reduction in waste mud achieved through efficient solids control, greatly reduces the wastewater
remediation treatment costs.
6.8 SAND TRAPS Return to Table of Contents
A sand trap (Figure 6-19) is a settling tank, usually the first compartment of the first pit in the
mud system. A shale shaker would normally sit on top of the sand trap and discharge into it.
Sand traps can serve an important role in solids control by protecting downstream equipment
against the results of torn shale shaker screens or by-passed shakers, by removing large
particles which could plug cyclones or other equipment downstream. In normal operation, they
also play a minor solids removal role by settling out a portion of the coarse drilled solids, which
pass through the shaker screen.
Figure 6-19 Cutaway View of Sand Trap
Normally, sand traps should have a top weir over which mud can flow into the next compartment,
a slanted bottom, and a quick-opening, quick-closing dump valve or gate so that settled solids
can be discharged with minimum fluid loss. In some highly sensitive environments, the extra
liquids lost from dumping the sand trap cannot be allowed, and the desander suction is arranged
to allow processing of the sand without creating a lot of liquid waste.
6.9 HYDROCYCLONES Return to Table of Contents
Hydrocyclones (also referred to as cyclones or cones) are simple mechanical devices, without
moving parts, designed to speed up the settling process. Feed energy is transformed into
centrifugal force inside the cyclone, to accelerate particle settling in accordance with Stokes
Law. In essence, a cyclone is a miniature settling pit which allows very rapid settling of solids
under controlled conditions.
Hydrocyclones are important in solids control systems because of their ability to efficiently
remove particles smaller than the finest mesh screens. They are also uncomplicated devices,
which make them easy to use and maintain.
A hydrocyclone (see Figure 6-20), consists of a cylindrical/conical shell with a small opening at
the bottom for underflow discharge, a larger opening at the top for liquid discharge through an
internal “vortex finder”, and a feed nozzle on the side of the body near the cylindrical (top) end of
the cone.
Drilling mud enters the cyclone using energy created by a centrifugal feed pump. The velocity of
the mud causes the particles to rotate rapidly within the main chamber of the cyclone. Heavy,
coarse solids and the liquid film around them tend to spiral outward and downward for discharge
through the solids outlet. Light, fine solids and the liquid phase of the mud tend to spiral inward
and upward for discharge through the liquid outlet.
Design features of cyclone units vary widely from supplier to supplier, and no two manufacturer’s
cyclones have identical operating efficiency, capacity or maintenance characteristics.
In the past, cyclones were commonly made of cast iron with replaceable liners and other wear
parts made of rubber or polyurethane to resist abrasion. Newer designs are made entirely of
polyurethane, and are less expensive, last longer, and weight less.
Figure 6-20 Hydrocyclone
Most well designed oilfield cyclones operate most efficiently when 75 feet (22 meters ± 1.5
meters) of inlet head (± 5 ft) is applied to the cone inlet.
Centrifugal pumps must be properly sized for cones to operate efficiently. Centrifugal pumps
are constant energy (head) devices, and NOT constant pressure devices. Feed head is
constant regardless of mud weight; pressure varies with mud weight.
Although centrifugal pump theory and sizing exercises are beyond the scope of this text, if you
are not able to properly size your centrifugal pump to create 75 feet (22 meters) of inlet head to
your set of cyclones, it is highly recommended that you contact the solids control technical
services staff for assistance. Remember, more errors in hydrocyclone applications are made
with centrifugal pumps, rather than with the cyclones themselves.
The size of oilfield cyclones commonly varies from 4” to 12” (101 mm to 305 mm). This
measurement refers to the inside diameter of the largest, cylindrical section of the cyclone. In
general – but not always – the larger the cone, the coarser its cut point and the greater its
throughput. Typical cyclone throughput capacities are listed in Figure 6-21
Manifolding multiple cyclones in parallel can provide sufficient capacity to handle the required
circulating volume, plus some reserve as necessary. Manifolding may orient the cyclones in a
vertical position or nearly horizontal – the choice is one of convenience, as it does not affect
cyclone performance.
The internal geometry of a cyclone also has a great deal to do with its operating
efficiency. The length and angle of the conical section (and the ratio of cone diameter to
cone length), the size and shape of the feed inlet, the size of the vortex finder, and the
size and adjustment means of the underflow opening, all play important roles in a
cyclone’s effective separation of solids particles.
CONE
SIZE 4 in 5 in 6 in 8 in 10 in 12 in
(I.D.) 101.6 mm 127 mm 152.4 mm 203.2 mm 254 mm 304.8 mm
CAPACITY
(GPM) 50 – 75 70 – 80 100 - 150 150 - 250 400 – 500 400 – 500
(LPM) 190 – 285 265 – 300 375 - 570 570 - 950 1500 – 1890 1500 – 1890
FEED
PRESSURE 30 – 40 30 – 40 30 - 40 25 - 35 20 – 30 20 – 30
(PSI)
Figure 6-21 Hydrocyclone Capacities
Operating efficiencies of cyclones may be measured in several different ways, but since
the purpose of a cyclone is to discard maximum abrasive solids with minimum fluid loss,
both solids and liquid aspects of removal must be considered
In a cyclone, larger particles have a higher probability of reporting to the bottom underflow (apex)
opening, while smaller particles are more likely to report to the top (overflow) opening. The most
common method of illustrating particle separation in cyclones is through a cut point curve. Figure
6-22 shows the approximate cut point ranges for cyclones used with unweighted water-base
mud, and operated at 22 meters ± 1.5 meters (75 feet ±5 feet) of inlet head.
Figure 6-22 Hydrocyclone Capacities
CONE
SIZE 4 in 5 in 6 in 8 in 10 in 12 in
(I.D.) 101.6 mm 127 mm 152.4 mm 203.2 mm 254 mm 304.8 mm
CUT
POINT 15 - 20 20 - 25 25 - 30 30 - 40 30 – 40 30 – 40
(MICRONS)
6.9.1 HYDROCYCLONE CUT POINT Return to Table of Contents
Particle separation in cyclones can vary considerably depending on such factors as feed head,
mud weight, percent solids, and properties of the liquid phase of the mud. Generally speaking,
increasing any of these factors will shift the cut point curse to the right, increasing the size of
solids actually separated by the cyclone.
By itself, the cut point does not determine a cyclone’s overall efficiency because it ignores the
liquid loss rate. The amount of fluid in the cone underflow is important; if the solids are two dry,
they can cause “roping” or “dry-plugging” of the underflow.
In contrast, a cyclone operating with a spray discharge ( see Figure 6-23) gives solids a free path
to exit. A cone operating in spray discharge will remove a significantly greater amount of solids
than a cone in “rope” discharge.
6.9.2 ROPE DISCHARGE Return to Table of Contents
Hydrocyclones should not be operated in rope discharge because it will drastically reduce the
cone separating efficiency. In a rope discharge, the solids become crowded at the apex, cannot
exit freely from the underflow, and become caught by the inner spiral reporting to the overflow.
Solids which otherwise would be separated are forced into the overflow stream and returned to
the mud system. This type of discharge can also lead to plugged cones and much higher
cyclone wear.
Figure 6-23 Spray vs. Rope Discharge
While a spraying cyclone appears to discharge more fluid, the benefits of more efficient solids
removal and less cone wear outweigh the additional fluid loss. In cases where a dry discharge is
required, the underflow from hydrocyclones can be screened or centrifuged to recover the free
liquid.
6.10 DESANDERS Return to Table of Contents
Desanders are hydrocyclones larger than 5” (127 mm). Generally, the smaller the cone, the
smaller size particles the cone will separate ( see Figure 6-24). Desanders are primarily used to
remove the high volumes of solids associated with extremely fast drilling of a large diameter
hole.
Desanders are installed downstream from the shale shaker and degasser. The desander
removes sand sized particles and larger drilled solids which have passed through the shaker
screen and discards them along with some liquid into a waste pit.
When installing a desander, follow these general recommendations:
• Size the desander to process 110 – 125 % of the total mud circulation rate.
• Keep all lines as short and straight as possible with a minimum of pipe fittings. This
will reduce loss of head on the feed line and minimize back pressure on the overflow
discharge line.
• Do not reduce the diameter of the overflow line from that of the overflow discharge
manifold.
• Direct the overflow line downward into the next downstream compartment at an angle
of approximately 45°. The overflow discharge line should not be installed in a vertical
position – doing so may cause excessive vacuum on the discharge header and pull
solid through the cyclone overflow, reducing the cyclone’s efficiency.
Figure 6-24 Particle Removal by Desander Cyclones

(200 Mesh Screen Included for Comparison)
• Keep the end of the discharge line above the surface of the mud to avoid creating a
vacuum in the line.
• Position the underflow trough to easily direct solids to the waste pit.
• Install a low equalizer line to permit back flow into the desander suction. Operating
desanders at peak efficiency is a simple matter, since most desanders are relatively
uncomplicated devices.
Here are a few fundamental principles to keep in mind:
• Operate the desander unit at the supplier’s recommended feed head (usually around
75 feet (22 meters)). Too low a feed head decreases efficiency, while excessive feed
head shortens the life of cyclone wear parts.
• Check cones regularly to ensure the discharge orifice is not plugged.
• Run the desander continuously while drilling and shortly after beginning a trip for
“catch-up” cleaning.
• Operate the desander with a spray rather than a rope discharge to maintain peak
efficiency.
6.10.2 MAINTENANCE Return to Table of Contents
Maintenance of desanders normally entails no more than checking all cone parts for excessive
wear and flushing out the feed manifold between wells. Large trash may collect in feed
manifolds which could cause cone plugging during operation. Preventive maintenance
minimizes downtime, and repairs are simpler between wells than during drilling.
Use of desanders is normally discontinued when expensive materials such as Barite and/or
polymers are added to a drilling mud, because a desander will discard a high proportion of these
materials along with the drilled solids. Similarly, desanders are not generally cost effective when
an oil-base mud is in use, because the cones also discard a significant amount of the liquid
phase.
6.11 DESILTERS Return to Table of Contents
A desilter uses smaller hydrocyclones - usually 4” or 5” ID (101.6 mm or 127 mm ID) than a

desander, and therefore generally removes smaller particles. The smaller cones enable a
desilter to make the finest particle size separation of any full flow solids control equipment –
removing solids in the range of 15 microns and larger ( Figure 6-25). This makes it an important
device for reducing average particle size and removing abrasive grit from an unweighted mud.
Figure 6-25 Particle Removal by Desilter Cyclones (200 mesh Screen Included for Comparison)
The cyclones in desilter units operate on the same principle as the cyclones used on desanders.
They simply make a finer cut, and the individual cone throughput capacities are less than
desander cones. Multiple cones are usually manifolded in a single desilter unit to meet
throughput requirements. Desilters should be sized to process 110 – 125 % of the full rig flow
rate.
Installation of desilters is normally downstream from the shale shaker, sand trap, degasser and
desander, and should allow ample space for maintenance. Here are some fundamentals for
installing desilters:
• Take the desilter suction from the compartment receiving fluid process by the
desander.
• Do NOT use the same pump to feed both the desander and desilter. If both pieces of
equipment are to be operated at the same time, they should be installed in series
and each should have its own centrifugal pump.
• Keep all lines as short and straight as possible.
• Install a guard screen with approximately ½ “ (12.7 mm) openings to prevent large
trash from entering the unit and plugging the cones.
• Position the desilter on the pit high enough so the overflow manifold will gravity-feed
fluid into the next downstream compartment at an angle of approximately 45°.
Remember – no vertical overflow discharge lines.
• Keep the end of the discharge line above the surface of the mud to avoid creating a
vacuum in the line.
• Install a low equalizer line for back flow to the desitler’s suction compartment
• Position the underflow trough to easily direct solids to the waste pit.
Running a desander ahead of a desilter takes a big load off the desilter and improves its
efficiency. If the drilling rate is slow and the amount of solids being drilled is only a few hundred
pounds per hour, then the desander may be turned off ( to save fuel and maintenance costs),
and the desilter may be used to carry the total desanding/desilting load.
6.11.2 GUIDELINES Return to Table of Contents
To operate desilters at maximum efficiency, follow these basic guidelines:
• Operate the cones with a spray discharge. Never operate the desilter cones with a
rope discharge since a rope underflow cuts cone efficiency in half or worse, causes
cone plugging, and increases wear on cones. Use enough cones and adjust the cone
underflow openings to maintain a spray pattern.
• Operate the desilter unit at the supplier’s recommended feed head. This is generally
between 70 – 80 feet (21 – 25 meters) of head. Too much energy will result in
excessive cone wear.
• Check cones regularly for bottom plugging or flooding, since a plugged cone allows
solids to return to the mud system. If a cone bottom is plugged, unplug it with a
welding rod or similar tool. If a cone is flooding, the feed is partially plugged or the
bottom of the cone may be worn out.
• Run the desilter continuously while drilling and also for a short while during a trip.
The extra cleaning during the trip can reduce overload conditions during the period of
high solids loading immediately after a trip.
6.11.3 MAINTENANCE
A desilter’s smaller cyclones are more likely than desander cones to become plugged with
oversized solids, so it is important to inspect them often for wear and plugging. This may
generally be done between wells unless a malfunction occurs while drilling. The feed manifold
should be flushed between wells to remove trash. Keep the shale shaker well maintained –
never bypass the shaker or allow large pieces of material to get into the active system.
A desilter will discard an appreciable amount of Barite, because Barite particles fall within the silt
size range. Desilters are therefore not recommended for use with weighted muds. Similarly,
since hydrocyclones discard some absorbed liquid along with the drilled solids, desilters are not
normally used with an oil-base mud, unless another device (centrifuge or mud
cleaner/conditioner) is used to “deliquor” the cone underflow.
6.12 DECANTING CENTRIFUGE Return to Table of Contents
Centrifuges for oilfield applications were first introduced in the early 1950’s. These early units
were adapted from existing industrial decanting centrifuges. In the mid 1960’s, a perforated rotor
type machine was developed which does not perform like a pure decanter. Commonly called
“Barite recovery” centrifuges, these early designs were limited in capacity and application.
Today, the centrifuge is the most important part of solids control. In addition, the increase use of
low-solids mud, and environmental dewatering applications require high process volumes,
greater clarification and solids capacity, and additional fine solids removal.
Equipment selection is decided by site-specific requirements. Proper system selection is the first
step to effective solids control.
6.12.1 SEPARATION PROCESS Return to Table of Contents
A Decanting Centrifuge is so named because it Decants, or removes, free liquid from separated
solids. A decanting centrifuge consists of a conveyor screw inside a rotating bowl, (see Figure
6–26).
Figure 6 – 26 Decanting Centrifuge
Decanting centrifuges operate on the principle of exposing the process fluid to increased “G-
forces”, thus accelerating the settling rate of solids in the fluid. A rotating bowl creates high G-
forces and forms a liquid pool inside the bowl. The free liquid and finer solids flow toward the
larger end of the centrifuge, and are removed through the effluent overflow weirs. The larger
solids settle against the bowl wall forming a layer. These solids are pushed by a screw conveyor
across a drainage deck, or beach. Dewatering actually takes place on the beach, with the
decanted solids discharged through a series of underflow ports. A gearbox changes the relative
speed of the conveyor to the bowl, causing them to rotate at slightly different rates. This speed
differential is required to convey and discharge solids.
The bowl and conveyor are rotated at speeds between 1500 and 4000 rpm’s depending on bowl
diameter. This rotation develops centrifugal force sufficient to settle solids along the inner
surface of the bowl wall. A gearbox is used to rotate the conveyor and bowl at slightly different
speeds (slower or faster). This speed differential conveys and discharges solids from the
machine.
Mud, (sometimes diluted with water), is pumped into the conveyor hub through the feed tube. As
the conveyor rotates, centrifugal force pushes the feed mud out the feed ports into the bowl. The
heavy, coarse particles in the mud are forced against the inner surface of the bowl, where the
scraping motion of the conveyor blades moves them toward the solids discharge ports. A
drainage deck, called the beach, is where dewatering of the solids actually takes place. The de-
liquified solids are then discharged through a series of underflow ports.
The light, fine solids, tend to remain in suspension in the pools between the conveyor flights and
are carried out the overflow ports along with the liquid phase of the mud. The operating principle
is similar to that of the cyclone, but it is mechanical rotation rather than fluid head, which induces
the centrifugal force required to accelerate the particle-settling rate. Residence time of fluid in
the bowl and a more “gentle” separation environment differentiate separation in a centrifuge
from that of a cyclone. Centrifuges make the finest cut of any separation device used on the rig,
usually 2 – 5 microns.
Bowl sizes in common oilfield applications include diameters of 14”, 15”, 18”, and 24” (35.5 cm,
38.1 cm, 45.7 cm and 60.96 cm). Larger 24” (60.96 cm) diameter units generally have the
highest liquid throughput and solids tonnage capacity. To figure out the gravitational forces of
any centrifuge, one can use the formula that follows, or you may use the graph at Figure 6 – 27.
(bowl rpm) x 0.0000142 x bowl diameter in inches = gravitational force “G”
To determine the bowl rpm of a centrifuge the formula is as follows:
(motor rpm x clutch sheave size) / bowl sheave size = bowl rpm
In unweighted mud applications, feed mud capacity can range from 25 – 250 GPM (95 – 945
LPM), depending on unit capability and fluid requirements. Solids tonnage rates range from 1.25
tons/ hour to 8 tons/ hour.
In weighted mud applications, feed mud capacity rarely exceeds 25 GPM ( 95 LPM). Total liquid
throughput may be as high as 40 GPM (150 LPM), including dilution liquid. Dilution liquid is
required to compensate for increasing viscosity, generally associated with increasing mud
weight, in order to maintain satisfactory separation efficiency. The raw mud feed rate is
substantially decreased as mud weight increases. In field operation, the decanting centrifuge is
fitted with a housing over the bowl, liquid and solids collection hoppers, skid, feed slurry pump,
raw mud and dilution liquid connections, power source, meters and controls.
6.12.2 UNWEIGHTED MUD APPLICATIONS Return to Table of Contents
In the classic weighted mud applications, the solids discharge (containing the majority of the
weight material) is returned to the mud system. The liquid effluent (containing the majority of the
colloidal size solids) is discarded.
As part of a “closed loop”, larger high capacity 75 – 250 GPM (285 – 945 LPM) decanting
centrifuges (and sometimes standard centrifuges) are used to maximize fine solids removal. The
coarser solids fraction is discarded in dry form, while the liquid and colloidal solids fraction is
returned to the mud system.
Figure 6-27 TO DETERMINE CENTRIFUGAL FORCE, DRAW A STRAIGHT LINE FROM
BOWL DIAMETER THROUGH THE SPEED BEING USED.
CONTINUE THIS LINE TO THE COLUMN MARKED CENTRIFUGAL FORCE
Decanting centrifuges are becoming more popular for processing unweighted oil muds,
especially if 1) the mud has been brought in from another location and may contain a large
amount of fine drilled solids, 2) slow, hard drilling with a gradual buildup of ultra-fine solids is
anticipated or 3) the liquid mud phase is valuable.
6.12.3 WEIGHTED OIL-BASE MUD APPLICATIONS Return to Table of Contents
In weighted, oil-base mud applications, decanting centrifuges are operated in series. The first
unit returns the coarse solids fraction (weight material) to the active system, with the light, liquid
fraction being routed to a holding tank (rather than being discarded as in a classic weighted mud
application). A second unit, often a higher capacity machine, strips out the solids and discards
them, returning the effluent to the active system.
This process is not as effective as a single unit for viscosity control – a large portion of the
colloidal size solids are returned to the active mud system in the effluent stream of the second
unit – but the effluent stream from the first unit is too valuable to discard, especially with
synthetic oil muds. Usually the coarse solids fraction is discarded and the base fluid is retained
for reuse.
6.12.4 OPERATING PROCEDURES Return to Table of Contents
Operating procedures will vary from model to model, but a few universal principles apply to
almost all centrifuges:
• Before starting a centrifuge, rotate the bowl or cylinder by hand to be sure it turns
freely.
• Start up the centrifuge before starting the mud feed pump and dilution water feed.
• Set the raw mud and dilution feed rates according to the manufacturer’s
recommendations ( usually variable with mud weight).
• Remember to turn the feed and dilution water off before the machine is stopped.
Centrifuges are relatively easy to operate, but they require special skills for repair and
maintenance. Rig maintenance of centrifuges is limited to routine lubrication and speed
adjustment of the unit.
6.13 AUXILLARY EQUIPMENT Return to Table of Contents
6.13.1 AGITATION / MIXING EQUIPMENT
All compartments in an active mud system other than the sand trap must be agitated in order to
suspend solids and maintain a consistent mixture throughout the surface system. Suspension of
the solids prevents their settling and keeps them in the active mud system so that they can be
separated by mechanical solids control equipment.
MUD GUNS
For many years “Mud Guns” (see figure 6-28) were used as the
sole means of agitation. These devices usually carry mud from a
downstream compartment, and spray it at high velocity into an Figure 6 – 28
upstream compartment to keep solids suspended. Mud Gun
However, the true mixing effect of mud guns tends to be localized around the point where
the nozzle spray discharges, leaving dead spots in other areas of the tank. Mud guns
also increase the load on downstream solids control equipment, since each nozzle may
add 100 – 200 GPM (378 – 757 LPM) of mud into the tank above and beyond the normal
flow from the well.
MECHANICAL AGITATORS
Mechanical agitators ( see Figure 6 – 29) provide more thorough mixing of pits without the
problems associated with mud guns. Agitators use an electric motor to drive impeller blades
which flow the mud in a pattern throughout the tank.
Given proper tank design, agitator sizing, and impeller

placement, this method of agitation prevents settling,
enhances the efficiency of solids removal devices, and
maintains a well-blended mud system.
6.13.2 DEGASSERS Return to Table of Contents
After passing through a shale shaker and a sand trap, all

drilling mud should be directed through a degasser, see
Figure 6 – 30. Degassers are often essential to the
solids removal process to ensure the proper
performance of hydrocyclones used in downstream
solids control devices. The centrifugal pumps that feed
the cyclones have difficulty maintaining their efficiency
when pumping gas-cut mud, and the cones will not
function properly if feed head fluctuates or if there is gas
in the incoming mud. Also, recirculation of gas-cut mud
is dangerous and could result in a blowout, since the
density of gas-cut mud is lighter than the mud weight
that should be maintained in the well bore. Figure 6 – 29 Mechanical Agitator
There are three basic methods of degassing which can be utilized separately or in
combination. The three degassing techniques are : atmospheric, vacuum and cyclonic.
ATMOSPHERIC DEGASSERS
Atmospheric degassers sit in the mud tank and consist of an elevated spray chamber and a
submerged centrifugal pump. The gas-cut mud is pumped to the spray chamber at high velocity
through a disc valve. The mud strikes the inside wall of the spray chamber with enough force to
drive most of the entrapped gas out of the mud. The removed gas is usually discharged to
atmosphere at pit level and the degassed mud returned to the active system. These devices are
simple to operate and maintain, but heir effectiveness is often limited by the ability of the
centrifugal pump to handle gas-cut mud. A second method of degassing is provided by the use
of a vacuum.
VACUUM-TYPE DEGASSERS
Vacuum-type degassers separate gas bubbles from drilling mud by spreading the gas-cut mud
into thin layers and then drawing off the gases with a vacuum pump. The mud is usually thinned
by flowing it over a series of baffles or plates. Vacuum degassers are normally skid-mounted
and installed on top of the mud tanks.
Some models incorporate more than one degassing technique with-in a single unit. For
example, one degasser spreads the mud into thin sheets through centrifugal force, sprays the
mud onto an impact shield for residual gas separation, and draws off the gases with a vacuum
pump.
Figure 6-30 Degassers
INSTALLATION
Actual placement of the degasser and related pump will vary with the design of the degasser, but
these recommendations may be used as a general rule:
• Install a screen in the inlet pipe to the degasser to keep large objects from being
drawn into the degassing chamber. Locate the screen about one foot (30 cm)
above the pit bottom and in a well agitated spot.
• There should be a high equalizer line between the suction and discharge
compartment. The equalizer should be kept open to allow backflow of processed
mud to the suction side of the degasser.
• Route the liquid discharge pipe to enter the next compartment or pit below mud level
to prevent aeration.
• Install the gas discharge line to safely vent the separated gas to atmosphere or to a
flare line.
Maintenance of degassers varies considerably depending on make and model. In general, the
following guidelines apply:
• Check to make sure the suction screen is not plugged.

• Routinely lubricate any pumps and other moving parts and check for wear.
• Keep all discharge lines open and free from restrictions, such as caused by solids
build up around valves
• If the degasser utilizes a vacuum, keep it at the proper operating level, according to
the manufacturer’s recommended range for the mud weight and process rate.
• Check all fittings for air leaks.
• If the unit uses a hydraulic system, check it for leaks, proper oil level, and absence of
air in the system.
6.13.3 DRYING SHAKERS Return to Table of Contents
A drying shaker, or dryer, is a vibrating screen separator used to remove free liquid from cuttings
prior to discharge and recover the liquid for re-use. Drying shakers are usually installed to
process the cuttings discharged from primary scalping and /or fine screen shakers. A typical
drying shaker is a linear motion, multi-screen unit, with a feed hopper in place of the traditional
back tank. Drying shakers are optimized to provide maximum retention time and cuttings
dryness. Large hole sizes or high penetration rates may require more than one drying shaker to
provided acceptable cuttings dryness and liquid recovery.
Shale shakers are often the cause of excess mud loss during drilling operations, primarily due to
screening too fine for drilling conditions, and the design of some shakers. This mud loss can
greatly increase mud costs and site clean-up costs, especially when oil-base muds (OBM), or
synthetic-base muds (SBM), are used. One characteristic of SBM is the increased amount of
liquid retained on the cuttings, compared to water base muds (WBM) or conventional OBM.
The drying shaker is designed to expose wet drilled cuttings to an additional vibrating screen
surface, and separate some of the bound liquid coating the surface of the solids. The liquid is
then returned to the active system or transferred to a storage tank for future use.
DRYING SHAKER DESIGN
The first drying shakers were “High-G” units, operating at 6.5 to 8 G’s. Prevalent thinking was
that the additional impact force provided by the higher g-force would improve cutting dryness.
Recent field studies indicate this is not necessarily true.
Oil content on cuttings is primarily a function of retention time on the screen surface and the
exposure of the cutting to the vibrational force of the shaker. The G-force greatly affects the
speed at which cuttings move form the feed end of the screen surface to the discharge end. At 4
G’s, the conveyance rate is close to 1 inch ( 25.4 mm) per second, while at 7 Gs the conveyance
rate is about 5 inches (127 mm) per second.
Given a screen length of 24 inches (60.96 mm) and operation at 4 Gs, a cutting will take
approximately 24 seconds to travel from the feed end of the screen to the discharge end.
Increasing the G-force to 7 G’s reduces the exposure time to 6 seconds and will actually
increase the amount of oil remaining on the cuttings.
Since the amount of oil remaining on the cutting is a function of exposure time, screen deck
length and deck angle will greatly influence cuttings dryness. Screen deck length determines the
distance a cutting must travel prior to discharge and deck angle influences retention time – the
longer the screen deck and the steeper the deck angle, the greater the retention time. However,
longer screen decks may not fit the available space and too steep a deck angle will result in
cuttings grinding and unacceptable build-up of fine solids.
INSTALLATION
• Locate the drying shaker(s) at a lower level from the main linear shakers and other
solids control equipment. Feed to the drying shaker should be through open hopper
sized to eliminate solids build-up or plugging. Cuttings should evenly deposited as
close to the feed end of the drying shaker as possible to maximize usable screen area
and cuttings dryness.
• Provide slides or conveyors to direct “dry” cuttings to solids collection bins or
discharge chutes.
• Supply a flooded pump suction in the liquid collection tank for transfer by pump to the
desired storage or processing tank.
• The mesh of the screens on the drying shaker should be close to, or finer than, the
screens on the main shakers to prevent the re-introduction of separated solids to the
active system.
• Use three-dimensional, Pinnacle™ screen panels at the feed end of the dryer to
usable increase screen area. The middle screen panel may be either a 3-D or flat
panel, depending on deck angel and desired fluid end point. The discharge end
screen should be a flat screen panel to minimize cuttings bed depth and maximize
liquid recovery.
• Adjust screen deck angle design to properly convey solids, reduce liquid loss, and
prevent cuttings grinding.
• The liquid recovered from the drilled cuttings will contain base fluid, plus any solids
finer than the screen mesh of the drying shaker. The recovered liquid should be
processed through a decanting centrifuge to remove ultra-fine solids before the mud
is returned to the active system or storage tank. In some installations, the decanting
centrifuge may be eliminated, but only after careful consideration of cuttings size and
their effect on fluid properties.
6.14 BASIC ARRANGEMENT RULES Return to Table of Contents
Mechanical solids control is the most cost-effective method to control drilled solids. Proper
solids control requires:
• Proper planning before the well begins.

• Proper selection, installation, and operation of available equipment
• Sequential Treatment – It follows from previous recommendations that the solids
control equipment should be arranged so that each piece of equipment removes
successively finer solids.
• Compartment Mixing – To provide a uniform solids load to the equipment each
compartment, except the sand trap, should be well stirred. If mud guns are used,
they should be arranged so that no flow bypasses the solids control equipment.
Agitators are preferable.
• Arrangement – Each piece of solids control equipment must be arranged so that the
suction is taken from a compartment upstream of the discharge compartment, i.e.;
there must be a wall or division with an equalizer opening between the suction and
discharge, even if it is boards placed in the tank temporally.
• Upstream Flow Through Equalizer – If the flow into the suction compartment is
greater than the rate of flow processed by the equipment, then mud is flowing
downstream through the equalizer. In other words, the flow through compartment
equalizers should always be from the discharge to the suction. If it is not then mud is
bypassing the equipment.
• Dedicated Feed Pumps - Manifolding pumps and equipment so that multiple
configurations are available depending on valve positions is always a mistake. There
should be only one button to push to begin the pump and the discharge valve opened
slow to be in operation of the solids control unit.
• Use a separate centrifugal pump for each hydrocyclone device ( do not use the same
pump for more than one piece of equipment).
Equipment selection is decided by site-specific requirements. Proper system selection is the first
step to effective solids control.

Chapter 7 Product Data Information
TOPICS Return to Table of Contents PAGE
7.1 VISCOSIFIERS 1
7.1.1 ABI HIGH YIELD GEL 1
7.1.2 BENTONITE (Wyoming) 3
7.1.3 CANEX (BENEX 4
7.1.4 GUAR GUM 5
7.1.5 HEC-10 POLYMER 7
7.1.6 KELZAN XCD POLYMER 9
7.1.7 NATURAL GEL 10
7.1.8 SALT GEL (Sepiolite) 11
7.1.9 XANTHAN GUM HD 12
7.1.10 XANVIS POLYMER 13
7.1.11 XANVIS L 14
7.2 WEIGHTING AGENTS 15
7.2.1 BARITE 15
7.2.2 CALCIUM CARBONATE (#0 , #325 Grind) 16
7.3 LOSS OF CIRCULATION MATERIAL 17
7.3.1 CALCIUM CARBONATE (Glass Rock Grind) 17
7.3.2 CALCIUM CARBONATE (Poultry Grit, 2 mm, #3 Grind) 18
7.3.3 CELLOPHANE 19
7.3.4 CERT-N-SEAL 20
7.3.5 DIASEAL M 21
7.3.6 DRIL DOKTOR 22
7.3.7 MICA (Fine, Medium, Coarse) 23
7.3.8 NUT SHELL (Fine, Medium, Coarse) 24
7.3.9 PRIMA SEAL (Medium, Coarse 25
7.3.10 SAWDUST 26
7.3.11 ULTRA SEAL (XP, C, PLUS) 27
7.3.12 WALNUT SHELLS (Fine, Medium, Coarse) 28
7.4 ALKALINITY CONTROL ADDITIVES 29
7.4.1 CAUSTIC SODA 29
7.4.2 CITRIC ACID (Anhydrous) 30
7.4.3 HYDRATED LIME 31
7.4.4 MAGNESIUM OXIDE 30 32
7.4.5 POTASSIUM HYDROXIDE(90% Flake Caustic Potash) 33
7.4.6 SULPHAMIC ACID 34
7.5 FLUID LOSS CONTROL ADDITIVES 36
7.5.1 CMC 36
7.5.2 CYPAN (WL-100) 37
7.5.3 DRILSTAR (Yellow Starch) 38
7.5.4 DRILSTAR HT (Pregelatinized Corn Starch) 39
7.5.5 DRISPAC (Regular / Superlo) 40
7.5.6 STAFLO (Regular / Exlo Supreme) 41
7.5.7 STARLOSE 42
7.5.8 STARPAK DP 43
7.6 THINNERS / DISPERSANTS 44
7.6.1 ALCOMER 72L 44
7.6.2 ALCOMER 74 45
7.6.3 DESCO CF (Chrome Free) 46
TABLE OF CONTENTS – CHAPTER 7 (Continued)
TOPICS PAGE
7.6.4 LIGNITE (Super) 47

7.6.5 LIGNOCAL 48
7.6.6 PEL-THINZ CF 49
7.6.7 SAPP 50
7.6.8 THIN-TEX 51
7.7 FLOCCULANTS 52
7.7.1 ALCOMER 110RD 52
7.7.2 ALCOMER 120P 54
7.7.3 ALCOMER 120L 55
7.7.4 ALKAPAM 1103 & 1703 56
7.7.5 ALKAPAM 1803 57
7.7.6 ALKAPAM 1003 58
7.7.7 CALCIUM CHLORIDE (77%) FLAKE 59
7.7.8 ENKAPSAFLOC 60
7.7.9 ENVIROFLOC (Calcium Nitrate) 61
7.7.10 MUD FLOC II (Dispersible) 62
7.7.11 PERCOL 338 63
7.7.12 PERCOL 351 64
7.7.13 PERCOL 728 65
7.8 CALCIUM REMOVERS 66
7.8.1 SODA ASH 66
7.8.2 SODIUM BICARBONATE (Bicarb) 67
7.9 EVAPORITE (Anhydrite, Salt) STABILIZERS 68
7.9.1 GYPSUM 68
7.9.2 SALT 69
7.10 BACTERICIDES 70
7.10.1 2K7 WATER SOLUBLE PAK (Bronopol) 70
7.10.2 CHEMCIDE 71
7.10.3 T-352 BIOCIDE 73
7.11 DEFOAMERS 74
7.11.1 ALUMINUM STEARATE 74
7.11.2 DEFOAMER SILICONE 75
7.11.3 FOAM BUSTER 76
7.11.4 XL DEFOAMER 77
7.12 LUBRICANTS 78
7.12.1 CAN FREE 78
7.12.2 GLASS BEADS 79
7.12.3 GRAPHITE 80
7.12.4 NUT SHELL 81
7.12.5 TORQ 2000 82
7.12.6 TORQ-LUBE 83
7.12.7 TORQ-TROL 84
7.12.8 TORQ-TROL II 85
7.12.9 WALNUT SHELLS 86
7.13 SHALE INHIBITORS 87
7.13.1 ALCOMER 60RD 87
7.13.2 BLACKNIGHT 88
7.13.3 DRIL-TEX 89
7.13.4 POTASSIUM CHLORIDE (KCl) 90
TABLE OF CONTENTS – CHAPTER 7 (Continued)
TOPICS PAGE
7.13.5 POTASSIUM SULFATE (K2SO4) 91

7.13.6 SOLTEX 92
7.13.7 STABLE-K 93
7.13.8 X-PEL-G 94
7.14 SURFACTANTS / EMULSIFIERS 95
7.14.1 DRILLING DETERGENT L 95
7.14.2 HME COUPLER 96
7.15 CORROSION INHIBITORS 97
7.15.1 CORRIN O/S 97
7.15.2 CORINOX (KD-700) 98
7.15.3 SAF-KOTE 100
7.15.4 SODIUM SULFITE 101
7.15.5 ZINC CARBONATE 102
7.16 SPECIALTY PRODUCTS 103
7.16.1 CAN-BREAK I 103
7.16.2 CAN-BREAK EBS 104
7.16.3 CHEM-FOAM 105
7.16.4 EMUL-BREAK 106
7.17 OIL MUD PRODUCTS 107
7.17.1 BARAGEL 3000 107
7.17.2 CALCIUM CHLORIDE 94% (HT Powder, Peladow) 108
7.17.3 CHEMOIL PRODUCTS 109
7.17.4 CHEMUL I 111
7.17.5 CHEMUL II 112
7.17.6 CHEMWET-OM 113
7.17.7 CORRIN O/S 114
7.17.8 GILSONITE HT PULVERIZED 115
7.17.9 OILGEL 3000 116
7.17.10 OMV-100 117
7.17.11 PROCESSED (Hot, Quick) LIME 118
7.17.12 ULTRA SEAL (“XP”, “C”, “PLUS”) 119
CHAPTER 7
MUD PRODUCT INFORMATION
7.1 VISCOSIFIERS
7.1.1 ABI HIGH YIELD GEL Return to Table of Contents
DESCRIPTION: ABI High Yield Bentonite is a highly concentrated, Polymer

enhanced Sodium Montmorillonite, pale grey to tan in colour.
In distilled water it yields a minimum 220 bbl/ton of 15 cps.
viscosity mud.
APPLICATION: ABI High Yield Gel is used for providing quick viscosity where
necessary. It is especially advantageous in remote locations
where transportation of large quantities of product is
prohibitive, or where small volumes of high viscosity mud are
necessary. (i.e. seismic drilling, water well drilling, river
crossings, etc.).
The product is also excellent as a viscosifier in larger surface

hole sizes (such as 660 mm or 444.5 mm) for the deeper wells
where high pump outputs are required to clean the hole.
Approximately half the amount of solids is required to achieve
the same viscosity as conventional Bentonite slurry. This
reduces the friction of the fluid.
The level of water purity will effect the performance of the

Bentonite. Prior to mixing, acidic and/or hard water should be
treated with Soda Ash to a pH of 8.5-9.0.
HANDLING: Mix directly through the hopper at no faster than four to six
minutes per sack. A mask and goggles should be worn to
prevent inhalation of dust and contact with the eyes. Fresh air
ventilation should be provided in the mixing area.
Approximately 30-40 kg/m3 ABI High Yield Gel will give a 35

sec/L viscosity. The ultimate yield of the product, as with any
Bentonite, depends upon the quality of the make up water.
Total hardness in the make up water should be reduced to less
than 80 mg/L with Soda Ash.
TYPICAL CHARACTERISTICS:
TEST API SPECIFICATION BENTONITE ABI HIGH YIELD

(Wyoming) GEL
600 rpm reading 30.0 minimum 35.0 200+
Filtrate (ml) 15.0 maximum 13.0 15.0+
Residue (200 mesh) 4.0% Maximum 2.4% 1.3%
Moisture Content 10.0% maximum 7.0% 6.0%
WHMIS: Controlled (See M.S.D.S.)
TDG: Not Regulated
PACKAGING: 50 lb. sack

7.1.2 BENTONITE (Wyoming) Return to Table of Contents
DESCRIPTION: Sodium Montmorillonite is a tan powder sold under various

trade names. In fresh water it yields 92-100 bbl/ton of 15 cps
viscosity mud. Wyoming Gel conforms to the following API
specifications (API Spec 13A, Section 4 Fourteenth Ed. Aug.
1991):
Wet Screen: 4% (max) on 200 mesh

(74 microns)
Moisture: 10% (max)
Fann Reading: 30 (min) at 600 rpm
Yield Point: 3 x PV (max)
Filtrate: 15 ml (max)
Suspension of 22.5 grams in 350 ml of distilled water.
APPLICATION: Wyoming Gel is used for viscosity and filtration control in fresh
water mud systems. In muds with a salinity (Chlorides) of
3500 mg/l or higher the Bentonite should first be prehydrated in
fresh water.
HANDLING: Mix directly through the mud hopper at no faster than four to
six minutes per sack. Avoid breathing dust. The make up
water hardness should always be checked first, and the
Calcium treated to below 80 mg/L with additions of Soda Ash
as required. The Bentonite should be allowed to hydrate for a
minimum of 2-3 hours with maximum agitation to allow for
optimum yield.
TDG: Not Regulated
PACKAGING: 40 kg sack

7.1.3 CANEX (BENEX)
DESCRIPTION: Can-Ex is a polymeric additive designed to enhance the yield

of Bentonite.
APPLICATION: Can-Ex is used primarily in low solids drilling fluids. Its

principal function is to increase the yield of Bentonite and
minimize the accumulation of drilled solids by the selective
flocculation of low yield clays and shales.
The optimum Bentonite/Can-Ex ratio for obtaining the

maximum yield from the Bentonite is usually in the range of 7
sacks of Bentonite to one (2 lb.) sack of Can-Ex. For any
Bentonite, over treatment with Can-Ex will result in a decrease
in the Bentonite yield. This is especially true of those
Bentonites which are peptized or beneficiated in the
manufacturing process.
When Can-Ex is used in conjunction with Lime and Calcium

Chloride, it becomes a total flocculant suitable for use in clear
water drilling.
HANDLING: Can-Ex is usually added in conjunction with Bentonite through

the mud mixing hopper. Additions should be slow and even in
order to avoid lumping or high spots of excessive Can-Ex. A
good rule of thumb is to add 1 sack of Can-Ex for every 7
sacks of Bentonite.
If the quality of the Bentonite is suspect or unknown, it is a

good idea to mud up initially without any Can-Ex. In this
manner, if unusually high YP/PV ratios result (greater than
0.5/1.0), one could suspect the Bentonite to be peptized at
source. Therefore, lesser amounts of Can-Ex may be required
to achieve the maximum yield from the Bentonite.
WHMIS: Not Controlled
TDG: Not Regulated
PACKAGING: 50 lb. carton (25/2 lb. plastic bottles)

7.1.4 GUAR GUM
DESCRIPTION: Guar gum, chemically classified as a Galactomannan, is a high

molecular weight carbohydrate polymer or polysaccharide,
made up of repeating Mannose and Galactose units. Guar
gum is in the form of a light beige free flowing powder.
Physical and Chemical Data:
Appearance: Creamy white free flowing

powder
Viscosity: 3200 - 3500 cps. after
(1% Solution Brookfield, 24 hrs.
No. 3 Spindle; 20 rpm
at 25C)
pH: 5.0 - 7.0
Dispersion in cold water: excellent
Acid insoluble residue: 2.5% (max)
Ash content: 0.8% (max)
Moisture: 12% (max)
Particle size: 95% less than 100 mesh (150
microns)
APPLICATION: Guar gum is primarily used as a viscosifier in drilling,

completion, workover and fracturing fluids. Guar gum will
provide viscosity in fresh or salty water and is typically used in
concentrations of 3-6 kg/m3 (1-2 lb./bbl). The viscosity will
degrade quite rapidly at temperatures in excess of 65 C
(150 F).
Like most organic matter, Guar gum is attacked by

microorganisms unless protected by high pH, high salinity or a
Biocide.
Hydrated Guar Gum can be cross-linked with a Borate ion to

produce an extremely viscous suspension at a relatively low
gum concentration. To produce the cross-link, a pH of 9-10 is
required, but the cross-link can be reversed if the pH is lowered
to neutral (7.0). The ratio of Guar Gum to Sodium Tetraborate
should be approximately 5:1.
Guar Gum will generally reach maximum viscosity in 60-90

minutes, but will be dependent on factors such as temperature
and water quality.
HANDLING: Guar Gum can be easily mixed through normal equipment such
as hoppers or agitating mixers.
Although generally recognized as being non-toxic and non-

hazardous, care should be taken to have proper ventilation in
mixing areas.
TDG: Not Regulated
PACKAGING: 25 kg. sack

7.1.5 HEC-10 POLYMER Return to Table of Contents
DESCRIPTION: HEC-10 polymer is a nonionic, high molecular weight

Hydroxyethyl Cellulose designed specifically to viscosify water
based fluids.
HEC-10 is an off-white, free flowing powder that has been

surface treated to disperse rapidly and hydrate easily in water.
In water and completion applications, 15% HCl will effectively

break the viscosity of HEC-10.
Appearance: white to light tan powder

Specific gravity: 1.38 - 1.40
Molecular weight: 60,000 to >1,000,000
Viscosity: 4400 - 6500 cps
(1% solution at
250C with LVT
#4 spindle at 30 rpm)
pH (1% solution): 6.0 - 7.0
Hydration time: 40 - 60 min.
(2% solution)
Particle size: 98% minimum
<20 mesh (850 microns)
APPLICATION: HEC-10 is a cost effective viscosifier/fluid loss control agent

widely used in the following applications:
- Low Solids Drilling Fluids

- Completion and Workover Fluids (including acids)
- Fracturing Fluids
- Spud Muds and Pills
- Horizontal Drilling
- Fluid Loss Control and Friction Reduction in Oilwell Cements
and Spacers
HEC-10 is compatible with all common drilling and completion

fluid additives and will effectively viscosify clear brines ranging
from low weight Sodium Chloride, to saturated Calcium
Chloride and Bromide mixtures.
HANDLING: Can be mixed directly through the hopper. When added to

brines (in some mixing systems) the agitation may cause
foaming to occur. Pre-treatment with appropriate defoamers
should be considered if pilot tests indicate a potential foaming
problem.
A bactericide may be required in applications where high
bacterial growth is expected and degradation is undesirable.
TDG: Not Regulated

7.1.6 KELZAN XCD POLYMER Return to Table of Contents
DESCRIPTION: Kelzan XCD is a high molecular weight biopolymer of Xanthan

Gum. It is a dry, free flowing, light beige powder.
APPLICATION: Kelzan XCD is used primarily as a viscosifier in fresh water,

seawater or saline muds. It also provides a measure of
filtration control. Kelzan XCD (in conjunction with an oxygen
scavenger) is temperature stable to l50C. It is stable in a wide
pH range and is used in both weighted and unweighted drilling
fluids, completion fluids and workover systems.
Kelzan XCD Polymer exhibits the rheological property of

pseudoplasticity (shear thinning). Small quantities provide high
yield points and low plastic viscosities which can result in
excellent carrying capacities and high penetration rates.
HANDLING: Kelzan XCD disperses in water with moderate agitation.

Continued mixing for a short period provides a smooth viscous
fluid. Kelzan XCD should be added slowly to the active system
(25-30 min’s sack) to avoid lumping or fish-eyes, which may
occur if the polymer is not properly dispersed.
If the Polymer fluid is left static for long periods of time such as
logging, testing, etc. a Biocide is recommended to prevent
XCD Polymer from fermenting.
TDG: Not Regulated
PACKAGING: 25 kg. sack (with waterproofing)

7.1.7 NATURAL GEL Return to Table of Contents
DESCRIPTION: Natural Gel is an untreated Bentonite (Sodium Montmorillonite)

which meets the API specification for non-treated Bentonite
(API Spec 13A, Section 5, 14th Ed. Aug. 1991):
Requirement Specification
Yield Point/Plastic
Viscosity (YP/PV) ratio: 1.5 (max)
Dispersed Plastic
Viscosity (PV): 10 cps (min)
Dispersed Filtrate
Volume: 12.5 cm3 (max)
Suspension of 22.5 gm in 350 ml of distilled water (dispersant -

5cc of a 10% solution of sodium hexametaphosphate).
Generally the wet yield of untreated Bentonite is 80-90 bbl/ton

of 15 cps mud.
APPLICATION: Natural Gel is used commonly in mud systems for which

Bentonite is prehydrated and then flocculated with Salt such as
Potassium Chloride or Potassium Sulfate. In such instances
the lower wet yield is not significant, since the viscosity is
obtained by flocculation. Natural Gel can also be used in
extended systems where the yield is enhanced by the
extending polymers.
Natural Gel is also a component of lightweight oilwell cement.

Additions up to 25% by wt. cement are used to reduce slurry
weight and increase cement volume. It can be dry blended in
the cement or can be prehydrated in water.
HANDLING: Natural Gel is added to the system through the mixing hopper.
It should be added no faster than four minutes per sack.
TDG: Not Regulated

7.1.8 SALT GEL (Sepiolite) Return to Table of Contents
DESCRIPTION: Salt Gel is a Hydrous Magnesium Silicate (Sepiolite) which is

supplied as a buff coloured powder, and which meets the
specifications as set down in the API Standards Specification
l3A, Sec. 4.
APPLICATION: Salt Gel can be used as a viscosifier in saline mud systems, or

in mud systems exposed to a high temperature environment.
In a high temperature environment it may be used by itself or in
conjunction with Bentonite.
In comparison with Bentonite, Salt Gel is less effective in its

viscosifying power and its ability to reduce the fluid loss of mud
systems. It is more temperature stable, more inert to thinning
in the presence of conventional thinners, and more tolerant to
mud contaminants.
Salt Gel can also be used to prepare a high fluid loss LCM pill.
The fast rate of filtration leaves the Sepiolite clay and LCM
material deposited in the loss zone.
HANDLING: Salt Gel is mixed through the mud hopper and requires more
shear (than Bentonite) in order to attain its maximum yield. It
is not uncommon to observe an increase in viscosity as a
result of the high shear rate experienced by the drilling mud as
it passes through the bit nozzles. Consequently, although Salt
Gel may be mixed as rapidly as five min. per sack, allowance
must be made for the increased viscosity arising from
circulation through the bit.
Normally concentrations of 45-75 kg/m 3 are recommended,

depending upon viscosity requirements,
TDG: Not Regulated

7.1.9 XANTHAN GUM HD Return to Table of Contents
DESCRIPTION: Xanthan Gum HD is a high viscosity, dispersible, high

molecular weight biopolymer of Xanthan Gum. It is a dry, free
flowing, light beige powder.
APPLICATION: Xanthan Gum HD is used primarily as a viscosifier and

rheology control additive in fresh water, sea water or saline
muds. It also provides a measure of filtration control. Xanthan
Gum HD (in conjunction with an oxygen scavenger) is
temperature stable to l50C. It is stable in a wide pH range,
and is used in both weighted and unweighted drilling fluids,
completion fluids and workover systems.
Xanthan Gum HD exhibits the rheological property of

pseudoplasticity (shear thinning). Small quantities provide high
yield points and low plastic viscosities which can result in
excellent carrying capacities and high penetration rates.
HANDLING: Xanthan Gum HD disperses in water with moderate agitation.

Continued mixing for a short period provides a smooth viscous
fluid. Xanthan Gum HD should be added slowly to the active
system (25-30 min’s/sack) to avoid lumping or fish-eyes which
may occur if the polymer is not properly dispersed.
TDG: Not Regulated
PACKAGING: 25 kg. sack (with waterproofing)

7.1.10 XANVIS POLYMER Return to Table of Contents
DESCRIPTION: Xanvis is a high quality, completion grade, Xanthan Biopolymer

to be used as a premium viscosifier particularly for drilling and
completion of horizontal wells.
APPLICATION: Horizontal wellbore simulations show that when flow is

initiated, settled solids tends to move along the bottom of the
hole as waves or dunes. This solids build up can result in
increased torque, drag and the inability to transfer weight to the
bit.
In addition to providing excellent rheology for hole cleaning

while drilling, Xanvis provides for exceptional suspension of
solids during non-circulating periods. These properties cannot
be properly described using conventional Fann viscometers.
RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF XANVIS (2% KCl at 27 C)
Xanvis Funnel Visc. Plastic Visc. Yield Point Visc. Visc.

(lb./bbl) (sec/qt) (cps) (lb/100 ft2) @ 5.1 sec -1 @ 0.06 sec -1
0.5 28 2 4 100 250
1.0 31 4 9 340 5500
1.25 32 5 12 500 11500
1.5 34 5 16 700 21500
2.0 41 7 23 1140 47500
HANDLING: Xanvis can be easily mixed through the mud hopper. Care
should be taken, as with most polymers, to avoid mixing too
quickly and prevent any potential for lumping (25-30
min’s/sack).
TDG: Not Regulated

7.1.11 XANVIS L Return to Table of Contents
DESCRIPTION: Xanvis L is a high quality, completion grade Xanthan

Biopolymer slurried in an organic carrier fluid. It is slightly
anionic in character and is stable to 135C (280F).
APPLICATION: Xanvis L is used as a premium viscosifier, particularly for

drilling, completion and workover of wells which require
superior solids transport (e.g. horizontal wells). It provides for
exceptional suspension of solids during non-circulating periods.
Xanvis L also provides excellent rheology for hole cleaning
while performing remedial operations with conventional or
coiled tubing. Its liquid form combined with its ability to mix and
disperse at low shear, allows its use in situations where high
shear mixing equipment or large tank volumes are limited, such
as some service rigs and equipment.
The normal concentration of Xanvis L is 1.4-5.0 litres/m 3

depending on the viscosity required.
HANDLING: As Xanvis L is a liquid, it can be easily mixed through the

hopper. Suggested addition rate is no faster than one gallon
per minute. Allow adequate time for mixing to ensure
dispersion and hydration. High salinity, cold water and low
shear will lengthen the time required for full viscosity to be
achieved.
Exercise caution with spills as product is extremely slippery

when wet. Apply absorbent materials such as vermiculite to
clean up any spillage.
WHMIS : Controlled (See M.S.D.S.)
TDG: Not Regulated
PACKAGING: 20L (21.3kg) plastic pails

7.2 WEIGHTING AGENTS
7.2.1 BARITE Return to Table of Contents
DESCRIPTION: Barite is ground Barium Sulphate (BaSO4) with a minimum

specific gravity of 4.2, and conforming to the following API
specifications:
Wet Screen Analysis:
3% residue (max.) on US Sieve #200 (74 microns)

5% residue (min.) on US Sieve #325 (44 microns)
Soluble Alkaline Earths as Calcium: 250 mg/l (max).
APPLICATION: In its pure form, Barite is chemically inert and can be used to
increase mud densities to as high as 2400 kg/m 3.
To calculate the amount of Barite required to raise the weight

use the following formula:
4200 (W2 - W1)

Barite kg/m3 = 4200 - W2
where W1 = present mud weight in kg/m3

where W2 = desired mud weight in kg/m3
Each l00 sacks of Barite added will increase the volume of the
system by 1 m3.
HANDLING: Barite can be mixed through the mud hopper as rapidly as

needed. When large amounts are added to a mud system it
may be necessary to add water to prevent mud dehydration.
Never add oil and Barite together as settling of the weight
material may occur. Conversely, in an Invert mud, never add
water at the same time Barite is being added.
TDG: Not Regulated

Bulk

7.2.2 CALCIUM CARBONATE (#0 , #325 Grind)
DESCRIPTION: Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3) is a naturally occurring, ground

limestone rock.
Physical Data:
“O” Grind “325” Grind
Specific Gravity: 2.7 2.7

pH (aq. solution): 9.5-11.4 9.5-11.4
Bulk Density: 1442-1522 kg/m3 1121-1201 kg/m3
Typical Particle Size Distribution:
ASTM ASTM
Screen Percent Screen Percent
Size Passing Size Passing
No. 20(850) 99 No. 325(44) 95

No. 60(230) 94
No. 100(150) 79
No. 200(74) 43
No. 325(44) 13
APPLICATION: As “0” or “325” grind, these finer grades of Calcium

Carbonate are used primarily as weighting materials which
are readily dissolved in the presence of Hydrochloric Acid.
Because of this, Calcium Carbonate is an ideal weighting
agent to use in drilling pressured carbonate zones, or
completion and workover fluids.
HANDLING: Calcium Carbonate may be added directly at the suction

with agitation or through the mud hopper. To avoid settling
out in the surface tanks the fluid viscosity should be raised
sufficiently to provide adequate suspension.
To calculate the amount of Calcium Carbonate required

use the formula:
2700(W2 - W1)
CaCO3 kg/m3 = 2700 - W2
where W1 = present mud density in kg/m3

where W2 = desired mud density in kg/m3
Every l00 sacks of Calcium Carbonate will increase the

mud volume by one cubic meter.
WHMIS: Not controlled.
TDG: Not regulated.
PACKAGING: 25 kg. sack. Return to Table of Contents

7.3 LOSS OF CIRCULATION MATERIAL
7.3.1 CALCIUM CARBONATE (Glass Rock Grind)

DESCRIPTION: Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3) is a naturally occurring, ground

limestone rock.
Glass Rock Physical Data:
Specific Gravity: 2.7

pH (10% Aqueous Solution): 8.4
Bulk Density-loose: 1360 kg/m3
Bulk Density-packed: 1584 kg/m3
Typical Particle Size:
TYLER
Screen Percent
Size (Microns) Passing
No. 14 (1180) 99.5

No. 20 (850) 99.2
No. 28 (600) 87.2
No. 60 (250) 21.3
No. 100 (150) 3.9
APPLICATION: Glass Rock is a "medium grind" carbonate with a particle size

greater than "325" or "0" grind, but less than "Poultry" or "Feed"
Grit. It can be used in combination with other sized carbonates
to provide a wide spectrum of bridging agents for drilling fluids.
Its acid solubility also makes it especially suitable as a
weighting or bridging agent in completion/workover and
stimulation operations.
HANDLING: Glass Rock may be added directly through the hopper. To

minimize settling in the surface tanks, the fluid should be of
sufficient viscosity, or the agitation such that the particles are
kept in suspension.
TDG: Not Regulated
PACKAGING: 25 kg. multi-wall paper sacks

7.3.2 CALCIUM CARBONATE (Poultry Grit, 2 mm, #3 Grind)
DESCRIPTION: Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3) is a naturally occurring ground

rock which is only slightly soluble in water.
Typical Particle Size Distribution:
Poultry Grit: 2 mm
ASTM ASTM
Screen Percent Screen Percent
Size (Microns) Passing Size (Microns) Passing
No. 4 (4750) 100 No. 10 (2000) 100

No. 5 (4000) 99.5 No. 12 (1700) 98.3
No. 6 (3350) 90.6 No. 14 (1400) 92.6
No. 10 (2000) 34.8 No. 16 (1180) 82
No. 20 (850) 14.3 No. 18 (1000) 72.8
No. 30 (600) 0.6 No. 20 (850) 59.7
No. 30 (600) 30.8
No. 40 (425) 5.3
No. 50 (300) 0.8
No. 3 Grind:
Size (inches) : 3/8” - ½” (diameter)

Size (mm) : 9.5 - 12.7 (diameter)
APPLICATION: These coarser grades of Calcium Carbonate are used

primarily as lost circulation materials. They may be used
independently, in combination with each other, or in
combination with other forms of lost circulation materials.
The concentration and size distribution are dependent upon

the severity and the porosity of the lost circulation zone itself.
HANDLING: Calcium Carbonate may be added directly over the suction

with agitation or through the mixing hopper. To avoid settling
out in the surface tanks the fluid viscosity should be raised
sufficiently to provide adequate suspension.
TDG: Not Regulated
PACKAGING: 25 kg. sack - Poultry Grit and 2 mm Grind

40 kg. sack - No. 3 Rock Grind

7.3.3 CELLOPHANE Return to Table of Contents
DESCRIPTION: Clear multi-sized flakes of Polycellulose Cellophane, with an

average size of 9.5 mm (3/8") and a specific gravity of 1.0.
APPLICATION: Cellophane is used to provide a loss of circulation sealing

agent, supplement to other lost circulation material in water
based drilling muds.
It is also a basic additive in cement slurries, providing a matting

effect in the control of losses. Typical rates of addition up to
2% by wt. cement are used as a preventative measure.
Cellophane contains the following dry screen analysis:
Through 3 mesh 65% (±15%)

Through 10 mesh 15% (±10%)
Through 20 mesh 5% (maximum)
HANDLING: Mix into a viscous mud with agitation. Cellophane will not pass
through the shaker screen. In order to maintain the
Cellophane concentration in the mud, the shale shaker must
be by-passed. (By-passing the shaker could result in plugged
jets).
For cement applications, add the Cellophane to the cement

slurry in the mix tub prior to displacement.
TDG: Not regulated.
PACKAGING: 25 lb. paper sack.

7.3.4 CERT-N-SEAL Return to Table of Contents
DESCRIPTION: Processed wood shavings which provide a larger sized

particles than Sawdust to aid in fighting lost circulation.
APPLICATION: Cert-N-Seal is used as a lost circulation material in water

based muds. Due to its size and shape, the drill pipe should
be tripped and run in open ended prior to adding Cert-N-Seal.
HANDLING: Mix into mud with good agitation. No special handling or

health hazards exist in using Cert-N-Seal.
TDG: Not regulated.
PACKAGING: 40 lb. sack (approx.)

7.3.5 DIASEAL M Return to Table of Contents
DESCRIPTION: Diaseal “M” is a one package blend developed for preparing a

high water loss slurry of soft plugging Diatomaceous earth.
APPLICATION: Diaseal “M” is a high fluid loss slurry that when placed within
the thief zone, a solid plug is formed by rapid filtration.
Diaseal “M” can be used in fresh or salt water alone, in Invert

muds, or in combination with other loss of circulation materials.
A slurry of Diaseal “M” and water can be used in and
unweighted form, or mixed to any desired density with Barite.
Diaseal “M” does not deteriorate in storage and will not
contaminate the mud.
HANDLING: For detailed mixing procedures using Diaseal “M”, refer to the
Drilling Mud Related Problems Chapter 5, loss of circulation
section 5.2.5.
Diaseal “M” is mixed through the hopper and is made up to the

same density as the existing mud in the hole. Approximately a
4-16 m3 pill is spotted opposite the thief zone, with an
application of a light squeeze pressure of 700-3500 kPa.
TDG: Not Regulated

7.3.6 DRIL DOKTOR Return to Table of Contents
DESCRIPTION: Dril-Doktor is a mixture of micronized organic cellulose fibres,

light to medium brown in colour. It is insoluble in water, non
toxic, biodegradable and temperature stable to 400C. Dril-
Doktor is compatible with oil and water based drilling fluids.
APPLICATION: Dril-Doktor is generally used for controlling seepage and/or

whole mud losses while drilling through depleted or
underpressured zones. It may also be added as a fine bridging
agent in mixtures of lost circulation material pills.
Dril-Doktor is most effective for controlling seepage losses in

concentrations of 10-25 kg/m3. For applications such as
sweeps to plug thief zones, etc. concentrations as high as
85 kg/m3 may be required.
HANDLING: Dril-Doktor can be mixed through the mud hopper or directly

into the mud tank at a point of agitation.
A dust hazard is present while Dril-Doktor is being mixed.
TDG: Not Regulated

7.3.7 MICA (Fine, Medium, Coarse)
DESCRIPTION: Mica or Muscovite is a grey to white flake supplied in three

grind sizes; fine, medium, and coarse. Mica is not water
soluble.
APPLICATION: Mica is used in both water based and oil based muds either as
part of a blend to control losses, or as a pretreatment to control
seepage losses.
Fine Mica will pass through a 20 mesh shaker screen. Medium

and coarse Mica is normally used in conjunction with other
LCM material for more severe losses.
Fine Mica 16 mesh maximum to 100 mesh

Medium Mica 6 mm maximum to 16 mesh
Coarse Mica 13 mm maximum to 16 mesh
HANDLING: Mica is chemically inert and has no fibrous material. Mix

through mud hopper.
Fine Mica is normally used in concentrations of 6.0-18.0 kg/m 3

to minimize or prevent seepage losses. Medium and coarse
Mica is generally mixed with a combination of other LCM
material as the severity dictates.
TDG: Not Regulated

7.3.8 NUT SHELL (Fine, Medium, Coarse)
DESCRIPTION: A lost circulation material of ground nut shells available in three

grades; fine, medium, and coarse, ranging in size from 100
mesh to 6 mesh.
APPLICATION: Used as a lost circulation material for a bridging agent due to

its granular nature. Nut Shell is chemically inert and may be
added to any mud system.
Nut Shell is also used as a drag reducer in deviated holes.

Circulated throughout the tight hole section immediately prior
to a trip, the irregular particles are embedded in the filter cake
and act as bearings to reduce the hole drag.
Nut Shell has no adverse chemical effect in flow properties,

filtration, viscosity or the carrying capacity of the mud. Nut
Shell will not break down under high differential pressure, nor
ball up.
HANDLING: For lost circulation, mix into the mud or lost circulation pill in
usual concentrations of 10-30 kg/m3.
When used as a torque and drag reducer for trips, displace a

pill containing 20-30 kg/m3, such that the tight segment of the
well bore will be covered by the pill.
WHMIS: Not controlled
TDG: Not regulated

7.3.9 PRIMA SEAL (Medium, Coarse)
DESCRIPTION: Prima-Seal is a blend of lost circulation materials specifically

formulated to cover a wide range of situations common to the
occurrence of lost circulation. The three grades; fine, medium,
and coarse, contain a blend of granules to act as a bridging
agent, fibers to act as a matting agent, and flakes for a sealing
agent.
APPLICATION: Prima-Seal is a lost circulation material which may be used by

itself, or in conjunction with other lost circulation additives.
Generally, its use may be based on the following criteria:
Coarse - seals large fractures, requires large jets (in the order
of 16 mm or larger) or an open water course.
Medium - seals fine fractures and porous zones, should be

used with jets larger than 10.3 mm.
Fine - seals fine fractures and seepage zones, can generally

be used with jets larger than 7.3 mm. Prima-Seal (fine) is often
successfully used as a pretreatment for lost circulation when it
is known to occur.
Depending on the severity of the lost circulation, the total lost

circulation material concentration may be as high as 75 kg/m 3
of whole mud.
HANDLING: Prima-Seal can be mixed directly into a viscous mud with good
agitation. Larger sizes will plug and not pass through shale
shaker screens. If re-circulation is necessary, the shale shaker
should be by-passed. (By-passing the shaker could result in
plugged jets).
Prima-Seal is commonly mixed in conjunction with Sawdust in

a 1:5 ratio respectively for severe loss of circulation.
TDG: Not Regulated
PACKAGING: 1.45 cu.ft. sack (approximately 40 lbs.)

(woven polyethylene)

7.3.10 SAWDUST Return to Table of Contents
DESCRIPTION: Finely processed wood chips which swell when added to the
mud system.
APPLICATION: Sawdust is used as a lost circulation material in water based

muds.
HANDLING: Mix into mud with good agitation. No special handling or

health hazards exist in using Sawdust.
TDG: Not Regulated
PACKAGING: 40 lb. sack (approx.)

7.3.11 ULTRA SEAL (XP, C, PLUS)
DESCRIPTION: Ultra Seal is a blend of specific micro-sized cellulose fibers,

combined with a blend of organic polymers and lubricity
enhancers. It is a light tan powder that is insoluble in water.
APPLICATION: Ultra Seal is generally used for controlling seepage and/or

whole mud losses while drilling through depleted or under
pressured zones. It may also be added as a fine bridging
agent in mixtures of lost circulation pills.
Ultra Seal-XP is the fine grind material that is most effective for
controlling seepage and providing protection against differential
sticking. It can be added evenly throughout the system in
concentrations of 3-25 kg/m3. For applications such as sweeps
or pills, concentrations as high as 85 kg/m 3 may be required.
Ultra Seal-C is a coarser grind material effective in situations

where whole mud losses are prevalent. Recommended
usages are the same as Ultra Seal-XP, and a combination of
Ultra Seal-XP and Ultra Seal-C may be necessary to provide a
broader particle size distribution.
Ultra Seal-Plus is a combination of Ultra Seal-XP and Ultra

Seal-C, in addition to a larger proprietary sealing agent for total
loss circulation. Concentrations of 55-170 kg/m 3 mixed in
15 m3 pills are recommended for spotting across the thief zone.
HANDLING: Ultra Seal can be mixed through the mud hopper or directly into
the mud system at a point of agitation.
Note: A dust hazard is present while Ultra Seal is being

mixed.
TDG: Not regulated.
PACKAGING: Ultra Seal-XP - 25 lb. sack

Ultra Seal-C - 25 lb. sack
Ultra Seal-Plus - 40 lb. sack

7.3.12 WALNUT SHELLS (Fine, Medium, Coarse)
DESCRIPTION: A lost circulation material of ground Walnut Shells available in

three grades; fine, medium, and coarse, ranging in size from
100 mesh to 4 mesh.
Fine 30 mesh maximum to 100 mesh

Medium 10 mesh maximum to 100 mesh
Coarse 4 mesh maximum to 100 mesh

its granular nature. Walnut Shells are chemically inert and
may be added to any mud system.
Walnut Shells are also used as a drag reducer in deviated

holes. Circulated throughout the tight hole section immediately
prior to a trip, the irregular particles are embedded in the filter
cake and act as bearings to reduce the hole drag.
HANDLING: For lost circulation mix into the mud or lost circulation pill in the

pill containing 20-30 kg/m3 such that the tight segment of the
TDG: Not Regulated

7.4 ALKALINITY CONTROL ADDITIVES
7.4.1 CAUSTIC SODA Return to Table of Contents
DESCRIPTION: Caustic Soda or Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) is generally

available in pelletized form. The pH of a 5% solution is 14.0.
APPLICATION: Caustic Soda is a strong alkali used to increase pH and

alkalinity of the liquid phase. For a given pH, the amount
needed is affected by many factors. Therefore, the following
chart is an approximation only.
Additions made to water with a 7.0 pH:
Caustic pH p-Alkalinity (cc)
0.70 kg/m3 7.5 - 8.0 trace

l.00 kg/m3 8.5 - 9.0 0.l to 0.25
l.45 kg/m3 9.5 - l0.0 0.3 to 0.5
2.20 kg/m3 l0.0 - l0.5 0.5 to 0.7
2.9 kg/m3 ll.0 - l2.0 0.8 to l.0
5.8 kg/m3 l4.0 3.0
8.7 kg/m3 l4.0 5.0
ll.6 kg/m3 l4.0 7.0
HANDLING: Caustic Soda is a strong alkali and produces a strong basic

solution. The reaction with water generates heat. Always add
Caustic Soda to a chemical barrel of water and watch for
bubbling and splashing. Caustic will cause severe burns and
skin/eye contact is to be avoided at all times. To avoid contact,
wear full clothing, rubber gloves and goggles (or face masks).
In the event of contact wash immediately with water for at least

fifteen minutes. Seek medical attention especially if burning
persists or the contacted area is inflamed.
WHMIS: Controlled (See M.S.D.S)
TDG: Regulated (See M.S.D.S.)
PACKAGING: 50 lb. sack (waterproof layer)

7.4.2 CITRIC ACID (Anhydrous)
DESCRIPTION: Anhydrous Citric Acid (C6H807) is a multi-purpose weak organic

acid. It is widely used in the food, beverage and detergent
industry, and also finds some oilfield applications. Citric Acid is
relatively non-toxic, non-corrosive and is biodegradable. It is
available in granular, fine granular and powder form.
Appearance: white crystals, odourless

Molecular Weight: 192.14
Solubility (25C): 162 g/100 ml H2O
(60% w/w)
pH (0.1 N solution): 2.2
Melting Point (C): 153
APPLICATION: Anhydrous Citric Acid is widely used in oilfield completion and

stimulation operations as an iron sequestrant. It can also aid in
reducing water requirements and in retarding of oilwell
cements. Because of its ease and relative safety of handling,
Citric Acid can be used in pH adjustment of drilling fluids,
completion fluids and industrial/oilwell waste fluids.
HANDLING: Although Citric Acid is of low hazard and toxicity, excess

exposure to dust should be avoided to prevent irritation to the
eyes, skin and respiratory tract. Use good industrial hygiene
practices, wear goggles and a dust mask when handling the
material. Ensure that the work area is sufficiently ventilated to
avoid dust build-up and wear protective clothing to prevent
excess skin contact. Citric acid is non-flammable. As with all
organic material, caution is advised when storing or handling
near strong oxidizing agents, alkali metals or strong bases.
TDG: Not Regulated
PACKAGING: 25 kg. paper sack

7.4.3 HYDRATED LIME Return to Table of Contents
DESCRIPTION: Hydrated Lime or Calcium Hydroxide Ca(OH)2 is a soft greyish

white powder with a specific gravity of 2.3 - 2.4. Hydrated
Lime is a source of Ca++ and OH- and is used to raise the pH.
APPLICATION: The pH of a saturated solution is 12.4
In clear water drilling, Lime may be added to the sump water to

increase the pH and to provide additional Calcium ions. It is
generally added at a concentration of 1 kg/m 3, then used as
needed to maintain a 10.0-11.0 pH in the water.
Hydrated Lime is used as a means of providing hydroxyl ions

(raising pH) when Bicarbonate/Carbonate alkalinity’s exist.
Ca(OH)2 + H2CO3 = CaCO3  + 2H2O

(Lime) (Bicarbonate)
HANDLING: Premix in water through the chemical barrel and add slowly to
the system. Excess Lime treatment will cause thickening
(flocculation) of a Gel Chemical mud system.
Hydrated Lime gives off heat when mixed with water. Strong
solutions have a high pH and may cause skin burns. Avoid
contact with skin and eyes, and wear protective clothing and
goggles when handling and mixing. Store in a dry place.
WHMIS: Controlled (See M.S.D.S.).
TDG: Not regulated.
PACKAGING: 20 kg. sack.

7.4.4 MAGNESIUM OXIDE 30
DESCRIPTION: Magnesium Oxide 30 (MgO) is a light coloured powder that has

limited solubility in water. It is a non-corrosive inorganic oxide
used as a pH buffering agent and for neutralizing acid.
Magnesium Oxide 30 (commonly known as pH 10) has a
maximum pH of 10.7.
APPLICATION: Magnesium Oxide 30 can be used as a substitute for Lime as a

coagulant in clear water drilling, and for alkalinity control in
Polymer systems where a high pH (above 11.0) is undesirable.
Any undissolved excess of Magnesium Oxide will continue to
dissolve at a slow rate to maintain a constant pH level of 10.7.
Magnesium Oxide 30 is also used to neutralize spent acid and

control spills in acidizing operations.
HANDLING: Magnesium Oxide 30 can be added through the hopper or

mixed directly to the system at a point of agitation. It is
advisable to use a dust mask while mixing Magnesium Oxide
30.
TDG: Not Regulated

7.4.5 POTASSIUM HYDROXIDE Return to Table of Contents
(90% Flake Caustic Potash)
DESCRIPTION: Potassium Hydroxide (KOH) or Caustic Potash is a basic

industrial alkali used in a variety of industrial processes. With
Potassium base muds, its advantage over Caustic Soda
(NaOH) in the oilwell drilling industry, in that it also provides a
source of K+ ions while at the same time giving pH control.
Physical and Chemical Properties:
Appearance and Odour: White flake, no odour

S.G.: 2.044
Melt Point (C): 400
Solubility in Water: Completely soluble
pH (0.01 moles/L): 12.0
APPLICATION: Potassium Hydroxide is a strong alkali used to increase pH and

alkalinity of drilling, workover and completion fluids.
HANDLING: Potassium Hydroxide is a strong alkali and produces a strong

basic solution. The reaction with water generates heat.
Always add Potassium Hydroxide in a chemical barrel of water
and watch for bubbling and splashing. Potassium Hydroxide
will cause severe burns and skin/eye contact is to be avoided
at all times. Wear full clothing, rubber gloves and goggles or
face mask. The use of a rubber protective apron is also
recommended. In the event of contact wash immediately with
water for at least fifteen minutes. Seek medical attention,
especially if burning persists or the contacted area is inflamed.

7.4.6 SULPHAMIC ACID Return to Table of Contents
DESCRIPTION: Sulphamic Acid is a dry, non-volatile, non-hygroscopic,

odorless, white crystalline stable solid. It is soluble in water
and forms a strongly acidic aqueous solution that is
comparable in acidity to the common strong mineral acids,
(See Figure 1) but it can be safely handled and stored in the
dry form.
APPLICATION: Sulphamic Acid is used to reduce the pH of fluids requiring

adjustment prior to disposal. Sulphamic Acid has many
advantages over its alternatives, such as ease of handling,
solubility and low corrosiveness.
PROPERTIES: Molecular Weight: 97.1

Melting Point: 205C
Decomposition Temp: 209C
Bulk Density < Loose, Packed: 1.0 - 1.2, 1.0 - 1.6
Dissociation Constant: 1.01 x 10-1
Solubility in Water: 22 gm/100 gms. H2O @
20C
pH Value: See Figure 1
HANDLING: As with most highly reactive products dry Sulphamic Acid

should always be added to water, rather than the opposite, to
prevent a violent reaction from occurring. At room
temperature, dilute aqueous Sulphamic Acid is stable for a long
period of time, but hydrolysis occurs at elevated temperatures.
Rubber gloves, goggles (or facemask) and full clothing are
recommended when mixing to avoid contact with unprotected
skin. Contaminated clothing should be laundered before reuse.

7.5 FLUID LOSS CONTROL ADDITIVES
7.5.1 CMC Return to Table of Contents
DESCRIPTION: Sodium Carboxymethyl Cellulose is a long chain cellulose

colloid made in two viscosity ranges; CMC Regular, and CMC
HiVis. The chain length has an effect upon fluid loss and
viscosity.
APPLICATION: CMC is used primarily as a fluid loss reducer but also has
suspension (viscosity) characteristics in all fresh water
systems. CMC Regular and HiVis are recommended when
some degree of viscosity is desired.
The fluid loss effectiveness of CMC is reduced significantly in

Salt concentrations above 30,000 mg/L. CMC may be used in
alkaline muds to any pH value, and is stable to l50C with use
of oxygen scavengers.
Normal range of concentrations:
CMC Regular:
1. To control fluid loss in most water based muds at l.5-3.0

kg/m3.
CMC HiVis:
1. To control fluid loss in low solids mud l.5-3.0 kg/m 3.

2. When used with Bentonite for viscosity increases l.5-3.0
kg/m3.
CMC is also available in technical grades.
HANDLING: Mix slowly through the mud hopper at approximately 30-40

minutes per sack to avoid lumping and fish eyes.
When wet, CMC becomes very slippery and must be absorbed

with an inert material such as Sawdust. Store in a dry area as
CMC is very hygroscopic. Avoid breathing dust.
TDG: Not Regulated

7.5.2 CYPAN (WL-100) Return to Table of Contents
DESCRIPTION: Cypan is a synthetic high molecular weight polymer of

acrylonitrile. This polyacrylate is light yellow in colour, free
flowing and water-soluble; it is not subject to bacterial
decomposition. It will tolerate temperatures to 205C.
APPLICATION: Used in an alkaline environment, Cypan acts as a fluid loss

reducing agent by absorbing onto the clay platelets and cross-
linking them to form a thin, tough filter cake. When Cypan is
added to a flocculated mud system, deflocculation or thinning
occurs and it may be difficult to regain viscosity. Cypan
should not be used in mud systems containing excess
Calcium salts in solution.
For all mud systems in which it is used, the concentration of

Cypan is usually in the range of l.0-3.0 kg/m3.
HANDLING: Due to the attachment of Cypan to clay particles, a viscosity

hump may occur when it is first added to a mud system,
especially a mud system having a high solids concentration.
To minimize this hump, the Cypan should be added to the mud
system through the hopper as rapidly as mixing will permit, in
order to obtain a concentration of approximately l.5 kg/m 3 in
the first circulation. (Maximum addition rates are 15-20
minutes per sack). Once the initial addition has been made the
Cypan is usually added at 30-40 minutes per sack.
TDG: Not Regulated

7.5.3 DRILSTAR (Yellow Starch)
DESCRIPTION: Starch (C6H10O5)n is a pre-gelatinized, yellow coloured, water

soluble Polymer. In its powdered form, commonly called
"Yellow Starch", it is effective to temperature of 90-100C.
APPLICATION: Starch will provide fluid loss control in all water based mud
systems. In particular, Starch finds applications in sea water,
salt saturated, and high Calcium content mud systems where
bottom hole temperatures are not excessive. Starch performs
best in an alkaline environment, and will not increase the
rheological properties of the mud system in which it is used. In
the absence of a high pH and/or high salinity, a bactericide
such as T-352 Biocide should be used to prevent bacterial
decomposition of the Starch.
Starch is used in concentrations ranging from 8-40 kg/m 3

depending somewhat on the amount of drilled solids present in
the mud system. Oxygen scavengers should be used to
reduce thermal degradation.
Caution: It has been demonstrated that produced crude oils

can contain very persistent bacterial strains that may cause
fermentation problems in mud systems with susceptible
organic matter such as Starch. Much larger treatment doses
and/or additions of a secondary Biocide may be required when
crude oil is added to these drilling fluids.
HANDLING: Starch mixes readily. It may be added to the mud system

through the hopper at rates as fast as 5-10 minutes per sack
when required. It is advisable to use a dust mask while Starch
is being mixed.
TDG: Not Regulated

7.5.4 DRILSTAR HT (Pregelatinized Corn Starch)
DESCRIPTION: Drilstar HT is a premium quality white pregelatinized Corn

Starch. It is a free flowing white granular powder that provides
a rapid reduction of API fluid loss at minimum concentrations.
Drilstar HT is effective to temperatures of 120C.
APPLICATION: Drilstar HT provides fluid loss control in all water based mud
systems. In particular, Drilstar HT finds applications in high
hardness (Calcium), high pH, Gypsum muds where bottom
hole temperatures are not excessive. Drilstar HT performs
best in an alkaline environment, and will not increase the
rheological properties of the mud system in which it is used. In
the absence of a high pH and/or high salinity, a bactericide
such as T-352 Biocide should be used to prevent bacterial
decomposition.
Drilstar HT is used in concentrations ranging from 8-25 kg/m 3

depending on the amount of drilled solids present in the mud
system. Oxygen scavengers should be used to reduce thermal
degradation.
Caution: It has been demonstrated that produced crude oils

can contain very persistent bacterial strains that may cause
fermentation problems in mud systems with susceptible
organic matter such as Starch. Much larger treatment doses
and/or additions of a secondary Biocide may be required when
crude oil is added to these drilling fluids.
HANDLING: Drilstar HT mixes readily. It may be added to the mud system

through the hopper at rates as 5-10 minutes per sack when
required. It is advisable to use a dust mask while Starch is
being mixed.
TDG: Not regulated.
PACKAGING: 50 lb. sack.

7.5.5 DRISPAC (Regular / Superlo)
DESCRIPTION: Drispac is a high molecular weight, Polyanionic Cellulose

Polymer. It is an off-white, free flowing powder of high purity.
It is available in Regular and Superlo grades.
APPLICATION: Drispac is designed primarily as a fluid loss reducer in fresh or

salt water muds. As Drispac Regular, this Polymer also
provides secondary viscosity. (Drispac Regular has
approximately twice the viscosifying power in fresh water mud
systems when compared to equal concentrations in saline
water based mud systems). When fluid loss control without
additional viscosity is required, Drispac Superlo should be
utilized.
Both Drispac Regular and Superlo are normally used in

concentrations of 3.0-l0.0 kg/m3 in saline water based muds.
Whereas fresh water based mud systems normally use
concentrations of l.0-3.0 kg/m3.
Drispac is also very effective as a fluid loss control additive in

inhibitive mud systems. However, for any mud system,
Drispac can be expected to lose some effectiveness in high
Calcium or Magnesium environments.
HANDLING: Drispac should be stored in a dry location. In order to avoid

lumping it is added to the mud system through the hopper at
30-40 minutes per sack.
TDG: Not Regulated

7.5.6 STAFLO (Regular / Exlo Supreme)
DESCRIPTION: Staflo Regular is a high molecular weight, Polyanionic

Cellulose Polymer. It is an off-white, free flowing powder of
high purity. It is also available in the lower molecular weight
Staflo Exlo Supreme grade.
APPLICATION: Staflo is designed primarily as a fluid loss reducer in fresh or

salt water muds. As Staflo Regular, this Polymer also provides
secondary viscosity. (Staflo Regular has approximately twice
the viscosifying power in fresh water mud systems when
compared to equal concentrations in saline water based mud
system). When fluid loss control without additional viscosity is
required, Staflo Exlo Supreme should be used.
Both Staflo Regular and Staflo Exlo Supreme are used in

concentrations of 3.0-10.0 kg/m3 in saline water based muds.
Whereas fresh water based mud systems normally use
concentrations of 1.0-3.0 kg/m3.
Staflo is also very effective as a fluid loss control additive in

inhibitive mud systems. However, for any mud system, Staflo
can be expected to lose some effectiveness in high Calcium or
Magnesium environments.
HANDLING: Staflo should be stored in a dry locations. In order to avoid

lumping it is added to the mud system through the hopper at
30-40 minutes per sack.
TDG: Not regulated.

7.5.7 STARLOSE
DESCRIPTION: Starlose is a high performance pregelatinized non-fermenting,

Starch. An extra Polymerization step has been added to
produce Starlose which significantly increases temperature
stability to above 85C.
APPLICATION: Starlose provides fluid loss control and functions as a

protective colloid in all water based mud systems. In particular
Starlose finds applications in seawater, salt saturated and high
Calcium content systems where bottom hole temperatures
exceed 85C. Starlose performs best in alkaline environments
and will not increase the rheological properties of the mud
system in which it is used.
Starlose is used in concentrations ranging from 8.0-40.0 kg/m 3

depending somewhat on the amount of drilled solids present in
the system. Oxygen scavengers should be used to reduce
thermal degradation.
HANDLING: Starlose mixes readily and may be added to a mud system,

through the hopper, at rates as high as 5-10 minutes per sack
when required.
It is advisable to use a dust mask while Starlose is being

mixed.
TDG: Not Regulated

7.5.8 STARPAK DP
DESCRIPTION: Starpak DP is a Starch base fluid loss control agent capable of

enhancing rheology and providing lubricity when used in
conjunction with various shear thinning Polymers. It is a
Carboxymethylated, Hydroxypropylated, cross-linked Polyose
Ether in an off white powdered form.
APPLICATION: Starpak DP exhibits fluid loss control efficiencies closer to the

cellulosics, and better than regular Starches. The synergistic
behaviour of Starpak DP with Bentonite and other Polymers
enhances the shear thinning properties of a drilling fluid, thus
providing excellent hole cleaning at low shear rates.
Starpak DP’s ability to coat clay and shale particles aids in

controlling dispersion, and the eventual destabilization of well
bores. Its ability to encapsulate drilled solids helps facilitate
their removal on surface.
With the addition of an oxygen scavenger, Starpak DP can be

temperature stable up to 150C. It is non-fermenting and
requires no Biocide under normal conditions. It is also stable
against drilling fluid enzyme contamination, resulting in less
viscosity breakdown than typical stabilized fluid loss Polymers.
Starpak DP is used in concentrations ranging from 5.0-25.0

kg/m3 depending on fluid loss requirements and the amount of
solids in the system.
HANDLING: Starpak DP mixes readily and may be added to a mud system

through the hopper at 10-15 minutes per sack.
It is advisable to use a dust mask while mixing Starpak DP.
TDG: Not Regulated

7.6 THINNERS / DISPERSANTS
7.6.1 ALCOMER 72L

DESCRIPTION: Alcomer 72L is a 40% active synthetic Acrylate based, low

molecular weight anionic Polymer. It is an amber coloured
solution. Alcomer 72L is a highly efficient, thermally stable
drilling fluid thinner or deflocculant. It is a cost effective,
environmentally acceptable alternative to heavy metal
Lignosulfonates, Lignites and Tannins.
APPLICATION: Alcomer 72L functions primarily as a rheology control agent by

reducing viscosity and gel strengths. It provides excellent
rheological control at high (175C) and low temperatures in
conventional, or low solids water-based drilling fluids. Its
effectiveness has been proven in fresh water Gel, KCl or K 2SO4
Polymer, Gyp, and Salt muds up to 10,000 mg/L Chlorides.
Alcomer 72L is effective at any pH, and due to its rapid
dissolution, it immediately affects the rheology of a drilling fluid.
Dose requirements are typically ¼ that of Lignosulfonate, with

the actual amount required dependent upon the amount of
solids present in the system. The thinning efficiency of
Alcomer 72L is actually improved by the presence of moderate
levels of Calcium, up to a maximum of 800-1000 mg/L.
Alcomer 72L has also been found to be a very effective thinner
in Carbonate / Bicarbonate and Sulfate contamination where
conventional thinners have little or no effect. Concentrations for
normal use range from 0.4 - 4.0 litres/m3.
HANDLING: Alcomer 72L is supplied in 20 litre plastic pails and should be

added directly to the mud system.
When stored under normal conditions, Alcomer 72L has a shelf

life of at least two years. The product is stable at high and low
temperatures and has an excellent freeze-thaw stability.
Note: Alcomer 72L is very slippery when spilt, and should be

cleaned up immediately with an absorbent material.
TDG: Not Regulated
PACKAGING: 20 litre pail

7.6.2 ALCOMER 74
DESCRIPTION: Alcomer 74 is a synthetic, low molecular weight, anionic,

acrylate based copolymer. It is supplied in a dust free
microbead form. Alcomer 74 is a highly efficient, thermally
stable deflocculant or thinner with improved capabilities in high
solids contaminated muds. It is a cost effective,
environmentally acceptable alternative to heavy metal
Lignosulfonates, Lignites and Tannins.
APPLICATION: Alcomer 74 functions primarily as a rheology control agent by

reducing viscosity and gel strengths. It has been designed to
offer increased thermal stability (260C), and provide better
rheology control and cost efficiency than Alcomer 72L when
drilling green Cement, Salt or Anhydride stringers. Its
effectiveness has been proven in fresh water Gel, KCl or K 2SO4
Polymer, Gyp, and saturated Salt muds. Alcomer 74 is
effective at any pH, and due to its rapid dissolution, it
immediately affects the rheology of a drilling fluid.
Alcomer 74 will also function as a Gel preventer, and help

reduce the fluid loss in most mud systems. A high
concentration "pill" of Alcomer 74 will induce wall cake
breakdown prior to completion, cementing or stimulation.
Dose requirements are typically ¼ that of Lignosulfonate, with

the actual amount required dependent upon the amount of
solids present in the system. Alcomer 74 has also been found
to be a very effective thinner in Carbonate / Bicarbonate and
Sulfate contamination where conventional thinners have little or
no effect.
Concentrations for normal use range from 2.5 - 3.0 kg/m 3.
HANDLING: Alcomer 74 is supplied in 15 kg. sacks and should be added

directly to the mud system through the mixing hopper.
TDG: Not Regulated

7.6.3 DESCO CF (Chrome Free)
DESCRIPTION: Desco CF is a proprietary, reddish brown, chrome free solid in

fine flake form. Desco CF is readily soluble in water.
APPLICATION: Desco CF is used to control rheological properties at high

temperatures. Desco CF is an alkaline material which is
effective in a wide pH range (optimum is suggested at
9.0-11.0) in fresh water or salt water muds. Desco CF is highly
effective at low concentrations, and is compatible with all other
mud additives. Desco CF scavenges Oxygen from the mud
system which assists in reducing corrosion and in extending
the thermal stability of mud systems.
HANDLING: Mix directly through the mud hopper generally in 0.5-7.0 kg/m 3
concentrations. Desco CF is a very effective thinner in most
systems, and only low concentrations are generally required.
Maintain the pH of the mud system in the 9.5-10.0 range for
maximum effectiveness, however pH control is not essential for
product performance.
Desco CF may cause irritation to the eyes. If contacted with

the eyes, flush immediately with running water for at least 15
minutes. If irritation develops, seek medical attention.
TDG: Not Regulated

7.6.4 LIGNITE (Super)
DESCRIPTION: The form used in drilling muds is a naturally oxidized coal

known as Leonardite. The name applies to all forms of highly
weathered Humic Acid.
APPLICATION: Lignite (Super) is used in water based muds as a thinner

(dispersant), oil emulsifier and a filtration control / stabilization
agent for high temperature mud systems. Concentrations vary
from 6.0-60.0 kg/m3 depending upon the solids content of the
system.
Lignite is a much more stable thinner and filtration control

additive at high temperatures than are the Lignosulfonates.
Lignite (Super) requires the presence of Hydroxyl ions (OH -) to

maximize effectiveness.
HANDLING: Mix directly through the mud hopper. Caustic Soda additions
should also be made to maintain the pH at 9.5 or higher.
TDG: Not regulated.

7.6.5 LIGNOCAL
DESCRIPTION: Lignocal is a sugar free Calcium Lignosulfonate produced by

sulfonation of softwood lignin.
Physical Properties:
Appearance: light tan powder

Moisture: 7% (max)
Particle Size < 60 mesh (234 microns): 96%
Bulk Density (powder): 418 kg/m3 (26 lb/ft3)
Chemical Properties:
Calcium Lignin Sulfonate: 80%

Reducing Sugars (as glucose): 0%
Calcium (soluble): 4.0%
Sodium: 4.2%
Chloride: 0.4%
Insolubles (CaSO4.2H2O): 1.5% max
pH: 4-5
APPLICATION: Lignocal can be used in water base mud systems as a thinner

(dispersant), oil emulsifier and filtration control / stabilization
agent. Lignocal will not be as effective as modified Sodium
Lignosulfonates in highly contaminated systems.
Lignocal is readily soluble in water, and because of this does

not require Hydroxyl ion to function as a thinner.
Concentrations vary from 6.0-20.0 kg/m 3 depending on solids
content of the system.
Lignocal is also an effective retarder in cement slurries for

temperatures up to about 95C (200F). Typical treating rates
are 0.1 - 1.5% by wt. cement.
HANDLING: Mix directly through the mud hopper or into the dry blended
cement via the blend system. Use appropriate protective
clothing, eg. goggles, rubber gloves, and/or dust mask.
As with all organic material, caution is advised when storing or

handling near strong oxidizing agents. Prolonged and
excessive heating of Lignocal could result in decomposition
and release of toxic Sulphur Dioxide fumes.
TDG: Not Regulated

7.6.6 PEL-THINZ CF
DESCRIPTION: A brown free flowing powder of modified Sodium

Lignosulfonate prepared from the Sulfite pulping of soft woods.
The Iron and Sodium salts of Lignosulfonates extend the
thinning action and provide increased temperature stability.
Iron Content: 2.8 - 3.2%

pH: 3.1 - 3.3 for a 10% solution
Moisture: Less than 7%
No added Chromium
APPLICATION: Pel-Thinz CF is used as an effective thinner in fresh water, salt

water or Calcium contaminated systems. The amount required
is dependent upon the amount of solids present in the various
muds. Pel-Thinz CF is used primarily as a thinning agent
(deflocculant) in clay based drilling fluids. Pel-Thinz CF also
aids in reducing filtration rates. It is effective to temperatures
of 120C after which point the effectiveness begins to
decrease.
A pH of 9.5-11.0 is required for effective deflocculation with

Pel-Thinz CF.
HANDLING: Avoid breathing dust when mixing and avoid prolonged contact
with skin. Use protective clothing: eg. gloves, goggles, dust
mask etc. Store in a dry location, as this product will absorb
moisture easily.
Pel-Thinz CF can be mixed directly through the mud hopper or

mixed through a chemical barrel with 2 sacks of Pel-Thinz CF
to ½ sack of Caustic Soda per each barrel of water.
TDG: Not regulated.

7.6.7 SAPP
DESCRIPTION: Sodium Acid Pyrophosphate (Na 2H2P2O7) is widely used in

industrial processes as a cleaner and dispersant.
Appearance: White powder, odourless

Solubility in Water: 13 g/100 ml H2O (25C)
pH: 4.2 (1% solution)
APPLICATION: SAPP is used as a strong deflocculant (thinner), in fresh water

mud systems. The main application in Western Canada is
dispersion of mud rings when water drilling, and as a rapid
thinner prior to cementing casing.
HANDLING: In water drilling applications normally add 1-2 viscosity cups

full of SAPP directly into the drillpipe at each connection. In
areas with very reactive clays, increased treatments will be
required. When using to thin the mud prior to cementing, or
treating out cement contamination, mix 1-2 sacks to the
circulating mud.
Avoid skin contact and do not inhale dust or allow contact with
eyes. Do not ingest.
TDG: Not Regulated

7.6.8 THIN-TEX
DESCRIPTION: Thin-Tex is a Chrome free, brown, free flowing powder used as

a drilling fluid deflocculant (thinner) and general fluid
conditioner. Thin-Tex does not require the addition of Caustic
Soda or other alkaline material for activation, and functions
best in a pH range of 7.0 to 9.0. Thin-Tex is a modified organic
Lignin coupled with a synthetic copolymer, that will function
within a broad application range of drilling fluids.
APPLICATION: Thin-Tex functions effectively at low concentrations, to control

rheology and gel strengths in water base systems. Thin-Tex
works particular well in high solids muds, Bicarb, Sulfate,
Calcium contaminated muds, and high temperature
environments exceeding 125C (250F).
Time and temperature will continue to improve the performance

of Thin-Tex after addition to the drilling fluid system.
The concentration range for the use of Thin-Tex will vary from
0.75 kg/m3 to 6.0 kg/m3 (0.25 lbs./bbl to 2.0 lbs./bbl) depending
on the fluid make up, solids content, temperature and degree
of contamination.
Thin-Tex can be added through the mud hopper or a chemical

barrel. When adding Thin-Tex to a system it is not necessary
to also add Caustic Soda. Alkalinity beyond the range of 7.0 to
9.0 is not required.
HANDLING: Avoid breathing dust when mixing and avoid prolonged contact
with skin. Use protective clothing, eg: gloves, goggles, dust
mask, etc. Store in a dry place as this product will absorb
moisture.
TDG: Not Regulated

7.7 FLOCCULANTS
7.7.1 ALCOMER 110RD

DESCRIPTION: Alcomer 110RD is readily dispersible, high molecular weight,

anionic, acrylamide-based copolymer in the form of a white,
free flowing powder.
APPLICATION: Alcomer 110RD has been developed to give enhanced

performance in conventional clear water, or low solids drilling
fluids while maintaining functionality in Potassium base
Polymer and higher Salt systems.
In addition to improved dispersability over conventional PHPA

powders, Alcomer 110RD provides all the benefits normally
associated with PHPA type additives.
ie: Viscosity
Shale Stabilization / Inhibition
Flocculation
Friction Reduction and Lubrication
As a viscosifier, Alcomer 110RD is very efficient and cost

effective in low solids, low salinity drilling operations. Normal
dosage rates are between 0.25-1.0 ppb. (0.75 - 3.0 kg/m 3).
Alcomer 110RD can be used alone or in conjunction with clay

stabilizers such as KCl or K2SO4 to inhibit shale hydration.
Sufficient polymer must be maintained in the system to provide
a protective coating on the well bore and around all drill
cuttings. Normal addition rates are in the range of 0.2-1.0 ppb.
(0.6 - 3.0 kg/m3).
APPLICATION: Flocculation for clear water drilling and removal of drill solids in
active mud systems can be achieved by the addition of small
doses of Alcomer 110RD. A polymer solution is added either
at the flow line to promote solids settling in the sump, the mud
tanks, or at a point prior to the solids control equipment. A
0.5% stock solution is most commonly prepared using (1) one
viscosity cup of polymer per 50 gallons of fresh water.
HANDLING: Because of its excellent dispersability and mixing, Alcomer

110 RD can be added directly to the mud system without pre-
wetting in a solvent. Alcomer 110RD MUST be mixed slowly to
prevent "humping" the system, as well as loss of polymer at
the shaker screen. If sufficient time is not allowed to shear
the polymer into the mud system, these problems will
occur.
When small additions are required, the Alcomer 110RD can be
prehydrated directly in a chemical barrel at the rate of (1) one
viscosity cup per 50 gallons of water.
NOTE: Alcomer 110RD becomes very slippery when it comes

in contact with water. A spill should be cleaned up with a salt
water solution.
TDG: Not Regulated

7.7.2 ALCOMER 120P
DESCRIPTION: Alcomer 120P is a 30% hydrolized Polyacrylamide polymer. It

is a light, white coloured powder.
APPLICATION: Alcomer 120P can be used as a flocculant to promote water

clarification in clear water drilling, or it may be used in
conjunction with KCl or K2SO4 to stabilize the shale inhibition
process.
As a flocculant, it is normally used in concentrations of l kg per

20-30 m (2-3 singles) of hole drilled. (Holes larger than 222
mm may require higher concentrations.)
As a shale inhibitor the concentration ranges from 0.5 kg/m 3 for

slightly hydratable shales, to l.5-2.0 kg/m3 for moderately
hydratable shales. Gumbo or highly reactive shales may
require concentrations as high as 3.0 kg/m3.
HANDLING: As a flocculant Alcomer 120P is dispersed in 5 gallons of

diesel, and mixed with water in the chemical barrel prior to
adding to the flow line.
In KCl / K2SO4 Polymer muds, one bag of Alcomer 120P is

usually slowly dispersed in a chemical barrel containing water
with 50 kg of dissolved KCl, or 80 kg of Potassium Sulfate.
Note: Alcomer 120P becomes very slippery when it comes in

contact with water. A spill should be cleaned up with a
KCl/water solution.
TDG: Not Regulated

7.7.3 ALCOMER 120L
DESCRIPTION: Alcomer 120L is a 30% hydrolized Polyacrylamide in liquid

form. It is an opaque milky liquid.
APPLICATION: Alcomer 120L can be used as a flocculant to promote water

clarification in clear water drilling, or it may be used in
conjunction with KCl or K2SO4 to stabilize the shale inhibition
process.
As a flocculant it is normally used in concentrations of 1 litre

per 20-30 m (2-3 singles) of hole drilled. (Holes larger than
222 mm may require higher concentrations.)
As a shale inhibitor the filtrate concentration ranges from 0.5

litres/m3 for slightly hydratable shales to 1.5-2.0 litres/m 3 for
moderately hydratable shales. Gumbo shales may require
concentrations as high as 3.0 litres/m3.
HANDLING: As a flocculant, Alcomer 120L can be added directly to the flow

line, or it may be dispersed in diesel fuel and mixed with water
in the chemical barrel prior to adding to the flow line.
In KCl / K2SO4 Polymer muds one pail of Alcomer 120L is

usually slowly dispersed in a chemical barrel containing water
with 50 kg of dissolved KCl, or 80 kg of Potassium Sulfate.
Note: Alcomer 120L becomes very slippery when it comes in

contact with water. A spill should be cleaned up with a
KCl/water solution.
TDG: Not Regulated

7.7.4 ALKAPAM 1103 & 1703
DESCRIPTION: Alkapam A-1103D and A-1703D are high molecular weight

water soluble acrylamide copolymers. Alkapam A-1103D has a
low anionic charge, and A-1703D a high anionic charge. They
come in a free flowing granular form and disperse readily in
water reducing the formation of "fish eyes".
APPLICATION: Alkapam A-1103D and A-1703D are effective anionic polymer

flocculants used for clear water drilling. They should be added
through a chemical barrel at the flowline or injected directly into
a centrifuge from a premixed polymer tank, usually in a 0.5%
stock solution. They also can be used for fluid clarification (de-
watering) through the centrifuge(s) in sumpless drilling
operations. Alkapam A-1703D will provide shale stabilization
and viscosity when used in higher concentrations of 0.5-3.0
kg/m3.
HANDLING: Mix directly into the hopper at 20 minutes per sack or add (with
agitation) to a chemical barrel or polymer mixing tank. Avoid
mixing too rapidly. A mask and goggles should be worn to
prevent inhalation of dust and contact with eyes.
TDG: Not Regulated

7.7.5 ALKAPAM 1803
DESCRIPTION: Alkapam C-1803 is a high molecular weight cationic

polyelectrolyte, supplied in a free flowing granular form.
Alkapam C-1803 exhibits a high cationic charge density.
APPLICATION: Alkapam C-1803 is an effective cationic polymer flocculant

used for clearwater drilling and fluid clarification (de-watering)
in closed systems. It is very effective in de-watering water
based systems, especially ones that contain significant
amounts of bio-polymers (Kelzan XCD) and PAC’s (Drispac /
Staflo). Alkapam C-1803 should be added through a chemical
barrel at the flowline or injected directly into a centrifuge from a
premixed polymer tank, usually in a 0.5% stock solution.
Additions of Alkapam C-1803 should be proceeded by the
appropriate organic or inorganic coagulant additions.
HANDLING: Mix slowly into a chemical barrel or polymer mixing tank and
allow the product to hydrate. Avoid mixing too rapidly. A mask
and goggles should be worn to prevent inhalation of dust and
contact with eyes.
TDG: Not regulated.
PACKAGING: 25 kg. sack.

7.7.6 ALKAPAM 1003
DESCRIPTION: Alkapam N-1003D is a high molecular weight water soluble

acrylamide copolymer with a non-ionic charge. It is a free
flowing granular material which disperses readily in water
reducing the formation of "fish eyes".
APPLICATION: Alkapam N-1003D is an effective non-ionic polymer flocculant

used for clear water drilling. It should be added through a
chemical barrel at the flowline, or injected directly into a
centrifuge from a premixed polymer tank, usually in a 0.5%
stock solution. Alkapam N-1003D can also be used for fluid
clarification when added at the centrifuge in sumpless drilling
operations. It is especially effective in situations where high
levels of clay are present.
HANDLING: Mix directly into the hopper at 20 minutes per sack or add (with
agitation) to a chemical or polymer mixing tank. Avoid mixing
too rapidly. A mask and goggles should be worn to prevent
inhalation of dust and contact with eyes.
TDG: Not Regulated

7.7.7 CALCIUM CHLORIDE (77%) FLAKE
DESCRIPTION: Calcium Chloride flake (CaCl 2.2H2O) is a basic manufactured

salt which is hygroscopic and highly soluble in water.
Appearance: white flake

Solubility (0ºC): 977 g/L
Melting Point: 176ºC
Min. % CaCl2: 77
Particle Size < 20 mesh (841 microns): 4.5%
APPLICATION: Calcium Chloride flake (77 %) has a wide variety of oilfield

uses. It is used as:
- a floculant for clearwater drilling

- a completion / workover fluid
- a packer fluid
- an accelerator for oilwell cement (up to 4% wt. cement)
HANDLING: Calcium Chloride flake can be added directly through the

hopper, or pre-dissolved in a chemical barrel or cement mix-
water tank prior to use.
Use good industrial hygiene practice to avoid eye and excess

skin contact. Wear a protective dust mask and goggles when
handling and mixing.
Store in a cool, dry place and keep container tightly closed

when not in use. Failure to store material properly may result
in caking or wetness from atmospheric moisture.
TDG: Not Regulated

7.7.8 ENKAPSAFLOC
DESCRIPTION: Enkapsafloc is a 30% hydrolized Polyacrylamide in liquid form.

It is an opaque free flowing dispersion.
APPLICATION: Enkapsafloc can be used as a flocculant in conjunction with

Calcium or Potassium to promote water clarification while clear
water drilling. It may also be added to Potassium based or with
other shale stabilizing products to enhance the shale inhibition
process.
As a flocculant, it is added at the flowline at 1 litre per 20-30

meters of hole drilled to promote solids settlement in the mud
pit, or at a point just prior to mechanical separation equipment.
As a shale inhibitor, the filtrate concentration should range from

0.5 litres/m3 for slightly hydratable shales, to 1.5 litres/m 3 for
moderately hydratable shales. Gumbo shales may require
concentrations as high as 3.0 litres/m3.
HANDLING: As a flocculant Enkapsafloc can be mixed directly into water in

the chemical barrel prior to addition at the flow line.
In inhibitive muds Enkapsafloc should be added slowly through

a chemical barrel at the suction to avoid large fluctuations in
viscosity.
Note: Enkapsafloc becomes very slippery when it comes in

contact with water. A spill should be cleaned up immediately
with an absorbent material.
TDG: Not Regulated

7.7.9 ENVIROFLOC (Calcium Nitrate)
DESCRIPTION: Envirofloc (Calcium Nitrate) is an off-white odourless granule

which is hygroscopic in nature. It is the hydrated double salt
5Ca(NO3)2.NH4NO3.10H20.
Appearance and Odour: Solid off-white crystals,

odourless
Melting Point: 116ºC
Solubility in Water: 76% w/w
APPLICATION: Envirofloc is an excellent source of Calcium for clear water

drilling. In moderate quantities nitrates are a plant nutrient and
can ultimately be consumed, actually aiding in the goal of re-
vegetation of well sites. The general "rule of thumb" is to
maintain a minimum of 200-400 mg/L (1-3 kg/m3) of Calcium
ion for clear water drilling.
Envirofloc is also be used as a Calcium source in Invert oil

emulsions, and as an accelerator for oilwell cement.
HANDLING: Envirofloc can be added through the hopper or pre-dissolved in

water in the chemical barrel prior to being added. Note that in
the presence of excess Hydroxide (high pH)
concentration, ammonia gas may be liberated. Ammonia
gas will irritate the nose, throat and respiratory system and can
cause eye injury.
Store securely away from combustible materials and reducing

agents.
TDG: Not Regulated

7.7.10 MUD FLOC II (Dispersible)
DESCRIPTION: Mud-Floc II D is a polymer based, selective flocculant in the

form of a light, white colored powder.
APPLICATION: Mud-Floc II D is used as a flocculant to promote water

clarification in clear water drilling. Mud Floc II D is ideal for use
in situations where clear water drilling is immediately followed
with mud-up to a Bentonite based mud system. Mud Floc II D
is used in concentrations of one 2 lb. bottle per 20-30 m (2-3
singles) of drilled hole. (Holes larger than 222 mm may require
higher concentrations.)
HANDLING: Mud-Floc II D will not require wetting with diesel oil prior to
mixing with water in the chemical barrel, and adding to the mud
system at the flow line.
TDG: Not Regulated
PACKAGING: 2 lb. plastic bottles

(25X2 lb. plastic bottles / box)

7.7.11 PERCOL 338
DESCRIPTION: Percol 338 is a high molecular weight anionic Polyacrylamide

supplied as a free flowing granular powder.
APPLICATION: Percol 338 is an effective anionic polymer flocculant used for

clear water drilling and fluid clarification in closed systems. It
should be added through a chemical barrel at the flow line or
injected directly into a centrifuge from a premixed polymer tank
usually in a 0.5% stock solution. Percol 338 can also be used
for fluid clarification when added at the centrifuge in sumpless
drilling operations. Percol 338 will provide shale stabilization
and viscosity when used in higher concentrations of 0.5-3.0
kg/m3.
allow the product to hydrate. Avoid mixing too rapidly. A mask
contact with eyes.
TDG: Not regulated.

7.7.12 PERCOL 351
DESCRIPTION: Percol 351 is a high molecular weight non-ionic Polyacrylamide

supplied as a free flowing granular powder.
APPLICATION: Percol 351 is an effective non-ionic polymer flocculant used for

clear water drilling and fluid clarification in closed systems. It
should be added through a chemical barrel at the flowline or
injected directly into a centrifuge from a premixed polymer tank
usually in a 0.5% stock solution. Percol 351 can also be used
for fluid clarification when added at the centrifuge in sumpless
drilling operations. It is especially effective in situations where
high levels of clay are present. Percol 351 should be
proceeded by the appropriate organic or inorganic coagulant
additions.
allow product to hydrate. Avoid mixing too rapidly. A mask
contact with eyes.
TDG: Not regulated.

7.7.13 PERCOL 728
DESCRIPTION: Percol 728 is a very high molecular weight cationic

polyelectrolyte, supplied in a free flowing granular form. Percol
728 exhibits a medium cationic charge density.
APPLICATION: Percol 728 is an effective cationic polymer flocculant used for

clearwater drilling and fluid clarification in closed systems. It is
very effective in de-watering water based systems especially
ones that contain significant amounts of biopolymers and
PAC’s. Percol 728 should be added through a chemical barrel
at the flowline or injected directly into a centrifuge from a
premixed polymer tank, usually in a 0.5% stock solution.
Additions of Percol 728 should be proceeded by the
appropriate organic or inorganic coagulant additions.
HANDLING: Mix slowly into a chemical barrel of polymer mixing tank and
allow product to hydrate. Avoid mixing too rapidly. A mask
contact with eyes.
WHMIS: Controlled (see MSDS).
TDG: Not regulated.

7.8 CALCIUM REMOVERS
7.8.1 SODA ASH

DESCRIPTION: Sodium Carbonate (Na2CO3) commonly known as Soda Ash, is

a chemical compound having a pH of 11.7
Appearance and Odour: White powder or crystal,

odourless
Solubility in Water: 18% w/w (21ºC)
pH: 11.7 (15% solution @ 23ºC)
APPLICATION: Soda Ash is used to precipitate Calcium in make-up water or

while drilling Anhydrite stringers. Provided the saturation level
of the Calcium salt has not been exceeded, the amount of
Soda Ash required to treat out the calcium can be
approximated by:
350 mg/l Calcium ions requires l.0 kg/m3 of Soda Ash.
Soda Ash effectively and economically removes Calcium from

anhydrite by precipitation as Calcium Carbonate.
CaSO4 + Na2CO3  CaCO3  + Na2SO4

(Anhydrite) (Soda Ash)
Over-treatment with Soda Ash can result in a Carbonate

alkalinity and as a consequent, excessive gel strengths.
Soda Ash can also be used to neutralize small acid spills.
HANDLING: Soda Ash is added directly through the mud mixing hopper in
concentrations normally between 1.0-3.0 kg/m 3. It should be
stored in a cool, dry place. Avoid contact with strong acids in
confined areas.
Avoid inhalation of dust or contact with the eyes. If contact is

made, rinse thoroughly with water for l5 minutes and seek
medical attention if necessary.
TDG: Not Regulated

PACKAGING: 25 or 40 kg. sack

7.8.2 SODIUM BICARBONATE (Bicarb)
DESCRIPTION: Sodium Bicarbonate (NaHC03) is a white crystalline powder

with a natural pH of 8.3. It is also commonly known as
Bicarb, Baking Soda or Bicarbonate of Soda.
Appearance and Odour: White powder, odourless

Solubility: 9.6 g/100 ml
pH: 8.5 (1% solution)
Bulk Density: 675 - 1123 kg/m3
APPLICATION: Sodium Bicarbonate is most commonly used for treating

cement-cut mud by precipitating the Calcium as Calcium
Carbonate and reducing the pH. The available H + ion can
reduce the pH in any drilling fluid with a pH over 8.3.
Ca(OH)2 + NaHCO3  CaCO3  + NaOH

(Cement) (Bicarb)
As a pretreatment for drilling hard cement, 50 lbs. of Sodium

Bicarbonate will treat approximately 1 cubic foot of cement. If
green cement is anticipated, 2 to 3 times as much Sodium
Bicarbonate will be required.
HANDLING: Sodium Bicarbonate can be added directly through the hopper.

Avoid inhaling and minimize skin contact. Sodium Bicarbonate
absorbs moisture and dries the skin. Keep stored in a cool dry
place to prevent caking and deterioration. Store away from
acids.
TDG: Not Regulated

7.9 EVAPORITE (Anhydrite, Salt) STABILIZERS
7.9.1 GYPSUM
DESCRIPTION: Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) is a light grey powder, naturally

hydrated Calcium Sulfate and is slightly soluble in water.
Appearance and Odour: Light grey, odourless

pH: 6.5
Bulk Density - Powder: 1272 kg/m3
Bulk Density - Granular: 1096 kg/m3
APPLICATION: Gypsum is used as a source of Calcium in mud systems. "Gyp

based muds" are used for specific applications to drill thick
sections of anhydrite or cement.
Gypsum can also be added as a contaminant (in low

concentrations) to Bentonite-based mud systems, or as a
source of Calcium for mud systems which are over treated with
Soda Ash.
HANDLING: Gypsum can be added to the mud system through the mud
hopper. In lightly treated Bentonite-based systems, the mud
will flocculate with consequent thickening, and an increase in
fluid loss.
Gypsum is hygroscopic, therefore it should be stored in a dry

environment to avoid lumping and hardening.
A dust hazard is present while Gypsum is being mixed.
TDG: Not Regulated

7.9.2 SALT
DESCRIPTION: Granular, common salt of 96% purity and whose chemical

composition is Sodium Chloride, NaCl.

Solubility in Water: 36 g/100 ml (20C)
Typical Particle Size:
ASTM
Screen Percent
Size (microns) Retained
20 (850) 0
30 (600) 0 - 10
40 (425) 35 - 55
50 (300) 30 - 50
60 (230) 5 - 15
Pan 3 - 10
APPLICATION: Salt finds application in Salt Saturated mud systems, Invert oil
emulsions, workover and completion fluids.
For drilling thick salt sections, the mud is usually "saturated"

with Sodium Chloride. Complete saturation is dependent upon
temperatures, and usually occurs at a concentration of about
320 kg/m3 at room temperature.
In the absence of other Chloride salts, the Sodium Chloride

concentration can be approximated from the calculation:
mg/L NaCl (Salt) = l.65 x mg/L Chlorides
In Invert oil emulsions Sodium Chloride is sometimes used as

a salinity source to provide an activity balance between the
mud's water phase and the formation water.
HANDLING: Salt mixes and dissolves readily in water. It is added to the

mud system through the mud hopper.
TDG: Not Regulated
PACKAGING: 40 kg. Sack Return to Table of Contents

7.10 BACTERICIDES
7.10.1 2K7 WATER SOLUBLE PAK (Bronopol)

DESCRIPTION: 2K7 (Bronopol) is a highly effective Biocide in a free flowing

crystalline form. For convenience of handling, the product is
packaged in a 1 (one) kg. water soluble polyvinyl pak with a
disposable outer poly package.
2-Bromo-2-Nitropropane-1,3-Diol (BNPD):
Purity: 98% minimum

Mol. Wt: 200
Melt Pt: About 130C
pH: 5.0 to 7.0 (% solution at 20C)
Solubility: Water, Ethanol, Diethyl ether
Appearance: White crystalline powder
Odour: Faint characteristic odour
Incompatibility: Aqueous solutions react with Aluminum
and to some extent with iron
APPLICATION: Use 0.06-0.1 kg/m3 active ingredient based on the total volume
of the drilling fluid system until bacteria control is achieved. A
periodic dosage of 0.01-0.025 kg/m 3 should be made to
maintain bacterial control.
HANDLING: The rig chemical barrel should be used to dissolve the WATER
SOLUBLE PAK and PRODUCT for addition to the drilling fluid
system. Ideally, water temperature in the chemical barrel
should be above 10C to easily dissolve the PAK and
PRODUCT. Open the outer poly package and expel the
soluble PAK directly into the chemical barrel. Agitate until the
PAK and PRODUCT is dissolved, then add to the system as
needed.
NOTE: Flush chemical barrel with water prior to adding 2K7.

Caustic Soda will greatly reduce the ability of 2K7 to control
bacteria.
WHMIS: See M.S.D.S. (Registration No: 21790 - Pest Control Products

Act)
TDG: Regulated (see M.S.D.S.)
PACKAGING: 25 kg fibre keg (25 - 1 kg water soluble paks)

7.10.2 CHEMCIDE
DESCRIPTION: This product is a registered Biocide under Agriculture Canada's

"Pest Control Products Act". (Registration # 22316).
Chemical family: N-Coco Alkyltrimethylenediamine acetates.
Chemcide is straw coloured liquid with a slight ammonia -

vinegar odour. The specific gravity is 1.05 and pH is 7.5-8.0.
APPLICATION: DRILLING, WELL COMPLETION, WORKOVER AND

STIMULATION
For control of algae, slime forming and sulfate reducing

bacteria, dosage levels of up to 1500 mg/L (active) in normal
situations, and up to 3000 mg/L (active) for severe
contamination is suggested. In packer fluids, doses up to 300
mg/L (active) is recommended.
PRODUCT DOSAGE RATE FOR PROPER

CONCENTRATION OF ACTIVE INGREDIENT
mg/L of Active Treatment Rate

Ingredient of Chemcide (1itres/m3)
150 0.75
300 1.50
500 2.50
1000 5.00
1500 7.50
3000 15.00
SECONDARY OIL PRODUCTION
For control of algae, slime forming and sulfate reducing

bacteria in oilfield waterflood, slug treat at a rate up to 1000
mg/L (active) for up to 6 hours as needed to achieve control.
Repeat treatment once a week or as needed to maintain
control.
PETROLEUM TRANSPORT AND STORAGE SYSTEMS,

AND SURFACE EQUIPMENT
To control bacteria in crude oil pipelines, slug with doses up to

19.5 litres per diameter centimetre per kilometre of pipeline.
Repeat weekly or as needed to control the situation. The
appropriate doses will depend on the severity of each problem.
Up to 150 mg/L (active) can be used in water for hydrostatic

testing and treatment in water and crude oil storage facilities.
This should be used in subsurface injection systems only.
HANDLING: Chemcide should be added at a point of low agitation.

Mixing through the mud hopper or at a point of high
agitation may cause foaming problems.
NOTICE TO USER: Chemcide is a control product to be used

only in accordance with the directions on the product label. It is
an offence under the "PEST CONTROL PRODUCTS ACT" to
use a controlled product within unsafe conditions.
WHMIS: Not controlled under WHMIS (See M.S.D.S)
TDG: Non Regulated (See M.S.D.S.)

7.10.3 T-352 BIOCIDE
DESCRIPTION: T-352 is a non-ionic, Glutaraldehyde based Biocide in a clear

liquid form.
Specific gravity: 1.0634

Freeze point: -6C
pH: 3.2
Solubility: water
APPLICATION: T-352 Biocide is effective in controlling both aerobic and

anaerobic (sulfate reducing) bacteria. It is compatible with all
water based drilling fluids, and can be neutralized prior to
disposal (see below).
The recommended treatment is dependent on the severity of

the bacterial contamination. As a pretreatment, add 0.1-0.5
litres/m3 to the mud system and monitor with microbial
dipslides. For combating contaminated fluids, add 0.5-2.0
litres/m3 per treatment until bacterial control is achieved.
Microtox Analysis: A series of Microtox tests have

determined the following procedure will deactivate and should
provide a non-toxic response in drilling muds.
1. Increase the pH of the mud to 12.0 and hold for 4 hours.

6558. Neutralize mud back to pH 7.0 with an appropriate
acid.
HANDLING: T-352 Biocide should be added at a point of low agitation. Do

not mix through the hopper or at a point of high agitation as
splashing may occur. T-352 is CORROSIVE and will cause
IRREVERSIBLE EYE DAMAGE. Wear suitable protection for
eyes and skin.
WHMIS: See MSDS (Registration No. 22698 Pest Control Products

Act).
TDG: Regulated (see MSDS).
PACKAGING: 20 litre pail.

7.11 DEFOAMERS
7.11.1 ALUMINUM STEARATE

DESCRIPTION: Aluminum Stearate Al(Cl8H35O2)3 is a surface-active organo-

metallic compound of fine, white to slightly yellow, grainy
powder.
APPLICATION: Aluminum Stearate is generally used as a defoamer in

dispersed or Gel-chemical mud systems.
Aluminum Stearate is not water soluble. It is

recommended to pre-mix the Aluminum Stearate in diesel
oil (concentration approximately 20-25 kg. in 20 litres of
diesel) prior to adding it directly to the mud active system.
HANDLING: Aluminum Stearate should be stored in a dry, cool

environment.
Some dust will occur while it is being mixed. Care should be

taken to avoid contact with the eyes. If contact is made, rinse
the eyes for 5-15 minutes with water.
TDG: Not Regulated

7.11.2 DEFOAMER SILICONE
DESCRIPTION: Defoamer Silicone is a 10% Silicone emulsion. It is a white

liquid with a specific gravity of 1.0.
APPLICATION: Defoamer Silicone is a versatile liquid that can be used to

combat mild to severe foaming. It may be premixed as an
antifoaming agent in preparation of fluids where vigorous
agitation is required, or with products that are known to have
foaming tendencies.
Defoaming is a complex reaction, therefore, pilot testing may

be necessary to determine optimum treatment rates and
methods. Recommended treatment concentrations will vary
depending on the severity of foaming, however, 0.15-0.2
litres/m3 will be effective in most cases.
HANDLING: For maximum effectiveness Defoamer Silicone should be

added directly to the fluid system as close to the point of
foaming as possible. It can also be mixed through the hopper
if necessary.
Avoid contact with eyes, skin and clothing. In case of

contact, immediately wash with plenty of water, flush eyes with
flowing water immediately and continuously for 15 minutes.
See a physician if necessary.
WHMIS: Controlled (see M.S.D.S.)
TDG: Not regulated.

7.11.3 FOAM BUSTER
DESCRIPTION: Foam Buster is a mixture of water soluble Glycol and selected

solids particles.
APPLICATION: Foam Buster is a versatile liquid that can be used to combat

mild to severe foaming. It may be premixed as an antifoaming
agent in preparation of fluids where vigorous agitation is
required, or with products that are known to have foaming
tendencies.
Form: Liquid
Color: Black
Specific Gravity: 1.08 g/cc
Defoaming is a complex reaction, therefore pilot testing may be

necessary to determine optimum treatment rates and methods.
Pretreat the mud system with 0.25-0.50% by volume Foam

Buster before adding any liquid lubricants, bore hole stabilzers,
or any products that may cause a foaming problem. If a foam
problem already exists, treat the active mud system with
0.25-0.50% by volume of Foam Buster. Then start a 20 litre
pail at the shakers to treat the entire hole volume.
Foam Buster passes the Microtox test.
HANDLING: For maximum effectiveness Foam Buster should be added

directly to the fluid system as close to the point of foaming as
possible. It can also be mixed through the hopper if
necessary.
General safety precautions and use of eye protection devices

are recommended when using Foam Buster. Irritation to the
skin may result from prolonged skin contact.
WHMIS: Not Controlled (see M.S.D.S.)
TDG: Not regulated.

7.11.4 XL DEFOAMER
DESCRIPTION: XL Defoamer is an anionic, high molecular weight surfactant. It

is a clear liquid, insoluble in water, but readily dispersible.
XL Defoamer has a specific gravity of 0.90 and a pH of 7.0-8.0.
APPLICATION: XL Defoamer is a powerful defoamer intended for use in oilfield

applications where mild to severe foaming of aqueous based
fluids has occurred. It is effective at all pH ranges, at high
temperatures, and over a wide salinity range.
Normal treatment for light foam is 0.3-0.9 litres/m 3, and with

more difficult foams, 0.9-1.8 litres/m3 may be required.
HANDLING: For maximum effectiveness XL Defoamer should be added

directly to the fluid system as close to the point of foaming (eg:
shale shaker) as possible. It may also be sprayed over the
fluid through a wash gun diluted in a diesel mixture if necessary
(eg: over mud tanks).
XL Defoamer may cause irritation to the skin and eyes. In case

of skin contact, wash with water as required. In case of eye
contact, wash with water for at least 15 minutes and seek
medical attention if necessary. Although stable, do not store
XL Defoamer near strong oxidizing agents.
TDG: Not Regulated

7.12 LUBRICANTS
7.12.1 CAN FREE

DESCRIPTION: Can-Free is an amber coloured, viscous, blend of proprietary

surface active agents (sulfonates). The flash point is
approximately 17C.
APPLICATION: Can-Free is designed to penetrate and lubricate the medium

between the drill pipe and the well-bore, equalizing the
pressure differences associated with differential sticking.
To relieve differentially stuck pipe, mix 25 litres of Can-Free

per m3 in diesel or crude oil in preparing a volume that is
sufficient to more than fill the annulus for the entire interval,
plus leaving ½ m3 inside the drill string.
After displacement, let the Can-Free/Oil mixture "soak" for at

least two hours before commencing to slowly pump an
additional 0.2 m3 of spotting fluid every ½ hour while the drill
string is being worked.
Note: To increase the density of the spotting fluid, an

organophillic clay (OMV-100) must be added to the oil phase,
before adding the Can-Free, to suspend the weighting agent.
Approximately, 10-30 kg/m3 of organophillic clay (OMV-100)
will be required depending on the type of clay used and the
final density required.
HANDLING: Avoid eye and skin contact. Should contact occur flush
thoroughly with water. When Can-Free is added directly to the
mud, some shear or moderate agitation should be applied. As
a spotting fluid, Can-Free mixes readily with diesel or crude oil.
WHMIS: Controlled [see M.S.D.S.]
TDG: Not regulated
PACKAGING: 60 litre drum

7.12.2 GLASS BEADS
DESCRIPTION: Glass Beads are specially sized, solid glass spheres made of
high-grade crown glass of the lime soda type. They have a
specific gravity of 2.4, chemically inert, free of impurities and
are non-polluting. 75% of these beads fall in a range between
170-325 mesh, with less than 10% retained on a 170 mesh
screen.
APPLICATION: Glass Beads can be used in all water based and oil based
drilling fluids to reduce torque and drag and to aid in the
prevention of differential sticking. They should have no
measurable effect on the desired properties of the mud system,
and can be removed by a desilter or centrifuge.
A reduction in torque and drag between 15 to 30% can be

achieved by adding and maintaining 8.0-12.0 kg/m 3 of Glass
Beads. Severity of hole problems and solids content will
determine actual concentrations required.
HANDLING: Glass beads should be added directly through the mixing

hopper.
Note: Glass beads will have the same effect as ball

bearings on any hard surface. Post warning signs if
spilled and sweep up immediately.
TDG: Not Regulated

7.12.3 GRAPHITE
DESCRIPTION: Graphite is a fine, metallic grey to black coloured powder

having a greasy feel, and very low coefficient of friction.
Chemically, it is the pure form of carbon.
APPLICATION: Graphite is used as a torque reducer in directional or crooked

holes employing any water based mud system.
Torque reduction does not become significant until

concentrations of 3.0 kg/m3 are exceeded. The optimum
concentration is in the range of 6.0-7.0 kg/m 3.
HANDLING: Graphite is added to the mud system through the mud mixing
hopper. Because it is extremely fine, it is recommended that a
dust mask and goggles be worn while the Graphite is being
mixed.
TDG: Not Regulated

7.12.4 NUT SHELL
DESCRIPTION: A lost circulation material of ground nut shells available in three

grades, fine, medium, and coarse, ranging in size from 100
mesh to 6 mesh.

its granular nature. Nut Shell is chemically inert and may be
Nut Shell is also used as a drag reducer in deviated holes.

to a trip the irregular particles are embedded in the filter cake

TDG: Not regulated

7.12.5 TORQ 2000
DESCRIPTION: TORQ 2000 is a liquid blend of special non-polluting oils and

surfactants. It is non-flammable and biodegradable.
APPLICATION: TORQ 2000 may be used in fresh water muds, sea water
systems, Sodium Chloride, Potassium Chloride, Potassium
Sulfate, or Calcium Chloride brines.
Torque & Drag Reducing: TORQ 2000 is recommended to

improve the lubricity of drilling and completion fluids. It
reduces friction between the drill string and walls of the hole.
Torque and drag common in crooked and directional holes can
be minimized.
Control of Bit Balling: Soft shales have less tendency to

adhere to bits and drill collars when TORQ 2000 is present in
the drilling fluid.
Freeing Stuck Pipe: TORQ 2000 concentrated in a pill of

drilling mud will free pipe stuck by differential pressure, when
spotted across the zone of sticking.
Corrosion Protection: Drilling and completion fluids treated

with TORQ 2000 are less corrosive.
General Purpose Lubrication: TORQ 2000 can be sprayed

on moving parts or exposed steel surfaces to lubricate and
protect metal from corrosive attack. It is an excellent
penetrating lubricant.
HANDLING: TORQ 2000 can be added directly at the pump suction. To

reduce torque and drag, additions of 4.0-6.0 litres/m 3 are
recommended.
For bit balling, add 15-20 litres/m 3 TORQ 2000 at the pump
suction. Maintain by adding a small stream of TORQ 2000
while drilling. To avoid differential pressure sticking maintain
15.0-25.0 litres/m3 TORQ 2000 in the mud system. For use as
a spotting fluid, mix 3-4 pails TORQ 2000 in 8.0-10.0 m 3 diesel
or crude oil to spot across stuck zone.
TDG: Not regulated.
PACKAGING: 20 litre pail. Return to Table of Contents

7.12.6 TORQ-LUBE
DESCRIPTION: Torq-Lube is a liquid blend of proprietary surface active agents

in a glycol base. It is amber in colour and has a flash point of
221C.
APPLICATION: Torq-Lube is a highly effective lubricant for reducing torque

and drag, differential and mechanical sticking, and enhancing
the ability to “slide” while directional drilling.
Torq-Lube is resistant to contamination and is compatible with

most water based mud additives. It may cause a temporary
increase in viscosity in non-dispersed Gel-chemical systems.
Pilot testing is recommended as a precautionary measure for
all initial applications. Torq-Lube has a very low foaming
potential, and will not cause foaming problems in most mud
systems.
Normal additions of Torq-Lube range from 10.0-40.0 litres/m 3

depending on mud density, rate of penetration, or desired
reduction in torque and drag. Higher concentrations may be
needed for pills and special applications.
HANDLING: Torq-Lube should be added slowly to the mud system through

the mixing hopper, or wherever there is good agitation. Wear
suitable protection for eyes, skin and clothing (see Material
Safety Data Sheet for further information).
TDG: Not regulated.
PACKAGING: 208 L drums.

7.12.7 TORQ-TROL
DESCRIPTION: TORQ-TROL is a liquid blend of special non-polluting oils and

surfactants. It is non-flammable and biodegradable.
APPLICATION: TORQ-TROL may be used in fresh water muds, sea water

systems, Sodium Chloride, Potassium Chloride, Potassium
Sulfate, or Calcium Chloride brines.
Torque & Drag Reducing: TORQ-TROL is recommended to

improve the lubricity of drilling and completion fluids. It
reduces friction between the drill string and walls of the hole.
Torque and drag common in crooked and directional holes can
be minimized.
Control of Bit Balling: Soft shales have less tendency to

adhere to bits and drill collars when TORQ-TROL is present in
the drilling fluid.
Freeing Stuck Pipe: TORQ-TROL concentrated in a pill of

drilling mud will free pipe stuck by differential pressure, when
spotted across the zone of sticking.
Corrosion Protection: Drilling and completion fluids treated

with TORQ-TROL are less corrosive.
General Purpose Lubrication: TORQ-TROL can be sprayed

on moving parts or exposed steel surfaces to lubricate and
protect metal from corrosive attack. It is an excellent
penetrating lubricant.
HANDLING: TORQ-TROL can be added directly at the pump suction. To

recommended.
For bit balling, add 15.0-20.0 litres/m 3 TORQ-TROL at the

pump suction. Maintain by adding a small stream of TORQ-
TROL while drilling. To avoid differential pressure sticking
maintain 15.0-25.0 litres/m3 TORQ-TROL in the mud system.
For use as a spotting fluid, mix 3-4 pails TORQ-TROL in
8.0-10.0 m3 diesel or crude oil to spot across stuck zone.
TDG: Not Regulated
PACKAGING: 20 litre pail Return to Table of Contents

7.12.8 TORQ-TROL II Return to Table of Contents
DESCRIPTION: Torq-Trol II is an amber liquid with the principal composition being

a sodium salt of sulfated vegetable oil. Torq-Trol II is both oil and
water soluble.
APPLICATION: Torq-Trol II can be used in fresh water and salt water mud
systems. It can also be added to Sodium Chloride, Potassium
Chloride, Potassium Sulfate, or Calcium Chloride brines.
Reducing Torque and Drag: Torq-Trol II is recommended to

improve the lubricity of drilling and completion fluids. It reduces
friction between the drill string and walls of the hole. Torque and
drag common in crooked and directional holes can be minimized.
Control of Bit Balling: Soft shales have less tendency to adhere

to bits and drill collars when Torq-Trol II is present in the drilling
fluid.
Freeing Stuck Pipe: Torq-Trol II concentrated in a pill of drilling

mud will help free differentially stuck pipe.
Corrosion Protection: Drilling and completion fluids treated with

Torq-Trol II are less corrosive.
General Purpose Lubrication: Torq-Trol II can be sprayed on

moving parts or exposed steel surfaces to lubricate and protect
metal from corrosive attack. It is an excellent penetrating lubricant.
HANDLING: Torq-Trol II should be added directly at the pump suction. To

recommended.
For bit balling, add 6.0-12.0 litres/m 3 Torq-Trol II at the suction.

Maintain by adding a small stream of Torq-Trol II while drilling. To
avoid differential pressure sticking maintain 15.0-25.0 litres/m 3
Torq-Trol II in the mud system. For use as a spotting fluid, mix
20.0-25.0 litres/m3 in an 8-10 m3 pill of diesel or crude oil and spot
across the stuck zone.
NOTE: The addition of Torq-Trol II will cause foaming in

some mud systems. A pretreatment of 3-5 pails of a
defoamer such as Foam Buster, Defoamer Silicone, or
XL Defoamer is recommended prior to any additions of Torq-
Trol II.
WHMIS: Controlled [See M.S.D.S.]
TDG: Not Regulated
PACKAGING: 208 litre drums

20 litre pail Return to Table of Contents
7.12.9 WALNUT SHELLS
DESCRIPTION: A lost circulation material of ground Walnut available in three

grades, fine, medium, and coarse, ranging in size from 100
mesh to 6 mesh.

its granular nature. Walnut are chemically inert and may be
Walnut are also used as a drag reducer in deviated holes.

to a trip the irregular particles are embedded in the filter cake

TDG: Not Regulated

7.13 SHALE INHIBITORS
7.13.1 ALCOMER 60RD Return to Table of Contents
DESCRIPTION: Alcomer 60RD is a readily dispersible, low molecular weight,

anionic, acrylamide-based copolymer in the form of a white,
free flowing powder.
APPLICATION: Alcomer 60RD has been developed to provide improved shale

stabilization / inhibition in drilling fluids with minimal effect on
rheology. It is suitable for use in fresh water, sea water, KCl /
K2SO4 Polymer, and other water-based inhibitive systems.
Alcomer 60RD exhibits improved dispersibility over

conventional PHPA’s while providing the following benefits:
- Shale stabilization / inhibition

- Minimized viscosity increases
- Added lubricity
- Lower fluid loss, improved filter cake quality
- Readily dispersible with no formation of “fish eyes”
- Solid grade form, more cost effective than liquids
- No carrier oil, environmentally friendly
Alcomer 60RD can be used alone or in conjunction with other

products such as Potassium Sulfate to maximize shale
stabilization. Its improved rheological properties allow
additions of higher concentrations, with reduced viscosity
humping in higher solid muds. Normal dosage rates are
between 2.0-6.0 kg/m3.
HANDLING: Because of its excellent dispersibility and mixing, Alcomer 60

RD can be added directly to the mud system without pre-
wetting in a solvent.
Direct Method: A small hole should be cut into the bottom of

the bag, allowing it to flow at a steady rate into the mud
hopper.
Prehydration: Alcomer 60RD can be prehydrated at

concentrations of 10.0-15.0 kg/m3 in a separate tank, and fed
into the main circulating system to maintain concentrations of
2.0-6.0 kg/m3.
NOTE: Alcomer 60 RD becomes very slippery when it comes

in contact with water. A spill should be cleaned up with a salt
water solution.
WHMIS: Not Controlled.
TDG: Not Regulated.

7.13.2 BLACKNIGHT
DESCRIPTION: Blacknight is a coupled Gilsonite based dispersion.
APPLICATION: Used as a liquid Gilsonite shale inhibitor and HT-HP fluid loss
reducer.
Form: Liquid dispersion

Color: Black
Pout Point: 20C
Blacknight can provide for near gauge hole and improved

wellbore evaluation. It will thin the API and HT-HP filter cake.
It also provides for high temperature rheology control and acts
as a coupler for additional Gilsonite. It passes the Microtox
test, and is compatible with most water base mud systems.
HANDLING: Blacknight can be mixed directly into most mud systems.

Additions of Blacknight are best accomplished by pouring the
product directly into the rig hopper, however, the product can
be added directly to the suction tank when necessary.
Concentrations of 1-4% by volume (depending upon mud

density) will be sufficient for wellbore stability, HT-HP rheology
control, and HT-HP fluid loss reduction.
Concentrations of 1-3% by volume (depending upon mud

density) will be sufficient for HT-HP fluid loss reduction, and
shale inhibition.

are recommended when using Blacknight.
TDG: Not Regulated
PACKAGING: 208 litre drum

7.13.3 DRIL-TEX
DESCRIPTION: Dril-Tex is a Sodium Salt of sulfonated asphalt. It is a fine dark

brown powder soluble in both water and oil. Dril-Tex is
effective in fresh and salt water and is compatible with all
common drilling fluid additives.
APPLICATIONS: Drill-Tex is used in water based drilling fluids to provide

protection against hydratable shales. Dril-Tex reacts with
hydratable shales to prevent swelling. It also works in
conjunction with other fluid loss reducers to form a firm thin
filter cake that is slick and capable of reducing torque and drag.
Dril-Tex is an excellent HT-HP fluid loss reducer capable of

withstanding temperatures exceeding 200C . Dril-Tex does
not contain any added heavy metals, is non-toxic and provides
an environmentally safe alternative to oil muds in troublesome
shale areas.
Initially as a pretreatment, Dril-Tex should be added to the mud

system in a concentration of 5.0-8.0 kg/m 3. For sloughing and
unstable hole conditions increase the concentration to
10.0-14.0 kg/m3 and maintain until hole conditions improve.
Reduce concentrations back to pretreatment levels once hole
conditions improve.
NOTE: The addition of Dril-Tex may cause foaming in

some mud systems. A pretreatment of 3-5 pails of a
defoamer such as Foam Buster, Defoamer Silicone, or
XL Defoamer is recommended prior to any additions of
Dril-Tex.
It may also be advantageous to prehydrate the Dril-Tex in a

separate premix tank, independent of the active mud
system prior to making the addition.
HANDLING: Mix directly into the mud hopper. Avoid mixing rapidly to
reduce excessive dust. Wear a mask to protect respiratory
system, gloves and long sleeves to protect skin and goggles to
protect eyes.
WHMIS: Controlled (see M.S.D.S).
TDG: Not regulated.

7.13.4 POTASSIUM CHLORIDE (KCl)
DESCRIPTION: Potassium Chloride (KCl), or commonly referred to as Potash

is an odourless white crystal, which forms a neutral salt
solution with water. Potash is available in granular form with
its purity expressed as percent K2O.
63% K2O = 100% KCl

60% K2O = 95% KCl
50% K2O = 80% KCl
Solubility in water: 276 g/L (0C)

pH 5.4-8.6
APPLICATION: Generally used to provide Potassium (K +) ions in shale

inhibiting drilling muds. The K + ion provides a strong bonding
ion between the clay platelets, thus inhibiting the swelling of
shales. Normal concentration for use in Western Canada to
inhibit shales is 30 kg/m3 (3% by weight).
The K+ ion is absorbed into the clay and thus is depleted from
the system. The rate of absorption is related to the reactivity of
the shale.
10 kg/m3 KCl = approx. 5250 mg/l K+
HANDLING: Potash mixes readily in water and can be mixed directly

through the hopper. Avoid breathing dust while mixing.
TDG: Not Regulated

7.13.5 POTASSIUM SULFATE (K2SO4)
DESCRIPTION: Potassium Sulfate (K2S04) forms a neutral salt solution with

water. Potassium Sulfate is available in a crystalline form with
its purity expressed as percent K20.
54% K20 = 100% K2S04
APPLICATION: Generally used to provide Potassium (K+) ions in shale

inhibiting muds. The K+ ion provides a strong bond between
the clay platelets inhibiting swelling.
The K+ ion is absorbed onto the clay and is depleted from the
system. The rate of absorption is related to the reactivity of the
shale. Normal concentration for use in Western Canada to
inhibit shales is 40 kg/m3 (4% by weight).
10 kg/m3 K2S04 = 4490 mg/L K+
HANDLING: Potassium Sulphate mixes readily in water and can be mixed

directly through the hopper. Avoid breathing dust while mixing.
TDG: Not regulated.

7.13.6 SOLTEX
DESCRIPTION: Soltex is a Sodium Asphalt Sulfonate, with minor amounts of

asphalt phenolates, inorganic salts, and oxidized asphalt. It is
manufactured in friable flake form, with a specific gravity of
0.98, and a dry bulk density of 50 lbs./cu. ft.
APPLICATION: Used shale inhibitor, it also reduces torque and drag, acts as a
substitute for oil, forms tight emulsions where oil is used, aids
in reducing the HT-HP fluid loss with a thin, firm filter cake,
forms tight emulsions where oil is used, and acts as a
corrosion inhibitor at high temperatures.
Soltex has a softening point of over 260C. It is approximately

70% water soluble measure by extraction. Part of the water
insoluble fraction is oil soluble, and part of the product is
soluble in both oil and water. Thus Soltex has excellent
emulsifying characteristics because of its solubility in both oil
and water.
HANDLING: Soltex can be mixed directly through the hopper at 20-30

min’s/sack. Soltex can have a tendency to foam. If adding
directly to the active system, pretreating the mud with a
defoamer is recommended. If possible, prehydrate the
Soltex in a separate premix tank prior to adding to the active
system.
Recommended concentration: 12.0-18.0 kg/m3.

are recommended when using Soltex.
TDG: Not Regulated

7.13.7 STABLE-K
DESCRIPTION: Stable-K is a specialized liquid product designed specifically

for use as a replacement for Potassium Chloride (KCl) or
Potassium Sulfate (K2SO4).
APPLICATION: Stable-K provides excellent shale and clay control, without the
logistics, handling and mixing problems associated with large
volumes of sacked KCl or K 2SO4. Stable-K is compatible with
all Gels, crosslinkers, and breaker systems typically utilized in
well stimulation and workover operations. It will not greatly
affect fluid pH and being non surface active, does not
adversely affect formation wettability. Stable-K may be used in
fresh water, acid or brine systems, and will not hinder the
performance of acid corrosion inhibitors.
While Stable-K does not contain any Potassium, it is composed

of a sophisticated, mildly cationic complex that functions as KCl
to control shale and clay activity. Stable-K may be easily
mudded up “on the fly” therefore eliminating premixing. If
Stable-K is mixed in fresh water without any Salts, the fluid can
be easily disposed of without adverse effects on the
environment. A 2% KCl solution contains 9700 mg/L of
Chloride ion, while a functionally equivalent fluid containing
Stable-K is Chloride free. This significantly reduced Chloride
ion concentration greatly lessens the environmental impact
associated with the use of KCl fluids.
Stable-K Physical Properties:
Product Form @ 70F Clear Liquid Solubility

Density 1055 kg/m3 Fresh Water Soluble
Flash Point, F, (TCC) <200 High TDS Brine Soluble
Pour Point, F -40 Hydrocarbon Insoluble
pH 9.0-10.0 Ionic Charge Mildly Cationic
HANDLING: Stable-K is typically added at a concentration of 0.5-10.0

litres/m3 of fluid, depending on the percent of equivalent KCl
being replaced, and the shale and clay quantities present in the
wellbore and operation being performed. Where a 3%
Potassium Chloride (KCl) is required to inhibit the shales,
Stable-K is added to fresh water at an equivalent
concentration of 3.0 litres/m3.
WHMIS: Not Controlled (See M.S.D.S.)
TDG: Not Regulated

7.13.8 X-PEL-G
DESCRIPTION: X-Pel-G is a surface treated 99% pure Gilsonite.
Physical Properties

Softening Point: 188-194oC
Melting Point: 194-205oC
Grind: 5% -100 mesh
Fluorescence: nil
APPLICATION: X-Pel-G is used to control sloughing shales by plugging

microfractures and providing reduced filtrate invasion and
improved mechanical stability. Due to its asphaltic nature and
wall plastering effects, X-Pel-G reduces torque and drag and
lowers filtrate. Its high temperature stability aids in reducing
HT-HP fluid loss.
Recommended treatment 9.0-15.0 kg/m3.
HANDLING: X-Pel-G has been surface treated and does not require an
emulsifier or wetting agent. Mix directly to the system at 15-20
min’s/sack and avoid breathing dust.
Note: X-Pel-G can have a tendency to foam. If adding

directly to the active system, pretreating the mud with a
defoamer is recommended. If possible, prehydrate the
X-Pel-G in a separate premix tank prior to adding to the
active system.
Also, do not X-Pel-G if oil is present in the mud system.

Oil in the mud can cause the Gilsonite to “glob up”, and
may cause blinding of the shaker screens.
TDG: Not Regulated

7.14 SURFACTANTS / EMULSIFIERS
7.14.1 DRILLING DETERGENT L

DESCRIPTION: Drilling Detergent L is an anionic, surface wetting agent

(surfactant). It is a liquid, 100% soluble in water, medium blue
in colour, having a specific gravity of 1.0, a pH in the range of
7.0-8.0, and a boiling point of 105C.
APPLICATION: Drilling Detergent L is added to water based mud systems to

reduce surface tension in order to gain the following
advantages:
1. Promotes solids settling and reduces pump pressure.

2. Improved sampling through cleaner samples and more
distinct cuttings.
3. Increased penetration rates.
4. Reduced hole friction and torque.
5. Reduced bit balling, mud rings and cake build-up on drill
strings.
6. Reduced wear on surface mud system expendables.
7. Increased bit life.
HANDLING: Drilling Detergent L can be added directly to the mud system.
Normally used in concentrations of 0.2 - 0.6 litres/m 3. For

prevention of mud rings, Drilling Detergent L is commonly
added directly down the drill pipe at a rate of 1-2 viscosity cups
every connection. If mud rings are severe, 1-2 pails may be
added directly into the suction tank slowly over a circulation.
Drilling Detergent L can be irritating to the skin and eyes.

Inhalation may cause nausea, vomiting and dizziness. In case
of skin contact wash with water. In case of eye contact, flush
with water for 15 minutes and seek medical attention.
If ingested, induce vomiting immediately and get patient to a

physician. This product contains ethylene glycol, and lack of
attention may cause kidney and liver damage.
TDG: Not Regulated

7.14.2 HME COUPLER
DESCRIPTION: HME Coupler is a selective non-ionic surface active agent. It is

a clear liquid having a flash point of 62C.
APPLICATION: HME Coupler is a liquid emulsifier and homogenizer, used to

provide uniform particle separation, a uniform suspension, and
prevent the flotation of Asphalts and Gilsonite in water based
drilling muds. HME Coupler also functions as an effective
emulsifier for oil added to water base fluids.
The normal treatment ranges between 0.25 - 1.0 litres/m3.
HANDLING: HME Coupler should be added slowly at the mud pump suction
and making an allowance of one to two circulations before
adding the initial treatment of oil or asphaltic material. (For the
best results, always add the HME Coupler prior to the addition
of any oil or asphaltic material on a maintenance basis).
TDG: Not Regulated

7.15 CORROSION INHIBITORS
7.15.1 CORRIN O/S
DESCRIPTION: Corrin O/S is an amine blend in a hydrocarbon base. It is a

dark amber liquid with a flash point of 104C.
APPLICATION: Corrin O/S is an effective oil soluble, brine dispersible

corrosion inhibitor for all oil based drilling fluids. It is a
tenacious film forming amine that protects the drill string,
casing and rig equipment against corrosion caused by
Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S), Carbon Dioxide, organic and mineral
acids.
To film the pipe, Corrin O/S can be added directly to the mud
system as a batch treatment or by continuous injection.
Recommended concentrations are 1.0-5.0 litres/m 3. Daily
maintenance and corrosion monitoring is recommended to
optimize protection.
HANDLING: Avoid inhalation of vapours. Do not get on skin, in eyes or on

clothing. Keep container closed when not in use. Wear
suitable protection for eyes and skin when handling. Use in
well ventilated areas. Avoid contact with incompatible
materials (see MSDS).
TDG: Not regulated.

7.15.2 CORINOX (KD-700)
DESCRIPTION: Corinox (KD-700) is a neutral to basic solution which consists

of a high performance catalyst, an efficient oxygen scavenging
agent, and selective filming organic substances.
Properties of Corinox are:
Appearance and Odour: Pale blue green colour, sweet

odour
Flash Point: 150C
Freezing Point: -15C
pH 6.8-7.4
Solubility in Water: 100%
APPLICATION: Corinox (KD-700) is an unique dual purpose corrosion

prevention chemical mixture in a liquid form. It has the ability to
scavenge dissolved oxygen effectively as well as the capability
to absorb onto active corrosion sites (anodes) on drill pipe,
casing and tubing in water based fluids.
Because of its filming ability, Corinox (KD-700) can reduce or

prevent corrosion from small quantities of Carbon Dioxide
and/or Hydrogen Sulfide.
Unlike organic amines (cationic) that coat on solids, Corinox's

organic components (anionic) do not absorb on solids in the
drilling fluid, and have very little effect on the rheology of water
base drilling fluids.
Under normal conditions, for a program with a corrosion level

of about 25-30 mils per year (25-30 mpy), initially add 1 pail of
Corinox per 16 m3 of fluid to be treated.
Daily treatments of 1-2 pails are normal.
Severe corrosion, may require higher concentrations or more

frequent additions.
To assess the requirement of Corinox (KD-700) in any

condition, it is best and simplest to use a corrosion rate method
such as corrosion ring analysis, or an instantaneous corrosion
monitor(s). If high corrosion rates persist, and are determined
to be Oxygen related, supplemental additions of another
Oxygen Scavenger such as Sodium Sulfite should be made to
the system.
HANDLING: Unlike many other Oxygen Scavenger solutions, Corinox
(KD-700) does not have an obnoxious odour. It is easy to
handle. Most importantly, Corinox does not require any
cumbersome equipment such as manual or automatic injection
system, therefore it eliminates the problems of equipment
failure and the cost of equipment rental and maintenance.
Avoid Contact with Eyes, Skin and Clothing:
In case of contact, immediately wash with plenty of water.

Flush eyes with flowing water immediately and continuously for
twenty minutes. See a physician if necessary. Remove
contaminated clothes and shoes. Wash clothing before re-use.
In case of spillage, wash away with copious quantities of water.
TDG: Not Regulated

7.15.3 SAF-KOTE
DESCRIPTION: Saf-Kote is a cationic amine blend in a mineral spirit base. It is

a dark brown liquid with a flash point of 43C and a pour point
of -29C.
APPLICATION: It is an effective filming amine in all water based and oil based
drilling fluids. Saf-Kote protects the drill string, casing and rig
equipment against Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S), Carbon Dioxide or
Oxygen types of corrosion by physically absorbing to metal
surfaces.
NOTE: Due to Saf-Kote's cationic nature, it may cause

flocculation in a high solids / high density drilling fluid.
The addition of a thinner may be required.
To film the pipe, Saf-Kote should be added directly to the mud

system as a batch treatment. For added protection, it can also
be diluted 50/50 in diesel or kerosene, and sprayed on the drill
pipe.
Initially, Saf-Kote should be added in the amount of I litre/m 3 for

every 125 mg/L of H2S present in the mud. Once the initial
treatment has been made, normal daily maintenance of
5.0-20.0 litres/circulation is recommended and corrosion rates
should be monitored to optimize protection.

clothing. Keep container closed when not in use. Wear suitable
protection for eyes and skin when handling. Use with adequate
ventilation. Avoid contact with incompatible materials (see
M.S.D.S.). Store in a cool, dry, well ventilated area.
TDG: Not Regulated

7.15.4 SODIUM SULFITE
DESCRIPTION: Sodium Sulfite (Na2SO3) is a white crystalline compound

having a specific gravity of 2.63. It is soluble in water and
catalyzed using a cobaltous compound.
APPLICATION: Sodium Sulfite is used as an Oxygen Scavenger in water

based mud systems. It may also be used as an anti-oxidant to
prevent polymer degradation.
As an Oxygen Scavenger, it is added continually until the

residual Sulfite (SO3) concentration in the mud filtrate reaches
or exceeds 300 mg/L. Thereafter, this residual is maintained
with daily treatments in the order of 20-60 kg, depending on the
severity of the dissolved oxygen content in the drilling mud.
HANDLING: Sodium Sulfite readily decomposes. It is usually added at a

concentration of 1-2 sacks to a barrel of water. After mixing, the
mixture is covered with a 10-15 cm. blanket of diesel to
minimize absorption of Oxygen from the air, and slowly
pumped into the central stream of the mud pump suction with
an injection pump.
TDG: Not Regulated

7.15.5 ZINC CARBONATE
DESCRIPTION: Zinc Carbonate (ZnCO3) is a slightly soluble, white crystalline

powder of specific gravity, 4.4.
APPLICATION: Zinc Carbonate is used as an H 2S scavenger in water based

drilling muds.
As a pretreatment, concentrations vary from 2.5-14.0 kg/m 3 of

whole mud depending on the severity of the expected sour gas.
To effectively control the Carbonate added, one should add

approximately 0.25 kg. Lime for every kilogram of Zinc
Carbonate added to the mud.
About I kg/m3 Zinc Carbonate is required to remove 256 mg/L

of H2S.
Zinc Carbonate can cause rheological and alkalinity problems

in Bentonite flocculated systems or hot holes. Addition of
thinner may be required to maintain the viscosity in the desired
range.
HANDLING: Zinc Carbonate can be added directly to the mud hopper no

faster than 10-15 min’s/sack.
TDG: Not Regulated

7.16 SPECIALTY PRODUCTS

7.16.1 CAN-BREAK I
DESCRIPTION: Can-Break I is a water soluble chemical breaker for Organic

Polymers. It is a free flowing white powder.
APPLICATION: Can-Break I is a blend of Oxidizers designed to react with and

degrade Organic Polymers. Can-Break I is specially designed
to work in fluids with temperatures above 40C.
Can-Break I should be added to the mud system over one

complete circulation so that it will be dispersed evenly
throughout the entire system. Regular dosage rates of
2.5-3.5 kg/m3 will usually reduce viscosity within 24 hours.
Can-Break I also provides a clean, economical method of

reducing viscosity in Polymer systems when separation of the
liquid and solid phase is required for disposal.
HANDLING: Can-Break I can be added directly to the mud system through

the mixing hopper.
Avoid contact with eyes, skin and clothing.
In case of contact, immediately flush with copious amounts of

water. Flush eyes with flowing water immediately and
continuously for 20 minutes. See a physician if necessary.
Remove contaminated clothes and shoes. Wash clothes
before re-use.
NOTE: Do not mix with organic solvents or oil.
WHMIS: Controlled (see M.S.D.S.).
TDG: Regulated (see M.S.D.S.)
PACKAGING: 50lb. multi-wall paper bag.

7.16.2 CAN-BREAK EBS
DESCRIPTION: Can-Break EBS is a water soluble chemical breaker for

Organic Polymers. It is a free flowing white powder.
APPLICATION: Can-Break EBS is an enzyme blend designed to breakdown

and consume most Polymer chains excluding Xanthan gums
(Kelzan XCD). Can-Break EBS works best in systems where
downhole temperatures are below 60C, and the pH of the fluid
has been reduced to 5.0 or below.
Can-Break EBS should be added to the mud system over one

complete circulation so that it will be dispersed evenly
throughout the entire system. Regular dosage rates of
2.5-3.5 kg/m3 will usually reduce viscosity within 24 hours.
Can-Break EBS also provides a clean, economical method of

reducing viscosity in Polymer systems when separation of the
liquid and solid phase is required for disposal.
NOTE: Will not break Kelzan XCD Polymer.
HANDLING: Can-Break EBS can be added directly to the mud system

through the mixing hopper.
Avoid contact with eyes, skin and clothing.
In case of contact, immediately flush with copious amounts of

water. Flush eyes with flowing water immediately and
continuously for 20 minutes. See a physician if necessary.
Remove contaminated clothes and shoes. Wash clothes
before re-use.
WHMIS: Controlled (see M.S.D.S.).
TDG: Not regulated.
PACKAGING: 50 lb. multi-wall paper bag.

7.16.3 CHEM-FOAM
DESCRIPTION: Chem-Foam is a blend of surfactants designed for maximum

foam height and life in all types of waters. Chem-Foam is a
special derivative of a sodium fatty alcohol ethoxy sulphate,
blended with amphoterics, solubilizers, and water.
APPLICATION: Chem-Foam may be used for foam drilling in fresh or brackish

water, and is compatible with up to 15% hydrocarbon
combination. Chem-Foam is easily dispersible in water. It
produces high foam volumes in fresh or brackish, and waters
contaminated with hydrocarbons. Chem-Foam also has high
solids and hydrocarbon tolerance.
FOAM PROPERTIES: Typical properties in fresh water:
Foam height: 5.8 times initial volume

Foam density: 159.5 kg/m3
Foam half life: 6 minutes 20 seconds
The above properties are based on using 0.5% concentration

by volume of base water. Foam properties may be significantly
enhanced by the addition of 0.07% by weight of HEC
(Hydroxyethyl Cellulose) to the base fluid.
Normal use concentration:
Fresh water: 0.3 to 0.7% by volume

6% salt water: 0.3 to 0.7% by volume
13% Sodium Chloride: 0.4 to 0.8% by volume
HANDLING: Add directly to make-up water with mild agitation to ensure

even mixing, or inject directly into water line with a chemical
pump, capable of metering proper treatment levels. If
Polymers are to be used, premix them in the make up water.
WHMIS: Controlled
TDG: Regulated

7.16.4 EMUL-BREAK
DESCRIPTION: Emul-Break is a surface active Polymer and demulsifier. It is

an ambered coloured liquid with an aromatic odour. Emul-
Break is a respiratory and digestive tract irritant that should be
handled with care (see M.S.D.S.).
APPLICATION: Emul-Break is a general purpose batching demulsifier chemical

for problem emulsions, production stimulation, and anti-sludge
applications. This product is designed to rapidly break
particularly stable water in oil emulsions. Emul-Break is also
designed for use in a hydrocarbon squeeze for emulsion block
removal to stimulate a damaged well.
For Drilling Fluids:
An addition rate of 0.25-1.0 litres/m 3 of drilling mud is

recommended. Higher addition rates may be necessary for
difficult situations but the possibility of a potential foaming
problem exits with increased concentrations. Pretreat the
system with 3-5 pails of XL or Silicone Defoamer prior to
increased additions of Emul-Break.
For Well Stimulation:
Emul-Break will stimulate oil production by reducing interfacial

tension between oil, water and the producing formation. This
product will remove emulsion blocks and also act as a sludge
dispersant in removing solid particles.
For emulsion block removal or prevention, we recommend the

use of Emul-Break at 1.0-5.0% in a hydrocarbon solvent.
HANDLING: Emul-Break can be added directly to the mud, either on surface

or through the mixing system.
Avoid inhalation of vapours. Do not get on skin, in eyes or on

suitable protection for eyes and skin when handling. Use with
adequate ventilation. Avoid contact with incompatible materials
(see M.S.D.S.). Store in cool, dry, well ventilated area away
from sources of heat, ignition and sparks. Use proper
grounding techniques if product is classed as flammable or
combustible. Avoid natural rubbers, use neoprene.

7.17 OIL MUD PRODUCTS
7.17.1 BARAGEL 3000

DESCRIPTION: A light cream coloured organically modified Bentonite clay,

capable of producing high YP/PV ratios and gel strengths in
diesel oil, crude oil and mineral oils with, or without a polar
(water) activator.
Baragel 3000 is easily dispersed and provides most of its yield

in one circulation with the use of conventional mixing
equipment.
APPLICATION: Baragel 3000 is an effective viscosifier in oil and Invert

emulsion systems. As a viscosifier in oil, it eliminates the need
for a water or brine phase, with the resultant rheological profile
closer to a water based polymer system than a typical Invert.
In Invert emulsion systems, Baragel 3000 can provide

immediate yield point and gel strengths for hole cleaning or
Barite suspension.
HANDLING: Mix directly into mud hopper. Avoid mixing too rapidly. A mask
contact with the eyes. Fresh air ventilation should be provided
in the mixing area.
TDG: Not Regulated

7.17.2 CALCIUM CHLORIDE 94% (HT Powder, Peladow)
DESCRIPTION: Calcium chloride 94% (CaCl2) is a basic manufactured salt

which is hygroscopic and highly soluble in water.
Appearance: white to off white

Solubility (20C): 745 g/L
Melting Point: 772C
Min. % CaCl2: 94
Passing #10 Sieve: 99
Passing #20 Sieve: 80
APPLICATION: Calcium chloride (94 %) has a wide variety of oilfield uses. It is

used as:
- a salinity source in oil mud

- a completion/workover fluid
- a packer fluid
- an accelerator for oilwell cement (up to 4% wt.
cement)
HANDLING: Calcium chloride 94% can be added directly through the

hopper or pre-dissolved in a chemical barrel or cement mix-
water tank prior to use.
Use good industrial hygiene practice to avoid eye and excess

skin contact. Wear a protective dust mask and goggles when
handling and mixing.
Store in a cool, dry place and keep container tightly closed

when not in use. Failure to store material properly may result
in caking or wetness from atmospheric moisture.
WHMIS:: Controlled (See M.S.D.S.)
TDG: Not Regulated
PACKAGING: Calcium Chloride (HT Powder), 40 kg sack

Peladow (pellet), 25 kg sack
7.17.3 CHEMOIL PRODUCTS
BASE OILS: The types of crude used should be the light green and brown oils.
Black crude should be avoided, as it could take up to six times more
product to viscosify. Diesel oil and/or distillates can be used if the flash
points are acceptable.
GROUPS: The two basic products are CHEMOIL-GEL and CHEMOIL-LINK. The
Gellant CHEMOIL-GEL is a metallic silicone derivative and is used in
concentrations of 1.5 to 9.0 litres/m 3. The nominal concentration is
about 3.0 litres/m3. These concentrations are dependent on the type of
oil to be gelled.
The activator for the Gellant is CHEMOIL-LINK. This is a phosphate

ester derivative. It must be used at the same concentration as the
CHEMOIL-GEL. For every litre per cubic metre of Gellant, use a litre of
activator.
Prior to mixing the Gellant and activator, add the buffering agent,
CHEMOIL-BUFF. Recommended use, 0.75 to 1.5 litres/m 3. If
premixed in a liquid mud plant, 0.75 litres/m 3 may be sufficient. After
the buffering agent has been added, begin to add the Gellant and
activator. It will take approximately six to ten (6-10) hours to reach the
full yield. If a faster yield time is required, add more buffering agent.
Again, pilot testing is a must for each crude being used.
The product CHEMOIL-pH is a strong acid buffering agent containing

Phosphoric Acid. Use CHEMOIL-pH if encountering alkaline material
such as Calcium Carbonates. It is also used prior to weighting up with
Calcium Carbonates. Chemoil-pH may also be used if a rapid boost in
the yield point is required. This would be in lieu of adding more Gellant
and activator. Pilot testing is strongly recommended.
CHEMOIL-THIN is a weakly alkaline material capable of gently thinning

back the system if no CHEMOIL-pH has been used. If CHEMOIL-pH
has been used, it must be neutralized with CHEMOIL-BREAK prior to
adding CHEMOIL-THIN. Since there are minor differences between
batches when these products are made, it is always a good idea to
titrate the CHEMOIL-pH with the CHEMOIL-BREAK, to determine how
much breaker is required to neutralize the CHEMOIL-pH.
CHEMOIL-BREAK is used to break the CHEMOIL system back to the

base oil. Use the minimum amount to break the system. This will
require pilot testing prior to adding the breaker. Once broken, the oil
can be easily separated from the colloidal drill solids, which may be
carried in the CHEMOIL system. If the system is NOT over treated with
CHEMOIL-BREAK, the crude may be re-gelled by adding either
CHEMOIL-BUFF to neutralize the breaker, or by adding CHEMOIL-pH.
The CHEMOIL-DFM Defoamer is a silicone based defoaming agent. It

will require a small amount to effectively defoam the CHEMOIL system.
CHEMOIL system does not follow the traditional Bingham plastic
model. Experience has shown that lower yields in the range of 2.5 to
4.0 Pa. are more than sufficient to clean the hole in horizontal wells.
This is a highly elastic fluid and behaves differently than conventional
polymer systems. Hole cleaning is a function of the elastic modules,
rather from the traditional Yield Point. The optimum range for hole
cleaning is 3.0 to 6.0 litres/m3 of Gellant and activator.
PRECAUTIONS: Do not use Zinc-based pipe dope, Zinc Carbonates, or Zinc Oxide.
Use Copper Kote or equivalent for pipe dope. The Zinc will kill the
viscosifier and the viscosity will not be recoverable.
Do NOT drill cement with this system. When drilling out the shoe
or doing squeezes, use water or a water-based system.
Do not add any alkaline material like amines or other scavengers

for H2S.
Pilot testing is very important. Always pilot test before making

any additions or modifications, this eliminates surprises.
WHMIS: All Chemoil products are controlled (See M.S.D.S.)
TDG: Chemoil-Break (regulated)

Chemoil-Buff (not regulated)
Chemoil-DFM (regulated)
Chemoil-Gel (not regulated)
Chemoil-Link (regulated)
Chemoil-pH (regulated)
Chemoil-Thin (not regulated)
PACKAGING: 20 litre pails

7.17.4 CHEMUL I
DESCRIPTION: Chemul-I is a primary oil mud emulsifier, and is a blend of

stabilized fatty acids in liquid form, that reacts with Hot Lime to
form a soap-based emulsifier.
PHYSICAL
PROPERTIES: Form - Dark brown liquid
Specific gravity 0.90 g/cc
Flash point 65C
APPLICATION: Chemul-I forms a stable water-in-oil emulsion when it is added

to oil and water mixtures with Hot Lime and proper agitation.
BENEFITS: 1. Provides suitable emulsion stability.

2. Compatible with other primary and
supplemental emulsifiers.
3. Develops good rheological properties.
4. Higher concentrations improves filtration control.
NORMAL
TREATMENT: Oil mud systems using Chemul-I are easily prepared using the
proper amounts of oil, water, Chemul-I and electrolytes to form
a tight emulsion.
The standard system uses 25.0 to 35.0 litres/m3 of Chemul-I

with equal parts of Hot Lime.
The “lite” system uses 9.0-17.0 litres/m 3 of Chemul-I with equal

parts of Hot Lime. In this system, Chemul-II becomes the
supplemental emulsifier.
TDG: Not Regulated
PACKAGING: 20 litre pail ( 18 kg. net product weight)

7.17.5 CHEMUL II
DESCRIPTION: Chemul-II is a secondary oil mud emulsifier and is a sulfonated

amino amine, blended with wetting agents to be used as a co-
emulsifier with Chemul-I.
PHYSICAL
PROPERTIES: Form - Viscous amber liquid
Specific gravity 0.945 g/cc
Flash point 20C
COMPOSITION: Chemul-II is a concentrated blend of sulfonated amino amine

derivatives containing oil wetting agents. The product is
designed to be used with Chemul-I or other similar primary
emulsifiers. The carrier used in this product is non-toxic and
non-hazardous.
APPLICATION: Chemul-II forms a stable water-in-oil emulsion when it is added

to oil and water mixtures with proper agitation.
BENEFITS: 1. Provides emulsion stability.

2. Not affected by electrolyte concentrations in water phase.
3. Compatible with other primary and supplemental
emulsifiers.
4. Maintains good rheological properties.
5. Imparts high temperature stability.
6. May be used as an oil wetting surfactant.
NORMAL
TREATMENT: Oil mud systems using Chemul-II are easily prepared using the
proper amount of oil, water, and electrolytes to form a tight
emulsion.
The standard system uses 4.0-10.0 litres/m3 of Chemul-II.
The “lite” system uses 8.0-16.0 litres/m 3 of Chemul-II. In this

system, Chemul-I becomes the supplemental emulsifier.
PACKAGING: 20 litre pail (19 kg. net product weight)

7.17.6 CHEMWET-OM
DESCRIPTION: Chemwet-OM is a blend of alkanolamides and phospholipids

used as an oil wetting agent. This product is designed to be
used in a Chemul or other compatible oil mud systems.
PHYSICAL
PROPERTIES: Form - Viscous amber liquid
Specific gravity: 0.97g/cc
Flash point 65C
APPLICATION: Chemwet-OM is a surfactant blend which improves oil wetting

properties of oil mud systems. The product efficiently oil wets
drill solids and weight material carried in an oil mud system.
BENEFITS: 1. Provides emulsion stability.

2. Not affected by electrolyte concentrations in water phase.
3. Compatible with other primary and secondary emulsifiers.
4. Improves rheological properties.
5. Is able to oil-wet water-wet drill solids.
6. May improve filtration properties.
NORMAL
TREATMENT: Oil mud systems use 0.3 to 3.0 litres/m 3 of Chemwet-OM. The
product is used as required for maintaining proper rheological
and fluid loss properties when solids tend to become water
wet.
TDG: Not regulated
PACKAGING: 20 litre pail (19.5 kg net product weight)

7.17.7 CORRIN O/S
DESCRIPTION: Corrin O/S is an amine blend in a hydrocarbon base. It is a

dark amber liquid with a flash point of 104C.
APPLICATION: Corrin O/S is an effective oil soluble, brine dispersible

corrosion inhibitor for all oil based drilling fluids. It is a
tenacious film forming amine that protects the drill string,
casing and rig equipment against corrosion caused by
Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S), Carbon Dioxide, organic and mineral
acids.
To film the pipe Corrin O/S, can be added directly to the mud
system as a batch treatment or by continuous injection.
Recommended concentrations are 1.0-5.0 litres/m 3. Daily
maintenance and corrosion monitoring is recommended to
optimize protection.

suitable protection for eyes and skin when handling. Use in
well ventilated areas. Avoid contact with incompatible
materials (see MSDS).
TDG: Not regulated.

7.17.8 GILSONITE HT PULVERIZED
DESCRIPTION: Gilsonite HT Pulverized is a naturally occurring black, solid

hydrocarbon. It is mined and ground to the desired particle
size.
Typical Physical Properties:
Appearance: black solid

Moisture: 1.0%
Ash: <3.0%
Sulphur Content: 0.3%
Softening Point: >205C
(ASTM E28-92)
Flash Point: 316C
Particle Size:
Tyler % Retained
Mesh (Cumulative)
+10(1700 microns) 5
+35(500 microns) 40
+65(212 microns) 55
+100(150 microns) 70
APPLICATION: Gilsonite HT Pulverized is used to control API and HT-HP fluid

loss in oil base drilling fluids. When mixed with Organophillic
clays, its particular grind size and softening point are ideal for
reducing whole mud losses to the formation. Gilsonite HT
Pulverized is only partially soluble in aromatic hydrocarbons.
Recommended treatment 10.0-30.0 kg/m3.

HANDLING: Gilsonite HT Pulverized is relatively stable and of low hazard.
However it should not be stored or used near strong oxidizing
agents such as chlorates, nitrates or peroxides. Excessive dust
is subject to combustion or explosion upon contact with spark
or open flame, and should be minimized. Use good industrial
hygiene practice to avoid eye and excess skin contact. Wear a
protective dust mask and goggles when handling and mixing.
WHMIS : Not controlled.
TDG: Not regulated.
PACKAGING: 50 lb. multi-wall paper sack. Return to Table of Contents

7.17.9 OILGEL 3000
DESCRIPTION: A light cream coloured organically modified Bentonite clay,

capable of producing high YP/PV ratios and gel strengths in
diesel oil, crude oil and mineral oils with or without a polar
(water) activator.
Oilgel 3000 is easily dispersed and provides most of its yield in

one circulation with the use of conventional mixing equipment.
APPLICATION: Oilgel 3000 is an effective viscosifier in oil and Invert emulsion

systems. As a viscosifier in oil, it eliminates the need for a
water or brine phase, with the resultant rheological profile
closer to a water based polymer system than a typical Invert.
In Invert emulsion systems, Oilgel 3000 can provide immediate
Yield Point and Gel Strengths for hole cleaning or Barite
suspension.
Normal concentrations: 10.0-15.0 kg/m3
HANDLING: Mix directly into mud hopper. Avoid mixing too rapidly. A mask
contact with the eyes. Fresh air ventilation should be provided
in the mixing area.
TDG: Not regulated.

7.17.10 OMV-100
DESCRIPTION: A tan colored organophillic clay used to develop gel strength

and adjust rheological properties of an oil base fluid.
APPLICATION: The concentration of OMV-100 required depends on the

oil/water ratio and density of the system. A fluid with a higher
oil/water ratio (i.e.: 90/10) will require more OMV-100 than a
fluid with lower oil/water ratio (i.e.: 70/30). A higher density
fluid will generally require less than low density fluids.
In water free oil base systems small amounts of polar additive,

such as methanol, may be required to produce full yield.
Generally, concentrations will be in the range of 3.0-14.0
kg/m3.
HANDLING: Mix directly through the mud hopper. Avoid mixing too rapidly.
A mask and goggles must be worn to prevent inhalation of dust
and contact with the eyes. Fresh air ventilation should be
provided in the mixing area.
TDG: Not Regulated

7.17.11 PROCESSED (Hot, Quick) LIME
DESCRIPTION: Calcium Oxide (CaO) is a greyish white powder. It is

commonly known as “Quick Lime” or “Hot Lime”.
APPLICATION: The principal use for Processed Lime is in oil base systems for
fluid property control. It converts the fatty acid emulsifiers to
Calcium base soaps.
Physical Properties:
CaO: 94%
pH: 12+
Specific gravity: 3.2-3.4
Boiling point: 2850C
Acid insolubles: 2%
MgO: 2%
HANDLING: Mix directly into system slowly through mud hopper or at point
of agitation. Avoid contact with water and store in a cool, dry
place.
Caution: Contact with water generates a large amount of

heat and resulting solution has a high pH which may
cause burns.
WHMIS: Controlled
TDG: Not regulated

7.17.12 ULTRA SEAL (“XP”, “C”, “PLUS”)
DESCRIPTION: Ultra Seal is a blend of specific micro-sized cellulose fibers,

combined with a blend of organic polymers and lubricity
enhancers. It is a light tan powder that is insoluble in water.
APPLICATION: Ultra Seal is generally used for controlling seepage and/or

whole mud losses while drilling through depleted or under
pressured zones. It may also be added as a fine bridging
agent in mixtures of lost circulation pills.
Ultra Seal-XP is the fine grind material that is most effective for
controlling seepage and providing protection against differential
sticking. It can be added evenly throughout the system in
concentrations of 10.0-25.0 kg/m3. For applications such as
sweeps or pills, concentrations as high as 85.0 kg/m 3 may be
required.
Ultra Seal-C is a coarser grind material effective in situations

where whole mud losses are prevalent. Recommended
usage’s are the same as Ultra Seal-XP and a combination of
Ultra Seal-XP and Ultra Seal-C may be necessary to provide a
broader particle size distribution.
Ultra Seal-Plus is a combination of Ultra Seal-XP and Ultra

Seal-C in addition to a larger proprietary sealing agent for total
loss circulation. Concentrations of 55.0-170.0 kg/m 3 mixed in
15.0 m3 pills are recommended for spotting across the thief
zone.
HANDLING: Ultra Seal can be mixed through the mud hopper or directly into
the mud system at a point of agitation.
Note: A dust hazard is present while Ultra Seal is being

mixed.
TDG: Not regulated.
PACKAGING: Ultra Seal-XP - 25 lb. sack.

Ultra Seal-C - 25 lb. sack.
Ultra Seal-Plus - 40 lb. sack. Return to Table of Contents
Chapter 8 Environmental Information
8.1 EUB (Energy Utilities Board) Regulations 1

8.1.1 SAMPLING AND ANALYTICAL REQUIREMENTS 1
8.1.2 DISPOSAL CRITERIA 1
8.1.3 MICROTOX BIOASSAY METHOD 1
8.1.4 MICROTOX PASS CRITERIA 2
8.2 DRILLING FLUID PRODUCTS “NOT” REQUIRING MICROTOX TESTING 2
8.3 WHMIS PRODUCT LIST – CONTROLLED / NOT CONTROLLED PRODUCTS 6
CHAPTER 8
ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION
Advantage Mud Systems shall at all times, implement a sound and positive attitude towards the
use of environmentally friendly chemicals, and drilling fluid systems in all levels in the company.
8.1 EUB (Energy Utilities Board) Regulations Return to Table of Contents
8.1.1 SAMPLING AND ANALYTICAL REQUIREMENTS
Following removal of any recoverable oil, liquids are to be analyzed for pH, specific
conductance, suspended solids, Nitrogen, and major ions. The Sodium Absorption Ratio (SAR)
will also be calculated. In addition to these parameters, a bioassay test must be conducted to
determine the degree of biological toxicity in the fluid.
Solids are to be analyzed for bulk density, water content, texture, pH, electrical
conductivity (EC), oil content, major ions, and the SAR must be calculated. No toxicity
test is required for the solid component of the drilling waste stream at this time.
Selected metals analysis of the solids is required if those metals have been added to the waste
in excess of specified amounts, if the well depth exceeds 2300 metres, or if a land surface area
less than 0.75 hectares will be used for disposal.
If the wastes are to be land spread, the receiving soil must be analyzed for pH, EC, major ions
and the SAR must be calculated prior to disposal.
Methods for sampling and analysis, and submission of results are available should they be
required.
8.1.2 DISPOSAL CRITERIA Return to Table of Contents
Mix / bury / cover or land spreading (surface disposal) of drilling wastes are likely to remain the
two methods used for routine disposal. Specific criteria that set loading rates and cumulative
limits have been developed for these two methods for both liquids and solids.
Other disposal options and procedures will be considered by the regulatory agencies if a
detailed plan is provided that will meet the goal of environmental protection and assist in
meeting reclamation requirements. Subsurface disposal of fluids is still allowed in accordance
with ERCB (EUB) Interim Directive ID 81-1.
8.1.3 MICROTOX BIOASSAY METHOD Return to Table of Contents
MICROTOX BIOASSAY METHOD LABORATORY TREATMENT OPTIONS:

All sump fluids being considered for disposal are required to have a Microtox bioassay
performed to determine a toxic response, as outlined in the Interim Directive ID 93-1
Drilling Waste Disposal Guidelines.
For sump fluid samples which demonstrate a toxic response during the initial screening,
appropriate laboratory treatment and re-testing is to be performed to provide additional
information regarding the nature and probable cause of the observed toxicity.
Laboratory treatment options include the following:
1. Charcoal Treatment:
Will assist in determining whether the toxic components in the sample will adsorb in similar
environmental conditions following disposal.
2. Sample Aeration:
Will indicate that the toxic components can be oxidized, volatilized or degassed.
3. Sample Filtration:
Will indicate that the toxic components can be absorbed onto a filtering medium.
8.1.4 MICROTOX PASS CRITERIA
EC 20 EC 50 Toxicity Trout Bioassay

0 – 30 0 – 50 Toxic Dead fish
30 – 50 50 – 90 Slight toxicity Some fish dead at “x”
hours or orientation
> 50 > 90 No significant effect – Fish OK at 96 hours
passes
Any sample pH adjustments and sample clarification techniques (decantation, centrifuging,

removal of hydrocarbons) prior to analysis must be indicated when the analysis results are
reported. Any laboratory treatment options as described previously (charcoal, aeration,
filtration) which were carried out, must also be reported.
8.2 DRILLING FLUID PRODUCTS “NOT” REQUIRING MICROTOX TESTING

ABI HIGH YIELD GEL ALCOMER 507

ALCOFLOOD 1135 ALCOMER 72
ALCOFLOOD 1175 ALCOMER 72L
ALCOFLOOD 1275 ALCOMER 74
ALCOFLOOD 2545 ALCOMER 74L
ALCOFLOOD 935 ALLIED COLLOIDS DP9-5962A
ALCOLMER 242 ALUMINUM STERATE
ALCOMER 110RD ALUMINUM SULPHATE
ALCOMER 120L AMMONIUM NITRATE
ALCOMER 228 AMMONIUM SULPHATE
ALCOMER 274 AQUAGEL
AQUAGOLD SEAL CITRIC ACID
AQUAPAC CMC
BARAGEL 3000 CMTH
BARAZAN CMTH 2
BARITE CORINOX
BAROID COTTON SEEDS
BAROID PAC DESCO CF
BAROSEAL DEXTRID
BAR-PLUS DIASEAL M
BENEX DRIL DOKTOR
BENTONE 34 DRILLING DETERGENT L
BENTONITE DRILLING DETERGENT P
BENTONITE FS 30 DRILLING PAPER
BICARBONATE OF SODA DRILLPAC HV
BIOLOSE DRILL-TEX
BIOZAN DRISCOSE
BRIDGESAL FINE DRISPAC PLUS REGULAR
BRIDGESAL PLUS DRISPAC PLUS SUPER LO
BRIDGET X-COARSE DRISPAC REGULAR
BRIDGET X-FINE DRISPAC SUPERLO
BRIDGIT COARSE DUROGEL
BRIDGIT GRANDE COARSE EMERALD SEAL
BRIDGIT GRANDE FINE EMUL-BREAK
BRIDGIT GRANDE MEDIUM ENVIROFLOC
BRIDGIT MEDIUM ENVIROPLUG
BRIDGIT MICRO ENVIROTHIN
BRINEWATE FEDERAL GEL
CALCIUM FEDERAL GRANULAR
CALCIUM ACETATE FEDERAL JEL 90
CALCIUM CHLORIDE FEDERAL JEL NATURAL
CALCIUM CHLORIDE (FLAKE) FEDERAL NATURAL EXT
CALCIUM CHLORIDE (POWDER) FEDERAL TAC-BOND
CALCIUM HYPOCHLORITE FER-OX
CALCIUM LIGNOSULFONATE FILTRON
CALCIUM NITRATE FLAKES
CALCUM CARBONATE FLC
CAN FREE GELTONE 2
CANE FIBER GILSONITE
CANEX GLASS BEADS
CARBONOX GRAPHITE
CARBWATE GUAR GUM
CARTERSLUG GYPSUM
CAUSTIC LIGNOSULFONATE HEC
CAUSTIC POTASH HEC 10
CAUSTIC SODA HEMATITE
CEDAR FIBER HME COUPLER
CELLOPHANE HOT LIME
CF-II INVERT SEAL
KELZAN XC POLYMER PERCOL 402
KELZAN XCD POLYMER PERCOL 403
KIM MUD PERCOL 406
KWIK SEAL PERCOL 408
LIGNITE PERCOL 709
LIGNOSITE 458 PERCOL 721
LIGNOSULFONATE CF PERCOL 722
LIME PERCOL 728
LITE PLUG PERCOL 737
LITE PLUG FINE PERCOL 757
LITEPLUG X PERCOL 764
LITESAL PERCOL 765
LITESAL XCP PERCOL 766
LO-WATE PERCOL 767
MAXPAC PERCOL 787
MF-1 PERCOL 788N
MF-55 PERCOL 919
MI BAR PERCOL E-10
MI CMC REG PERFSEAL FINE
MI GEL PERSAL
MI MICA PH BUFFER
MI PAC (R) PH6
MI PAC (UL) PHENO-SEAL
MI SEAL PLUGSAL
MICA PLUGSAL X
MICA (F,M,C) PLUGSAL XC
MIL-TEMP PLUS 5
M-I-X POLYPAC
M-I-X FINE POLYPAC UL
M-I-X II FINE POLYSEAL
MIXICAL POTASSIUM CARBONATE
NATURAL GEL POTASSIUM CHLORIDE
NEW THIN POTASSIUM HYDROXIDE
NUT PLUG POTASSIUM LIGNITE
O.S.S. PILL POTASSIUM SULFATE
OMV-100 PREMIUM GEL
OYSTER SHELLS PRIMA SEAL
PAC PLUS QUICK GEL
PAC PLUS UL RAPIDSET
PEERCOL E-24 SAFE-KOTE
PELADOW (CALCIUM CHLORIDE) SALT
PELTHINZ CF SALT GEL
PERCOL 156 SANHEAL PILL
PERCOL 292 SAPP
PERCOL 338 SAWDUST
PERCOL 351 SEA MUD
PERCOL 368 SEALIT
PERCOL 371 SIMPLE SEAL
SINGLE SEAL TANNATHIN
SLUGHEAL THIK QUIK
SLUGHEAL MICRO THIK QUIK L
SODA ASH TS 301
SODIUM BICARBONATE ULTRA SEAL C
SODIUM HYDROXIDE ULTRA SEAL XP
SODIUM LIGNOSULFONATE ULTRASEAL PLUS
SOLTEX WALNUT
SOLUBRIDGE WALNUT (F,M,C)
SOLUBRIDGE COARSE WALNUT SHELLS
SOLUBRIDGE FINE WATESAL
SOLUBRIDGE MICRO WATESAL COURSE
SPERSENE CF WL-100
STABLE-K WYOMING GEL
STAFLO XANVIS
STAFLO REG & EXLO SUPREME XANVIS L
STANDRILL XL DEFAOMER
STARCH X-PEL-G

8.3 WHMIS PRODUCT LIST – CONTROLLED / NOT CONTROLLED PRODUCTS
CONTOLLED PRODUCTS NON-CONTOLLED PRODUCTS

ABI High Yield Gel Dril-Tex 2K7 Water Paks Gypsum
Alcomer 120-L Emul-Break Activated Carbon HEC-10
Alkafloc 173 Enkapsafloc Alcomer 60RD Kelzan XCD
Alum Enviroplug Medium Alcomer 72L Lignocal
Calcium Chloride Flake Enviroplug No. 8 Alcomer 74 Mica (F,M,C)
Calcium Chloride HT Extra High Yield Alcomer 110RD Mud Floc II
94-97% Bentonite
Calcium Chloride Graphite Alcomer 120P Nut Shell
Powder
Can-Break EBS HME Coupler AlkaPam (A-1103D) Percol 156, 338, 351
Can-Break I HSO 0600G AlkaPam (A-1703D) Pol-E-Flake
Can Free Hydrated Lime AlkaPam C-1803 Potassium Chloride
Caustic Potash K2 AlkaPam N-1003D Potassium Sulfate
Caustic Soda Magnesium Oxide Aluminum Sterate Prima Seal (F,M,C)
Chem Foam Natural Gel Barite (Sparton) Salt
(Bentonite)
Chemoil-Break Oilgel 3000 Biozan SAPP
Chemoil-Buff OMV-100 Calcium Carbonate Sawdust
Chemoil-DFM Percol 728, 757 Can-ex Sodium Bicarbonate
Chemoil-Gel Processed Lime Cellophane Staflo-R
Chemoil-Link Saf-Kote Chemcide Staflo – Exlo Supreme
Chemoil-pH Salt Gel CMC Reg. Pure Starpak DP
Chemoil-Thin Soda Ash Cypan T-352 Biocide
Chemul-I Sodium Dril-Doktor Thin-Tex
Hypochlorite 12%
Chemul-II Sodium Sulfite – Drilstar HT Torq-Lube
Catalyzed
Chemwet-OM Soltex Drilstar (Yellow Starch) Xanthum Gum HD
Citric Acid Starlose Drispac Polymer Ultra Seal
Corinox Sulphamic Acid Envirofloc Walnut
Corrin O/S SuperLig Gilsonite HT Xanvis
Defoamer Silicone Torq 2000 Glass Beads XL Defoamer
Desco CF Torq-Trol II Guar Gum Zinc Carbonate
Drilling Detergent L Ultrasorb
Drilling Detergent P Wyoming Gel
Updated May 17, 1999

Chapter 9 Hydraulics Return to Table of Contents
TOPICS PAGE
9.1 INTRODUCTION 1
9.2 VISCOSITY 1
9.3 FLUID MODELS 1
9.3.1 BINGHAM PLASTIC FLUID MODEL 1
9.3.2 POWER LAW FLUID MODEL 2
9.4 LAMINAR / TURBULENT FLOW 3
9.4.1 CRITICAL ANNULAR VELOCITY 4
9.4.2 REYNOLDS NUMBER 4
9.5 PRESSURE LOSS 4
9.5 JET NOZZLE VELOCITY 5
9.6 JET IMPACT FORCE – HYDRAULIC POWER 5
9.7 SURGE AND SWAB PRESSURES 6
9.8 SLIP / TRANSPORT VELOCITY 6
9.9 HYDRAULIC FORMULAS 6
9.9.1 LOW SHEAR RATE RANGE: “n” AND “K” VALUES (Annulus Equations) 6
9.9.2 PLASTIC VISCOSITY AND YIELD POINT 7
9.9.3 PUMP OUTPUT (m3/min) – 100% EFFICIENCY 7
9.9.4 ANNULAR VELOCITY 7
9.9.5 VELOCITY (m/min) – PIPE FLOW 8
9.9.6 CRITICAL VELOCITY (m/min) – ANNULUS 8
9.9.7 SHEAR RATE (sec-1) – ANNULUS 8
9.9.8 SHEAR STRESS (Pa) 9
9.9.9 EQUIVALENT VISCOSITY (mPa.s) 9
9.9.10 REYNOLDS NUMBER – ANNULUS 9
9.9.11 PRESSURE LOSS (kPa) – ANNULUS 10
9.9.12 PRESSURE LOSS (kPa) – PIPE FLOW 10
9.9.13 PRESSURE LOSS (kPa) – SURFACE EQUIPMENT 11
9.9.14 PRESSURE AVAILABLE FOR NOZZLE SELECTION (kPa) 11
9.9.15 BIT PRESSURE LOSS (kPa) 11
9.9.16 BIT NOZZLE VELOCITY (m/sec) 12
9.9.17 HYDRAULIC POWER AT THE BIT (Kilowatts – KW) 12
9.9.18 JET IMPACT FORCE (N) 12
9.9.19 EQUIVALENT CIRCULATING DENSITY (kg/m3) 12
9.9.20 SLIP VELOCITY (m/min 13
9.9.21 TRANSPORT VELOCITY (m/min) 13
9.9.22 ANNULAR VELOCITY (m/min) – TRIPPING 14
9.9.23 SURGE OR SWAB PRESSURE (kPa) 14
9.9.24 MUD DENSITY CHANGE DUE TO SURGE OR SWAB PRESSURES (kg/m3) 15
CHAPTER 9
HYDRAULICS
9.1 INTRODUCTION Return to Table of Contents
The primary function of a drilling fluid is to remove drilled cuttings from the wellbore. This is
accomplished by flowing the fluid upward in the annulus faster than the rate at which the
cuttings would otherwise fall. The flow rate or annular velocity is limited by the output of the
pump as well as pressure and formation considerations. However, the rate at which cuttings fall
in a fluid can be reduced by increasing the viscosity and thixotropy of the fluid. The fluid
properties must be designed to work with the available system hydraulics to optimize hole
cleaning, penetration rate and minimize wellbore damage.
9.2 VISCOSITY Return to Table of Contents
The viscosity of a fluid is the ratio of shear stress to shear rate. Shear stress ( ) is the
resistance of a fluid to an applied rate of shear, and can be related to pump pressure. The
amount of force applied to a fluid determines the shear rate (), which is related to the velocity of
the fluid through a particular geometric configuration (wellbore, viscometer). Shear stress is
expressed in Pascal’s (Pa), and shear rate in reciprocal seconds (sec -1) or rpm.
Viscosity () = Shear Stress ()

Shear Rate ()
= (Viscometer Deflection X 0.511)
(rpm X 1.7034)
= Pa_
sec-1
= Pa.s
9.3 FLUID MODELS Return to Table of Contents
Most drilling fluids are considered non-Newtonian in that their viscosities change with varying
rates of shear. They also exhibit similar flow characteristics to 2 non-Newtonian fluid models
used to predict and evaluate their behavior; Bingham Plastic and Power Law (Pseudoplastic).
9.3.1 BINGHAM PLASTIC FLUID MODEL Return to Table of Contents
The flow curve for the Bingham Plastic model is a straight line passing through the 300 and 600
rpm measurement and projected to the shear stress axis. Plastic viscosity is proportional to the
slope of this line, and is a measure of the fluids' internal resistance to flow produced by inter-
particle friction. The Yield Point is the intercept on the shear stress axis and is defined as the
shear stress required to initiate flow. It can also be described as the resistance to flow produced
by the attractive forces between fluid particles. The main advantage of the Bingham model is
the simplicity in calculating PV/YP. Its disadvantage is it only describes fluid flow behavior over
the higher shear rate range of 511 to 1022 sec-1 (300 to 600 rpm Viscometer).
PV (mPa.s) = 600 - 300
 = viscometer dial reading
YP = 300 - PV
2
BINGHAM PLASTIC FLUID MODEL CURVE
VISCOMETER RPM
9.3.2 POWER LAW FLUID MODEL Return to Table of Contents
The Power Law model for pseudoplastic fluids more accurately describes fluid flow behavior in
the lower shear rate ranges normally encountered in the annulus, and is defined by the
equation:
 = Kn
 = Shear Stress (Pa)

K = Consistency Index (Pa.s)
 = Shear Rate (sec-1)
n = Power Law “n” Index (dimensionless)
The Power Law Index "n" is an indication of the degree of non-Newtonian behavior that a fluid
shows over a defined shear rate range. Newtonian fluids, such as water and oil, have an "n"
value of 1.0. As the fluid becomes more non-Newtonian or shear thinning, the "n" value
decreases from the Newtonian value of 1.0. This means that the viscosity of the drilling fluid will
decrease with increasing shear rate, and increase with a decrease in shear rate.
Lowering the "n" value improves the hole cleaning capabilities of the drilling fluid by
• Increasing the effective annular viscosity.

• Flattening the annular velocity profile which promotes laminar flow.
For lowering the “n” value, the following basic guidelines may be followed:
• Additions of Kelzan XCD Polymer.

• Additions of prehydrated Bentonite - (in K2SO4 or KCI / prehydrated Bentonite systems)
• Extending Bentonite in fresh water systems.
• Removing high "n" value materials such as drilled solids and dispersed Bentonite.
The Consistency Index "K" is the shear stress of the drilling fluid at I sec -1. Increasing the "K"
value will normally indicate an increase in hole cleaning capability. With an increase in the "K"
value, there should be a corresponding decrease in the "n" value. This can be accomplished
with the following additions:
• Additions of Kelzan XCD Polymer

• Prehydrated Bentonite is semi-flocculated mud systems ( K 2SO4 or KCl / prehydrated
systems.
• Normal drilling fluid viscosifiers
One can also raise the "K" value without changing the "n" value with the following additions:
• Barite
• Inert solids
• Bentonite
For maximum drilling performance, the "K" value should be increased while lowering the
"n" value. Raising the "K" value by raising the solids concentration is usually not
desirable or economical.
The low shear range "n" and "K" factors can be determined with a two speed viscometer by
plotting the 300 rpm reading and the initial Gel Strength. If a multi-speed viscometer is
available, plot the 6 and 100 rpm readings. The "n" value is determined as the slope of the line
drawn through these two points, and the "K" value is the shear stress intercept at 1 sec -1. The
low shear range "n" and "K" values should be used in laminar annular flow equations,
9.4 LAMINAR / TURBULENT FLOW Return to Table of Contents
Drilling fluids are assumed to be in either laminar or turbulent flow dependent on the flow rate,
flow channel dimensions, and the rheological properties of the fluid.
Laminar flow, which generally exists at the low shear rates encountered in the annulus, is the
uniform movement of fluid elements parallel to the walls of the flow channel.
Turbulent flow exists when the flow velocity exceeds a certain critical value. This flow regime is
characterized by erratic fluid particle movement. Borehole erosion and greater degradation of
drilled cuttings result from turbulent annular flow.
With the proper PV/YP or n/K ratio’s, the lifting advantages of turbulent flow can be obtained in
laminar flow.
9.4.1 CRITICAL ANNULAR VELOCITY Return to Table of Contents
The calculated critical annular velocity is the flow rate above which turbulence occurs. Below
this value the fluid may be in laminar flow or in transition flow.
9.4.2 REYNOLDS NUMBER Return to Table of Contents
Another way of assessing whether flow is in laminar or turbulent flow, is by determining

the Reynolds Number (Re).
Re = Diameter X Velocity X Density

Viscosity
With Newtonian fluids (water), "n" = 1. The transition to turbulent flow begins at approximately
2100. Above 3000 flow is fully turbulent. With non-Newtonian drilling fluids, the laminar flow
limit may be increased by reducing the "n" value.
Reynolds Number at Upper Laminar Limit vs. "n"
Re “n”
±2100 1.0
±2400 0.8
±2600 0.6
±2900 0.4
±4000 0.2
9.5 PRESSURE LOSS Return to Table of Contents
When a drilling fluid is pumped through a pipe, the pressure exerted on the drilling fluid will
decrease along the direction of flow. The amount of pressure required is in direct relation to the
length of the circulating system, fluid properties and the size of the flow channel. For constant
drilling fluid velocity, the pressure loss increases with an increase in pipe diameter. For a
constant drill pipe diameter the pressure loss will increase with an increase in the drilling fluid
velocity.
Pressure losses are calculated for the following:
• Surface equipment
• Drill pipe bore
• Drill collar bore
• Annulus by drill pipe
• Annulus by drill collars
• Through bit nozzles
Only a small percentage of the circulating pressure is lost in the annulus. The largest
percentage of the circulating pressure is lost through the pipe and bit nozzles. Total pressure
loss in a mud system is affected by the drilling fluid properties, such as mud density, Plastic
Viscosity, and Yield Point. Pressure loss values also differ for turbulent and laminar flow.
Turbulent flow generally exists in the surface equipment, inside the drill string and through the
bit nozzles. In the annulus, the drilling fluid can be either in turbulent flow or laminar flow.
9.5 JET NOZZLE VELOCITY Return to Table of Contents
Bit nozzle velocity is closely related to the cleaning action taking place at the bit. The higher the
nozzle velocity, the better the cleaning action and penetration rates. It is possible to have nozzle
velocities which are too high for the formations being drilled. When this is the case, severe hole
enlargement may take place at the bit. As a portion of the jet nozzle stream impinges on the
hole wall, high jet velocities may actually weaken the formation walls which may, at some later
time, create a sloughing problem. The following chart is a guideline for nozzle velocities in
different formations.
FORAMTION CHARACTERISTICS NOZZLE VELOCITY

(metres/sec)
Hard, Competent 115-120
Medium Hard 105-115
Fractured, Faulted 95-105
Soft, gummy, stick, fairly competent and 95-120
gauge hole not important
Soft, gummy, stick, gauge hole important 85-95
9.6 JET IMPACT FORCE – HYDRAULIC POWER Return to Table of Contents
Two factors considered important for cleaning the hole beneath the bit are jet impact force and
hydraulic power. Jet impact force is based on theory that formation is best removed from
beneath the bit when the force of the jets striking the bottom of the hole is at its maximum. This
condition can be obtained when circulation rates and bit nozzle sizes are used which cause
48% of the available pump pressure to be used to force the drilling mud through the bit nozzles.
For example, if the maximum standpipe pressure is 15,000 kPa, then 0.48 x 15,000 = 7200 kPa
would be used to force the fluid through the bit nozzles to obtain maximum impact force.
Maximum hydraulic horsepower is based on the theory that the hole is best cleaned beneath
the bit by delivering the most power to the bottom of the hole. Maximum hydraulic power below
the bit can best be obtained when circulation rates and bit nozzle sizes are used which cause
65% of the available pump pressure to be used to force the drilling mud through the bit nozzles.
For example, if the maximum standpipe pressure is 15,000 kPa, then

O.65 x 15,000 = 9,75O kPa would be used to force the drilling mud through the bit nozzles to
obtain maximum power at the bit.
9.7 SURGE AND SWAB PRESSURES Return to Table of Contents
Swab pressures occur when pulling pipe and result in a hydrostatic head reduction, which in
some cases, could be sufficient to cause a blowout. Swab pressures also develop when pipe
decelerates while running in the hole.
Surge pressures occur when running in the hole and may induce fracturing with a consequent
loss of circulation. Surge pressures are also created when breaking circulation.
The two main factors affecting surge and swab pressures are:
• The rate at which pipe is tripped.

• The drilling fluid properties.
Exact determination of these pressures requires extensive calculations. The formulas presented
for field usage calculate a single effective annular velocity using an average mud clinging
constant of 0.45. Turbulent flow is assumed with pipe velocities in excess of 60 m/min.
9.8 SLIP / TRANSPORT VELOCITY Return to Table of Contents
The rate at which a drilling fluid will carry solid particles to the surface (transport velocity),
depends on the velocity of the fluid as well as the rate at which the particle will fall through the
liquid under the influence of gravity (slip velocity).
If a hole cleaning problem exists, calculating the slip and transport velocity is beneficial
in determining what changes can be made to the fluid properties or annular velocity to
assist the removal of cuttings.
9.9 HYDRAULIC FORMULAS Return to Table of Contents
9.9.1 LOW SHEAR RATE RANGE: “n” AND “K” VALUES (Annulus Equations)
Plot 300 and 3 rpm readings
“n” value = log10 300 - log10 3

log10 511 – log10 5.1
or
“n” value = 0.5 log10 [ 300 ]

3
“K” value = Shear Stress at 1 sec-1
or
“K” value = 0.511 X 300

511n
Plot 100 and 6 rpm readings (multispeed viscometer)
“n” value = log10 100 - log10 6

log10 170 – log10 10
“K” value = Shear Stress at 1 sec-1
n = Low Shear Rate Range, “n” Value
K = Low Shear Rate Range, “K” Value
9.9.2 PLASTIC VISCOSITY AND YIELD POINT Return to Table of Contents
PV = 600 - 300
YP = 300 - PV
2
Where:
PV = Plastic Viscosity, mPa.s

YP = Yield Point, Pa
9.9.3 PUMP OUTPUT (m3/min) – 100% EFFICIENCY Return to Table of Contents
Duplex Pump:
Q = S X 1.57 X 10-9 X Ls (2Ld2 – Rd2)
Triplex Pump:
Q = S X 2.356 X 10-9 X Ls X Ld2
Where:
Q = Pump Output, m3/min

Ls = Stroke Length, mm
Ld = Liner Diameter, mm
Rd = Rod Diameter, mm
9.9.4 ANNULAR VELOCITY Return to Table of Contents
Va = 1.273 X 106 X Q
D12 – D22
Where:
Va = Annular Velocity, m/min

D1 = Hole Diameter, mm
D2 = Pipe OD, mm
9.9.5 VELOCITY (m/min) – PIPE FLOW Return to Table of Contents
Vp = Q X 106
 X di2/4
Where:
Vp = Pipe Flow Velocity, m/min

di = Inside Diameter of Pipe, mm
9.9.6 CRITICAL VELOCITY (m/min) – ANNULUS Return to Table of Contents
1
_ n
_
Vc = [ 9.02 X 10 X K ]
5 2-n
[ ( 200__) (2n + 1) ]
2-n
 ( D1–D2) (3n)
Where:
Vc = Critical Velocity Annulus, m/min

K = “K” Value
 = Fluid Density, kg/m3
n = “n” Value
D2 = Pipe OD, mm
9.9.7 SHEAR RATE (sec-1) – ANNULUS Return to Table of Contents
 = 200 X Va ( 2n+1)
D1 – D2 3n
Where:
 = Shear Rate – Annulus, sec-1

n = “n” Value
D2 = Pipe OD, mm
9.9.8 SHEAR STRESS (Pa) Return to Table of Contents
Determine shear stress () at calculated shear rate () from graph
or
 = Kn
Where:
 = Shear Stress Annulus, Pa

K = “K” Value
n = “n” Value
9.9.9 EQUIVALENT VISCOSITY (mPa.s) Return to Table of Contents
 = ( ) X 1000

Where:
 = Equivalent Viscosity – Annulus, mPa.s

 = Shear Stress – Annulus, Pa
9.9.10 REYNOLDS NUMBER – ANNULUS (See Section 9.4.2)

Re = (D1 – D2) X Va X 
(60) 
Where:
D2 = Pipe OD, mm
9.9.11 PRESSURE LOSS (kPa) – ANNULUS Return to Table of Contents
Turbulent Flow:
PL = 6.357 X 106 X 0.87 X Q1.87 X PV0.13 X L

(D1 – D2)3 X (D1 + D2)1.87
Where:
PL = Pressure Loss – Annulus, kPa

L = Pipe Length, m
D2 = Pipe OD, mm
Laminar Flow:
PL = [ (200 Va) (2n +1) ] 4 (K) (L)

(D1 – D2) (3n) (D1 – D2)
Where:
PL = Pressure Loss – Annulus, kPa

n = “n” Value
K = “K” Value
L = Pipe Length, m
D2 = Pipe OD. mm
9.9.12 PRESSURE LOSS (kPa) – PIPE FLOW Return to Table of Contents
Turbulent Flow:
PL = 5.22 X 106 X 0.85 X Q1.85 X PV0.15 X L

Di4.85
Where:
PL = Pressure Loss – Pipe Flow, kPa

 = Fluid Density , kg/m3
L = Pipe Length, m
Di = Pipe ID, mm
9.9.13 PRESSURE LOSS (kPa) – SURFACE EQUIPMENT
PL = 0.35 X SF X  X Q Return to Table of Contents
Where:
PL = Pressure Loss – Surface Equipment, kPa

SF = Surface Factor (from table)
 = Mud Density, kg/m3
STANDPIPE HOSE SWIVEL KELLY FACTOR

TYPE Length I.D. Length I.D. Length I.D. Length I.D. SF
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
1 12.2 76 13.7 51 1.2 51 12.2 57 1.0
2 12.2 89 16.8 64 1.5 57 12.2 83 0.36
3 13.7 102 16.8 76 1.5 57 12.2 83 0.22
4 13.7 102 16.8 76 1.8 76 12.2 102 0.15
9.9.14 PRESSURE AVAILABLE FOR NOZZLE SELECTION (kPa)
P = Operating Pressure – System Pressure Loss (9.9.11 / 9.9.12 / 9.9.13)
Where:
P = Pump Pressure, kPa
9.9.15 BIT PRESSURE LOSS (kPa)
BPL = 24.8 X 104 X  X Q2

(Nd12 + Nd22 + Nd32)2
Where:
BPL = Bit Pressure Loss, kPa Return to Table of Contents

Nd1 = Bit nozzle Diameter, mm
9.9.16 BIT NOZZLE VELOCITY (m/sec) Return to Table of Contents
Vn = 1.66 X 104 X Q___________

( X Nd /4) + ( X Nd22/4) + ( X Nd32/4)
1
2
Where:
Vn = Bit Nozzle Velocity, m/sec

 = Pi (3.14285)
9.9.17 HYDRAULIC POWER AT THE BIT (Kilowatts – KW)

(Where BPL = Bit Pressure Loss)
HP = BPL X Q
60
Where:
HP = Hydraulic Power at the Bit, KW

BPL = Bit Pressure Loss, kPa
9.9.18 JET IMPACT FORCE (N)

Jf =  X Q X Vn
60
Where:
Jf = Jet Impact Force, N

Vn = Bit Nozzle Velocity, m/sec
9.9.19 EQUIVALENT CIRCULATING DENSITY (kg/m3)
(Where PL = Annular Pressure Loss) Return to Table of Contents
ECD =  + PL_____
0.00981 + L
Where:
ECD = Equivalent Mud Density, kg/m3

 = Fluid Density ( kg/m3)
PL = Annular Pressure Loss, kPa
L = Pipe Length, m
9.9.20 SLIP VELOCITY (m/min) Return to Table of Contents
Laminar Flow:
Vs = Dp ( Pd - )0.667__
(2.36) (0.333) (0.333)
Where:
Vs = Slip Velocity, m/min

Dp = Particle Diameter, mm
Pd = Particle Density, 2600 kg/m3
 = Fluid Density kg/m3
Turbulent Flow:
0.5
Vs = 6.86 [ Dp (Pd - ) ]
1.5 X 
Where:

Dp = Particle Diameter, mm
Pd = Particle Density, 2600 kg/m3
 = Fluid Density kg/m3
9.9.21 TRANSPORT VELOCITY (m/min) Return to Table of Contents

Vt = Va – Vs
Where:
Vt = Transport Velocity, m/min

9.9.22 ANNULAR VELOCITY (m/min) – TRIPPING
(Where V = Pipe Running Speed, m/min) Return to Table of Contents
Float in String:
Va = [ 0.45 + (D22)__ ] (1.5 X V)

(D1 – D22)
2
Where:
Va = Annular Velocity – Tripping, m/min

D2 = Pipe OD, mm
V = Pipe Trip Velocity, m/min
Open – No Float:
Va = [ 0.45 + (D22 – Di2)__ ] (1.5 X V)

(D12 – D22 + Di2)
Where:
Va = Annular Velocity – Tripping, m/min

D2 = Pipe OD, mm
Di = Pipe ID, mm
V = Pipe Trip Velocity, m/min
9.9.23 SURGE OR SWAB PRESSURE (kPa) Return to Table of Contents
(Va – Annular Velocity Tripping Taken From 9.9.22)
Laminar Flow:
n
P= [ (200 Va) (2n +1) ] 4 (K) (L)

(D1 – D2) (3n) (D1 – D2)
Where:
P = Surge or Swab Pressure , kPa

Va = Annular Velocity Tripping, m/min
n = “n” Value
K = “K” Value
L = Pipe Length, m
D2 = Pipe OD. mm
Turbulent Flow:
P = 4.59 (10-5) X 0.8 X Va1.8 X PV0.2 X L

(D1 – D2)1.2
Where:
P = Surge or Swab Pressure, kPa

Va = Annular Velocity Tripping, m/min
L = Pipe Length, m
D2 = Pipe OD. mm
9.9.24 MUD DENSITY CHANGE DUE TO SURGE OR SWAB PRESSURES (kg/m3)
 = P____
0.00981 X L Return to Table of Contents
Where:
 = Mud Density Change due to Surge or Swab Pressure, kg/m 3

P = Surge or Swab Pressure, kPa
L = Pipe Length, m
Chapter 10 Engineering Data
10.1 CONVERSION FACTORS 1
10.2 DUPLEX PUMP OUTPUT 3
10.3 TRIPLEX PUMP OUTPUT 4
10.4 CAPACITY OF HOLE VOLUMES 5
10.5 CAPACITY AND DISPLACEMENT OF CASING 6
10.6 CAPACITY AND DISPLACEMENT OF “DRILL PIPE” 8
10.7 CAPACITY AND DISPLACEMENT OF “DRILL COLLARS” 9
10.8 ANNULAR VOLUME BETWEEN “DRILL PIPE” AND OPEN HOLE OR CASING 10
10.9 ANNULAR VOLUME BETWEEN DRILL COLLARS AND OPEN HOLE OR CASING 12
10.10 DIMENSIONS AND STRENGTHS OF “DRILL PIPE” 14
10.11 HOLE VOLUME ( With Pipe in Hole) 15
10.12 ANNULAR VELOCITY MULTIPLIERS 15
10.13 STORAGE TANK VOLUMES 16
10.14 BUOYANCY FACTORS 18
10.15 DENSITY ADJUSTMENT WITH BARITE OR WATER 19
10.16 PILOT TESTING – GUIDELINES FOR MEASURING PRODUCTS 20
10.17 BRINE DENSITY TABLE 21
10.18 PROPERTIES OF SODIUM CHLORIDE SOLUTIONS (Salt) 21
10.19 PROPERTIES OF POTASSIUM CHLORIDE SOLUTIONS (KCl) 22
10.20 PROPERTIES OF POTASSIUM SULFATE SOLUTIONS (K2SO4) 22
10.21 PROPERTIES OF 94% PURE CALCIUM CHLORIDE SOLUTIONS (CaCL2) 23
10.22 PROPERTIES OF ENVIROFLOC (Calcium Nitrate) SOLUTIONS 24
10.23 PROPERTIES OF SODIUM – CALCIUM CHLORIDE BLENDS 25
10.24 PROPERTIES OF AMMONIUM CHLORIDE SOLUTIONS 25
10.25 PROPERTIES OF MAGNESIUM CHLORIDE SOLUTIONS 26
10.26 PROPERTIES OF POTASSIUM ACETATE SOLUTIONS 26
10.27 COMMON CHEMICAL FORMULAS AND NAMES 27
10.28 COMMON DRILLING MUD CATIONS (+ ions) 28
10.29 COMMON DRILLING MUD ANIONS (- ions) 28
10.30 SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF COMMON MATERIALS 29
10.31 RECOMMENDED SOLIDS CONTENT OF WATER BASE MUDS 30
10.32 SUGGESTED RANGES OF PLASTIC VISCOSITY 30
10.33 SUGGESTED RANGES OF YIELD POINT 31
10.34 GENERAL FORMULAS 31
CHAPTER 10
ENGINEERING DATA
10.1 CONVERSION FACTORS

QUANTITY or PREVIOUS “SI” or METRIC SYMBOL TO CONVERT

PROPERTY UNITS UNIT TO “SI” UNITS,
(API) MULTIPLY BY:
Annular ft/min metres/min m/min 0.3048
Velocity
Apparent & centipoise millipascal second mPa.s 1.0
Plastic
Viscosity
Area acre hectares ha 0.4047
Bentonite Yield bbl’s/ton cubic metres/tonne m3/tonne 0.175
Bit Size inches millimeters mm 25.4
Casing bbl/ft cubic m3/m 0.5216
Capacity / metres/metre
Displacement
Casing Weight lbs/ft kilograms/metres kg/m 0.188
Corrosion Rate lbs/ft2/day grams/square g/m2/day 13.377
metre/day
mils per year milligrams/day mm/a 0.254
Depth Hole & feet metres m 0.3048
Pipe Diameter
Distance miles metres m 1609.35
miles kilometres km 1.6093
inches metres m 39.37
yards metres m 1.0936
feet metres m 3.2808
Drill Rate feet/hour metres/hour m/h 0.3048
Filter Cake 32’nds inch millimeters mm 0.794
Thickness
Flow Rate US gallons/min cubic metres/min m3/min 0.003785
bbl/min cubic metres/min m3/min 0.159
Fluid Loss millilitres or cc’s millilitres or cc’s ml or cm3 1.0

Funnel sec/quart seconds/litre s/L 1.057
Viscosity
Hook Load thousands of decanewtons daN 0.444
pounds
Horsepower Horsepower watts W 745.7
Horsepower Hp/in2 meagawatts mw/m2 1.15
/sq.inch /square metre
Ionic parts per million milligram/litre mg/L 1.0
Concentration (ppm)
in Water
Liner Length & inches millimeters mm 25.4
Diameter
CONVERSION FACTORS (Continued)
QUANTITY or PREVIOUS “SI” or METRIC SYMBOL TO CONVERT

PROPERTY UNITS UNIT TO “SI” UNITS,
(API) MULTIPLY BY:
Material lb/bbl kilogram/cubic kg/m3 2.85
Concentration metre
equivalents moles/cubic metre mol/m3 1.0
MBT lb/bbl kilograms/cubic kg/m3 2.85
(Bentonite metre
Equivalent)
Mud Density lbs/gal kilograms/cubic kg/m3 119.83
metres
Mud Gradient psi/foot kilopascals/metre kPa/m 22.621
Nozzle Size 32’nds inch millimeters mm 0.794
Particle Size microns micrometres m 1.0
Pounds Force pounds newton N 4.448
Pressure psi kilopascals kPa 6.895
megapascals mPa 0.006895
Pump Data bbl/stroke cubic m3/stroke An oilfield barrel is
metres/stroke exactly
0.1589873 m3
Pump bbl/stroke litres/stroke l/stroke 159.0
Output/Stroke
Rotary Speed revolutions/min revolutions/min rpm 1.0
(rpm) (rpm)
Shear Rate reciprocal second reciprocal second sec-1 1.0
Temperature  Fahrenheit  Celsius C (F-32) / 1.8
 Celsius  Fahrenheit F (CX1.8) + 32
Torque ft/lbs newton.metre N.m 1.3558
Volume barrels cubic metres m3 0.159
US gallons/stroke cubic m /stroke
3
0.003785
metres/stroke
US gallons/stroke litres/stroke litres/stroke 3.785
Volumes US gallon litre L 3.785
Imperial Gallon litre L 4.546
US gallon cubic metre m3 0.003785
Imperial Gallon cubic metre m3 0.004546
Oilfield barrel cubic metre m3 0.1589
(42 US gallons) m3
Cubic yards cubic metres 0.7646
Weight on Bit pounds decanewtons daN 0.445
Yield Point, Gel lb/100 ft3 pascal Pa 0.4788
Strength, Shear (round off to 0.5
Stress for field use)
Page-1
10.2 DUPLEX PUMP OUTPUT
Litres/Stroke @ 90% Efficiency (2” Rod Diameter)
LINER DIAMETER (mm)
Stroke 101 108 114 121 127 133 140 146 152 159 165 170 178 184 190 197 203 209 216
Length
(mm)
203 5.40 6.19 6.99 7.78 8.73 6.69 10.6 11.5 12.7 13.8 15.0 16.2 17.4 18.9
254 6.67 7.62 8.58 6.69 10.8 12.0 13.3 14.6 15.9 17.3 18.7 20.0 21.9 23.6
305 7.78 9.90 10.1 11.4 12.9 14.3 15.9 17.3 19.1 20.7 22.6 24.3 26.2 28.3 30.4
356 14.6 16.4 18.0 19.9 21.8 23.8 25.9 28.0 30.2 32.4 35.0 37.4 39.9
381 15.6 17.3 19.2 21.1 23.2 25.3 27.5 29.7 32.3 34.7 37.4 39.9 42.8
406 16.7 18.6 20.5 22.6 24.8 27.0 29.4 32.3 34.5 37.0 39.7 42.8 45.6 48.6
457 18.4 20.7 22.7 25.3 27.8 30.2 32.7 35.6 38.5 41.3 44.5 47.7 51.1 54.4
508 20.3 22.7 25.1 28.0 30.5 33.4 36.4 39.4 46.2 45.9 49.4 53.1 56.8 60.4
559 49.8 53.5 57.3 61.1 65.1 69.2 73.5
610 71.1 75.6 80.2
Note: For pump output in m3/stroke, move the decimal point 3 places to the left.
DUPLEX MUD PUMPS
The pistons on a duplex mud pump work in both directions, so that the rear cylinder has the
pump rod moving through its swept volume and occupying some volume. The difference in
calculations for a duplex vs. a triplex pump is that the displacement volume of this pump rod
must be subtracted from the volume in one of the cylinders, plus the difference in number of
pumping cylinders; 4 for a duplex and 3 for a triplex. Duplex pumps generally have longer
strokes (in the 10 to 18 in. range) and operate at lower rate; in the 40 to 80 stroke/min range.
The general equation to calculate output of a duplex pump is:
Pump output (litres/stroke) = [ 2 X ID2 (mm) – OD2 (mm) ] X L (mm) X Eff (decimal)
636,500
Where:
ID = ID of the liner
OD = OD of the rod
L= Length of the pump stroke
Eff = Pump efficiency (decimal)
Page-2
10.3 TRIPLEX PUMP OUTPUT
Litres/Stroke @ 100% Efficiency
LINER DIAMETER (mm)
Stroke 102 108 114 121 127 133 140 146 152 159 165 170 178 184 190 197 203
Length
(mm)
102 2.5 2.8 3.1 3.5 3.9 4.3
114 2.8 3.1 3.5 3.9 4.3 4.8 5.3 5.7 6.3
127 3.0 3.5 3.9 4.4 4.8 5.3 5.8 6.4 6.9 7.5
140 3.4 3.8 4.3 4.8 5.3 5.8 6.5 7.0 7.6 8.3
152 3.7 4.2 4.7 5.2 5.8 6.4 7.0 7.7 8.3 9.0 9.7
165 4.0 4.5 5.1 5.7 6.3 6.9 7.6 8.3 9.0 9.8 10.6
178 4.3 4.9 5.5 6.1 6.8 7.4 8.2 8.9 9.7 10.6 11.4 12.3 13.2
190 4.6 5.2 5.9 6.5 7.2 8.0 8.8 9.6 10.4 11.3 12.2 13.1 14.2 15.2 16.1
203 4.9 5.6 6.2 6.9 7.7 8.5 9.3 10.2 11.1 12.0 13.0 14.0 15.1 16.2 17.3 18.5 19.7
216 5.2 5.9 6.6 7.4 8.2 9.0 9.9 10.8 11.8 12.8 13.8 14.9 16.3 17.2 18.5 19.7 21.0
229 5.6 6.3 7.0 7.8 8.7 9.6 10.5 11.5 12.5 13.6 14.7 15.8 17.0 18.3 19.5 20.9 22.2
241 5.9 6.6 7.4 8.3 9.2 10.1 11.1 12.1 13.2 14.3 15.5 16.7 18.0 19.3 20.6 22.0 23.3
254 6.2 7.0 7.8 8.7 9.6 10.6 11.7 12.8 13.9 15.1 16.3 17.6 18.9 20.3 21.7 23.2 24.7
267 6.5 7.3 8.2 9.1 10.1 11.2 12.3 13.4 14.6 15.8 17.2 18.5 19.9 21.3 22.8 24.3 25.9
279 6.8 7.7 8.6 9.6 10.6 11.7 12.8 14.0 15.3 16.6 17.9 19.3 20.8 22.3 23.9 25.5 27.2
292 7.1 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.1 12.2 13.4 14.7 16.0 17.3 18.7 20.2 21.8 23.3 25.0 26.7 28.4
305 7.4 8.4 9.4 10.4 11.6 12.8 13.8 15.3 16.7 18.1 19.6 21.1 22.2 24.3 26.0 27.8 29.6
Note: For pump output in m3/stroke, move the decimal point 3 places to the left.
TRIPLEX MUD PUMPS
The pistons on a triplex mud pump work only on the forward stroke, and generally have short
strokes (in the 6-12 inch range) and operate at rates in the 60-120 stroke/min. range.
The general equation to calculate output of a triplex pump is:
Pump output (litres/stroke) = ID2 (mm) X L (mm) X Eff (decimal)

424,333
Where:
ID = ID of the liner
L= Length of the pump stroke
Eff = Pump efficiency (decimal)
Page-3
10.4 CAPACITY OF HOLE VOLUMES
DIAMETER CAPACITY
(mm) (m3/metre)
95.2 0.0071
98.4 0.0076
104.8 0.0086
120.6 0.0114
142.9 0.0160
149.2 0.0175
152.4 0.0182
155.6 0.0190
158.8 0.0198
165.1 0.0214
171.4 0.0231
177.8 0.0248
200.0 0.0314
212.7 0.0355
215.9 0.0366
219.1 0.0377
222.2 0.0388
228.6 0.0410
241.3 0.0457
250.8 0.0494
269.9 0.0572
279.4 0.0613
311.2 0.0760
349.2 0.0958
374.6 0.1102
377.8 0.1121
381.0 0.1140
444.5 0.1552
508.0 0.2027
546.1 0.2342
609.6 0.2919
660.4 0.3425
Page-4
10.5 CAPACITY AND DISPLACEMENT OF CASING
O.D. MASS I.D. CAPACITY DISPLACEMENT

(mm) (kg/m) (mm) (m3/metre) (m3/metre)
114.3 14.14 103.89 0.0085 0.0018
(4.5”) 15.62 102.92 0.0083 0.0019
17.26 101.60 0.0081 0.0022
20.09 99.57 0.0078 0.0025
127.0 17.11 115.82 0.0105 0.0021
(5.0”) 19.34 114.15 0.0102 0.0024
22.32 111.96 0.0098 0.0028
26.78 108.61 0.0093 0.0034
139.7 20.83 127.31 0.0129 0.0026
(5.5”) 23.06 125.73 0.0124 0.0029
25.30 124.26 0.0121 0.0032
29.76 121.36 0.0116 0.0038
34.22 118.62 0.0111 0.0043
168.3 29.76 153.65 0.0185 0.0037
(6.625”) 35.71 150.39 0.0178 0.0045
41.66 147.09 0.0170 0.0053
47.62 144.15 0.0163 0.0059
177.8 25.30 166.07 0.0217 0.0032
(7.0”) 29.76 163.98 0.0211 0.0037
34.22 161.70 0.0205 0.0043
38.69 159.41 0.0200 0.0049
43.15 157.07 0.0194 0.0054
47.62 154.79 0.0188 0.0060
52.08 152.50 0.0183 0.0066
56.54 150.37 0.0178 0.0071
193.7 35.71 178.44 0.0250 0.0045
(7.625”) 39.28 177.01 0.0246 0.0049
44.19 174.63 0.0239 0.0055
50.15 171.83 0.0232 0.0063
58.03 168.28 0.0222 0.0072
219.1 35.71 205.66 0.0332 0.0045
(8.625”) 41.66 203.63 0.0326 0.0051
47.62 201.19 0.0318 0.0059
53.57 198.76 0.0310 0.0068
59.52 196.22 0.0302 0.0075
65.47 193.68 0.0295 0.0082
72.91 190.78 0.0286 0.0091
244.5 48.06 228.63 0.0411 0.0059
(9.625”) 53.57 226.59 0.0403 0.0066
59.52 224.41 0.0396 0.0074
64.73 222.38 0.0388 0.0081
69.94 220.50 0.0382 0.0088
79.61 216.79 0.0369 0.0100
273.0 48.73 258.88 0.0526 0.0059
(10.75”) 60.26 255.27 0.0512 0.0074
67.70 252.73 0.0502 0.0084
75.89 250.19 0.0492 0.0092
82.58 247.90 0.0483 0.0103
Page-5
CAPACITY AND DISPLACEMENT OF CASING (Continued)

298.4 62.50 281.53 0.0623 0.0077
(11.75”) 69.94 279.40 0.0613 0.0086
80.35 276.35 0.0600 0.0099
89.28 273.61 0.0588 0.0111
339.7 71.42 322.96 0.0819 0.0087
(13.375”) 81.10 320.42 0.0802 0.0100
90.77 317.88 0.0794 0.0113
101.18 315.34 0.0781 0.0125
107.14 313.61 0.0772 0.0134
406.4 96.72 387.35 0.1178 0.0119
(16”) 111.60 384.18 0.1159 0.0138
124.99 381.25 0.1142 0.0156
508.0 140.19 485.75 0.1854 0.0178
(20”) 158.83 482.60 0.1830 0.0202
198.35 475.74 0.1778 0.0253
762 234.64 736.60 0.4263 .0299
(30”) 349.41 723.90 0.4117 .0445
462.29 711.20 0.3972 .0589
The formula for calculating the capacity of a hole or a pipe is:
Capacity (liters/metre) = (Inside diameter in millimeters, mm) 2 X 0.0007854
The annular or displacement volume can be calculated using a similar formula:
Capacity (litres/metre) = (OD in millimeters, mm)2 - (ID in millimeters, mm)2 X 0.0007854

Page-6
10.6 CAPACITY AND DISPLACEMENT OF “DRILL PIPE”

60.3 7.2 50.7 0.0020 0.00092
(2 3/8”) 9.9 46.1 0.0017 0.00126
73.0 9.6 62.7 0.0031 0.00122
(2 7/8”) 10.2 62.0 0.0030 0.00130
12.4 59.0 0.0027 0.00159
15.5 54.6 0.0023 0.00197
88.9 12.7 77.8 0.0048 0.00161
(3 ½”) 14.1 76.0 0.0045 0.00180
16.7 73.7 0.0043 0.00213
19.8 70.2 0.0039 0.00252
23.1 66.1 0.0034 0.00294
101.6 17.6 88.3 0.0061 0.00225
(4”) 20.8 84.8 0.0057 0.00266
23.4 82.3 0.0053 0.00298
114.3 19.0 101.6 0.0081 0.00242
(4 ½”) 20.5 100.5 0.0079 0.00261
24.7 97.2 0.0074 0.00315
29.8 92.5 0.0067 0.00380
127 24.2 112.0 0.0098 0.00309
(5”) 29.0 108.6 0.0093 0.00370
30.5 107.0 0.0090 0.00389
139.7 32.6 121.4 0.0116 0.00416
(5 ½”) 36.8 11.6 0.0111 0.00469
Page-7
10.7 CAPACITY AND DISPLACEMENT OF “DRILL COLLARS”
O.D. I.D. MASS CAPACITY DISPLACEMENT

(mm) (mm) (kg/m) (m3/metre) (m3/metre)
79.4 31.8 29.8 0.008 0.0042
(3.125”)
88.9 38.1 40.2 0.0011 0.0051
(3.5”)
104.8 50.8 52.1 0.0020 0.0066
(4.125”)
120.7 57.2 78.9 0.0026 0.0101
(4.75”)
152.4 57.2 123.5 0.0026 0.0157
(6”) 71.4 111.6 0.0040 0.0142
158.8 57.2 135.4 0.0026 0.0172
(6.25”) 71.4 123.5 0.0040 0.0158
165.1 57.2 147.3 0.0026 0.0188
(6.5”) 71.4 135.4 0.0040 0.0174
171.5 57.2 160.7 0.0026 0.0205
(6.75”)
177.8 57.2 174.1 0.0026 0.0223
(7”) 71.4 163.7 0.0040 0.0208
184.2 71.4 177.1 0.0040 0.0226
(7.25”)
196.9 71.4 206.9 0.0040 0.0264
(7.75”)
203.2 71.4 223.2 0.0040 0.0284
(8”)
209.6 71.4 238.1 0.0040 0.0305
(8.25”)
228.6 71.4 290.2 0.0040 0.0370
(9”)
241.3 76.2 327.4 0.0046 0.0411
(9.5”)
247.7 76.2 345.3 0.0046 0.0436
(9.75”)
254.0 76.2 366.1 0.0046 0.0461
(10”)
279.4 76.2 449.4 0.0046 0.0567
(11”)
Page-8
10.8 ANNULAR VOLUME BETWEEN “DRILL PIPE” AND OPEN HOLE OR CASING
DRILL PIPE SIZE O.D. HOLE or CASING SIZE ANNULAR VOLUME

(mm) (mm) (m3/metre)
60 89 0.0033
(2 3/8”) 95 0.0042
102 0.0052
105 0.0057
114 0.0074
73 105 0.0044
(2 7/8”) 114 0.0060
117 0.0066
121 0.0072
127 0.0085
140 0.0112
149 0.0133
89 127 0.0064
(3 ½”) 140 0.0091
146 0.0105
152 0.0120
159 0.0136
165 0.0152
175 0.0177
178 0.0186
200 0.0252
102 140 0.0071
(4”) 146 0.0086
149 0.0093
159 0.0117
165 0.0113
175 0.0159
178 0.0167
187 0.0195
200 0.0233
203 0.0243
222 0.0252
114 200 0.0212
(4 ½”) 210 0.0243
213 0.0253
216 0.0261
219 0.0274
222 0.0285
235 0.0319
241 0.0355
244 0.0367
248 0.0379
267 0.0456
311 0.0658
375 0.1000
381 0.1038
Page-9
ANNULAR VOLUME BETWEEN “DRILL PIPE” AND OPEN HOLE OR CASING
(Continued)
PIPE SIZE O.D. HOLE or CASING SIZE ANNULAR VOLUME

127 200 0.0188
(5”) 210 0.0218
213 0.0229
216 0.0239
219 0.0250
222 0.0261
235 0.0307
241 0.0331
244 0.0343
248 0.0355
267 0.0432
311 0.0634
375 0.0976
381 0.1014
140 222 0.0235
(5 ½”) 235 0.0280
248 0.0329
267 0.0405
311 0.0607
375 0.0949
381 0.0987
Page-10
10.9 ANNULAR VOLUME BETWEEN DRILL COLLARS AND OPEN HOLE OR CASING
DRILL COLLAR SIZE O.D. HOLE or CASING SIZE ANNULAR VOLUME

114 127 0.0024
(4 ½”) 140 0.0050
149 0.0072
152 0.0079
165 0.0112
121 140 0.0039
(4 ¾”) 149 0.0060
152 0.0068
159 0.0083
165 0.0099
175 0.0125
178 0.0134
127 149 0.0048
(5”) 152 0.0055
156 0.0063
159 0.0071
165 0.0087
171 0.0104
194 0.0168
200 0.0188
140 165 0.0061
( 5 ½”) 171 0.0077
194 0.0141
200 0.0161
213 0.0202
216 0.0213
222 0.0235
241 0.0304
251 0.0341
146 165 0.0046
(5 ¾”) 171 0.0063
194 0.0127
200 0.0147
213 0.0188
216 0.0199
222 0.0221
241 0.0290
0.0327
152 171 0.0048
(6”) 194 0.0112
200 0.0132
213 0.0173
216 0.0184
222 0.0206
241 0.0275
251 0.0312
Page-11
ANNULAR VOLUME BETWEEN DRILL COLLARS AND OPEN HOLE OR CASING
(Continued)
DRILL COLLAR SIZE O.D. HOLE or CASING SIZE ANNULAR VOLUME

171 200 0.0083
(6 ¾”) 216 0.0135
222 0.0230
311 0.0529
178 200 0.0065
(7”) 213 0.0107
216 0.0118
222 0.0140
241 0.0209
251 0.0246
270 0.0324
279 0.0365
311 0.0512
375 0.0854
381 0.0892
197 222 0.0083
(7 ¾”) 241 0.0153
251 0.0190
270 0.0268
279 0.0309
311 0.0456
368 0.0761
229 322 0.0350
(9”) 438 0.1097
Page-12
10.10 DIMENSIONS AND STRENGTHS OF “DRILL PIPE”
O.D. Weight O.D. Mass Grade Wall I.D. Collapse Internal Pipe Body
(in) (lb/ft) (mm) (kg/m) Thickness (mm) Resistance Yield Yield
(mm) (mPa) Pressure Strength
(mPa) (mPa)
2 3/8 6.65 60.3 9.90 D 7.1 46.1 78.880 78.260 698.850
4.85 7.72 E 4.8 50.7 76.120 72.400 674.450
6.65 9.90 E 7.1 46.1 107.560 106.660 952.990
2 7/8 10.40 73.0 15.48 D 9.2 54.6 83.500 83.560 1063.720
6.85 10.19 E 5.5 62.0 72.190 68.330 937.000
10.40 15.48 E 9.2 54.6 113.970 113.970 1477.820
3½ 13.30 88.9 19.79 D 9.3 70.2 71.360 69.770 1373.090
15.50 23.07 D 11.4 66.1 84.810 85.150 1631.990
9.50 14.14 E 6.5 76.0 60.220 65.640 1339.380
13.30 19.79 E 9.3 70.2 97.290 95.150 1872.410
15.50 23.07 E 11.4 66.1 115.630 116.110 2225.490
4 14.00 101.6 20.83 D 8.4 84.8 57.430 54.740 1442.800
11.85 17.83 E 6.7 88.3 57.980 59.290 1590.970
14.00 20.83 E 8.4 84.8 78.260 74.670 1967.490
4½ 16.60 114.3 24.70 D 8.6 97.2 52.540 49.710 1671.360
20.00 29.76 D 10.9 92.5 65.570 63.430 2084.970
13.75 20.46 E 6.9 100.5 46.640 54.470 1861.860
16.60 24.70 E 8.6 97.2 71.640 67.780 2279.130
20.00 29.76 E 10.9 92.5 89.360 86.460 2843.120
5 19.50 127.0 29.02 D 9.2 108.6 50.950 48.060 2000.170
16.25 24.18 E 7.5 112.0 48.060 53.570 2261.960
19.50 29.02 E 9.2 108.6 68.950 65.500 2727.570
5 ½” 21.90 139.7 32.59 D 9.2 121.4 45.570 43.570 2310.110
24.70 36.76 D 10.5 118.6 52.880 50.080 2514.040
21.90 32.59 E 9.2 121.4 58.190 59.360 3013.840
24.70 36.76 E 10.5 118.6 72.120 68.260 3428.210
6 5/8 25.20 168.3 37.50 D 8.4 151.5 27.650 33.030 2474.800
25.20 37.50 E 8.4 151.5 33.160 45.090 3374.710
Page-13
10.11 HOLE VOLUME ( With Pipe in Hole)
Cubic Metres Per 100 Metres
Hole Diameter (mm)
Pipe 143 152 156 159 171 194 200 219 222 229 251 279 311 349 381
Size
(mm)
0 1.61 1.81 1.91 1.99 2.30 2.94 3.14 3.77 3.87 4.12 4.95 6.11 7.60 9.57 11.40
89 1.36 1.56 1.66 1.74 2.05 2.71 2.89 3.52 3.62 3.87 4.70 5.85 7.35 9.32 11.15
102 1.35 1.53 1.61 1.69 2.02 2.66 2.85 3.48 3.59 3.82 4.65 5.83 7.31 9.30 11.11
114 1.30 1.50 1.60 1.68 1.99 2.65 2.83 3.46 3.56 3.81 4.60 5.80 7.29 9.26 11.09
127 1.24 1.44 1.54 1.62 1.93 2.59 2.77 3.40 3.50 3.75 4.58 5.74 7.23 9.20 11.03
10.12 ANNULAR VELOCITY MULTIPLIERS
Bit Size, mm
Pipe 136 143 152 156 159 171 194 200 219 222 229 251 279 311 349 381 445
Size
(mm)
73 84.7 77.9 71.1 67.5 64.2 52.5 39.7 36.8 29.9 29.0 27.2
76 87.0 82.0 73.4 68.6 65.3 54.3 40.0 37.2 30.2 29.3 27.4 22.3
89 120.4 101.6 83.9 77.6 73.3 59.7 42.8 39.7 31.8 30.8 28.6 23.1 18.2 14.3
102 157.3 125.7 99.6 90.9 85.1 67.3 46.5 42.9 33.8 32.7 30.2 24.2 18.9 14.7 11.4 9.4 6.8
114 103.6 78.4 51.7 47.2 36.4 35.1 32.3 25.5 19.6 15.2 11.7 9.6 6.9
127 39.9 38.4 35.1 27.2 20.6 15.8 12.0 9.6 7.0
140 42.8 38.9 29.3 21.9 16.5 12.5 10.2 7.1
152 48.5 43.4 31.9 23.3 17.3 12.9 10.4 7.3
165 57.7 50.5 35.6 25.2 18.3 13.5 10.8 7.2
To obtain the annular velocity in metres per min. (m/min), multiply the appropriate
number from the bit and pipe size combination, by the pump output in cubic metres per
min (m3/min).
Formula:
Annular Velocity (m/min) = Pump Output (m3/min) X (1.273 X 106)

(Dh)2 - (Dp)2
Where:
Dh = Hole Diameter, mm
Dp = Pipe Diameter, mm
Page-14
10.13 STORAGE TANK VOLUMES
Tank Volume, m3/metre (Rectangular Tanks Only)
Length, metres
Width 3.05 3.66 4.27 4.88 5.49 6.10 7.62 9.15 10.67 12.19 13.72 15.24 16.76 18.29 19.81 21.23
(m)
1.83 5.58 6.70 7.81 8.93 10.05 11.16 13.94 16.73 19.53 22.31 25.11 27.89 30.67 33.47 36.25 38.85
2.13 6.50 7.80 9.10 10.39 11.69 12.99 16.23 19.47 22.73 25.96 29.22 32.46 35.70 38.96 42.2 45.22
2.44 7.44 8.93 10.42 11.91 13.40 14.88 18.59 22.30 26.03 29.74 33.48 37.19 40.89 44.63 48.34 51.80
2.74 8.36 10.03 11.70 13.37 15.04 16.71 20.88 25.04 29.24 33.40 37.59 41.76 45.92 50.11 54.28 58.17
3.05 9.30 11.16 13.05 14.88 17.74 18.61 23.24 27.88 32.54 37.18 41.85 46.48 51.12 55.78 60.42 64.75
Tank Volume Formulas:
Capacity, volume and displacement calculations use simple volumetric relationships for
rectangles, cylinders, concentric cylinders and other shapes with the appropriate unit
conversion factors.
Tanks on rigs can be a variety of shapes, but most are either rectangular or cylindrical. Three
shapes of tanks are covered here:
1. rectangular
2. cylindrical, vertical
3. cylindrical, horizontal
Volume Rectangular Tank:
Mud tanks are usually rectangular with parallel sides and ends that are perpendicular to the
bottom.
For a typical rectangular tank, the capacity can be calculated from the height, width and length.
Where:
Vtank = Tank Capacity

L = Tank Length
W = Tank Width
H = Tank Height
The general equation to calculate the capacity of a rectangular vessel is:
Volume = Length x Width x Height
This formula is valid for both English and Metric units.
Therefore, the capacity of a rectangular pit, using metres, is calculated by:
Vtank (m3) = L (m) X W (m) X H (m)
Page-15
Volume Vertical Cylindrical Tank:
Cylindrical tanks mounted in a vertical position are normally used for liquid mud and/or
dry bulk Barite storage.
Where:
VCyl = Capacity of the Cylindrical Tank

D = Diameter of Cylinder
H = Height of Cylinder
M = Material Level Height
 = 3.1416
If the diameter is not known, measure the circumference and divide by 3.1416.
D = Tank Circumference = Tank Circumference

 3.1416
The general formula to calculate the capacity for a vertical cylinder tank is:
VCyl (m3) =  X D2 (m) X H (m) = 3.1416 X D2 (m) X H (m) = D2(m) X H (m)

4 4 1.273
The actual mud volume (Vmud) of a vertical cylinder tank is calculated using the
mud/material level height (M) by:
Vmud (m3) =  X D2 X M = D2 X M
4 1.273
Volume Horizontal Cylindrical Tank:
Cylindrical tanks mounted in a horizontal position are normally used primarily for
storage of diesel fuel, other liquids and/or Barite. The vertical capacity and volume of a
horizontal cylindrical tank varies with the horizontal cross-section area, and is not a
linear function of height. Charts and tabular methods are available to calculate the
capacity and volume of horizontal cylindrical tanks.
VCyl = Capacity of the Cylindrical Tank

D = Diameter of Cylinder
L = Length of Cylinder
M = Mud or Material Height
 = 3.1416
__________
Vcyl = L [ (2M – D) MD-M2 + D2 sin–1 (2M – 1) +  D2 ]
2 2 D 4
The result from sin-1 must be in radians before being added to the other parts of the
equation (2 radians = 360). To convert from degrees, divide by 57.3 (degree/radian) to
obtain radians. Return to Table of Contents
Page-16
10.14 BUOYANCY FACTORS
DENSITY GRADIENT BUOYANCY
(kg/m3) (kPa/m) FACTOR
1000 9.81 0.873
1020 10.00 0.869
1040 10.20 0.867
1060 10.40 0.864
1080 10.60 0.862
1100 10.80 0.859
1120 10.99 0.857
1140 11.18 0.854
1160 11.38 0.852
1180 11.58 0.849
1200 11.77 0.847
1220 11.97 0.844
1240 12.16 0.842
1260 12.36 0.839
1280 12.55 0.837
1300 12.75 0.834
1320 12.94 0.832
1340 13.14 0.829
1360 13.34 0.827
1380 13.53 0.824
1400 13.73 0.822
1420 13.93 0.819
1440 14.12 0.817
1460 14.32 0.814
1480 14.51 0.811
1500 14.71 0.809
1520 14.91 0.806
1540 15.10 0.804
1560 15.30 0.801
1580 15.50 0.799
1600 15.69 0.796
1620 15.89 0.794
1640 16.08 0.791
1660 16.28 0.789
1680 16.48 0.786
1700 16.67 0.783
1720 16.87 0.781
1740 17.06 0.778
1760 17.26 0.776
1780 17.46 0.773
1800 17.65 0.771
1820 17.85 0.768
1840 18.04 0.766
1860 18.24 0.763
1880 18.44 0.761
1900 18.63 0.758
1920 18.83 0.755
1940 19.03 0.753
1960 19.22 0.750
1980 19.42 0.748
Actual Hook Load (daN) = Pipe Mass (kg) X Buoyancy Factor

Page-17
10.15 DENSITY ADJUSTMENT WITH BARITE OR WATER
Top half of table:
Number of 40 kg. sacks of Barite to raise 10 m3 of fluid to a desired density
Bottom half of table:
Approximate m3 of water to lower 10 m3 of fluid to a desired density
DESIRED DENSITY (kg/m3)
Initial 1100 1150 1200 1250 1300 1350 1400 1450 1500 1550 1600 1650 1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000
Density
(kg/m3)
1050 10 34 52 71 90 110 131 153 175 198 222 247 273 300 328 357 388 420 453
1100 17 35 53 72 92 112 134 156 178 202 226 252 279 306 335 365 397 429
1150 5 17 36 54 74 94 114 136 158 182 206 231 257 284 313 342 373 406
1200 10 3.3 18 36 55 75 95 117 139 161 185 210 236 262 290 320 350 382
1250 15 6.7 2.5 18 37 56 76 97 119 141 165 189 214 241 268 297 327 358
1300 20 10 5 2 19 37 57 78 99 121 144 168 193 219 246 274 303 334
1350 15 13 7.5 4 1.7 19 38 58 79 101 123 147 171 197 223 251 280 310
1400 30 17 10 6 3.3 1.4 19 39 59 81 103 126 150 175 201 228 256 286
1450 35 20 13 8 5 2.9 1.3 19 39 61 82 105 129 153 179 205 233 262
1500 40 23 15 10 6.7 4.3 2.5 1.1 20 40 62 84 107 131 156 183 210 239
1550 45 27 18 12 8.3 5.7 3.8 2 1 20 41 63 86 109 134 160 187 215
1600 50 30 20 14 10 7.1 5 3.3 2 0.9 20 42 64 87 112 137 163 191
1650 55 33 23 16 12 8.6 6.3 4.4 3 1.8 0.8 21 43 65 89 114 140 167
1700 60 37 25 18 13 10 7.5 5.6 4 2.7 1.7 0.8 21 44 67 91 117 143
1750 65 40 28 20 15 11 8.5 6.7 5 3.6 2.5 1.5 0.7 22 45 68 93 119
1800 70 43 30 22 17 13 10 7.8 6 4.5 3.3 2.3 1.4 0.7 22 46 70 95
1850 75 47 33 24 18 14 11 8.9 7 5.4 4.2 3.1 2.1 1.3 0.6 23 47 72
1900 80 50 35 26 20 16 13 10 8 6.4 5.0 3.8 2.9 2 1.3 0.6 23 48
1950 85 53 38 28 22 17 14 11 9 7.3 5.8 4.6 3.6 2.7 1.9 1.2 0.6 24
2000 90 57 40 30 23 19 15 12 10 8.2 6.7 5.4 4.3 3.3 2.5 1.8 1.1 0.5
Page-18
10.16 PILOT TESTING – GUIDELINES FOR MEASURING PRODUCTS

Using the following procedure may use small measuring spoons as a substitute for a
weighing balance for “approximate” weights. Use the conversion table to determine the
number of grams per spoonful.
1. Procedure:
Powdered materials: Fill the measuring spoon to overflowing. Tap lightly, and
level with a straight edge.
Liquid material: Use a syringe
2. Example:
1 gram is equivalent to 1 kilogram

1 litre is equivalent to 1 m3
Adding 33.5 grams (5 tablespoons) of Bentonite to 1 litre of freshwater, would be

equivalent to a concentration of 33.5 kg/m3.
PRODUCT SPECIFIC ¼ Teaspoon ½ Teaspoon 1 Teaspoon 1 Tablespoon

GRAVITY (grams) (grams) (grams) (grams)
Barite 4.20 2.08 4.17 8.33 25.00
Bentonite 2.30-2.60 0.98 1.95 2.90 6.70
Calcium 2.8 1.00 2.25 4.50 13.00
Carbonate
Canex 1.2 0.90 1.80 3.60 10.80
Caustic 2.04 1.00 2.50 5.00 15.00
Potash
Caustic Soda 2.13 1.25 2.50 5.00 15.00
CMC 1.60 0.50 1.10 2.30 6.60
Cypan 1.05 0.75 1.50 3.00 10.00
Desco CF 1.60 0.75 1.50 3.00 9.60
Diaseal M >2.0 0.80 1.60 3.20 12.60
Drispac 1.50-1.60 0.60 1.20 2.40 7.60
Gypsum 2.32 1.30 2.30 4.90 12.60
Ironite 4.30 1.50 3.50 8.00 25.00
Sponge
Kelzan XCD 1.5 1.00 1.90 3.60 10.70
Lignite 1.60 0.85 1.70 3.40 10.20
Lime 2.20 0.60 1.30 2.40 7.70
Mica 2.75 0.50 0.80 2.00 5.80
Mud Floc II 1.4 0.40 1.00 2.00 6.50
Pelthinz 1.20 0.50 1.00 2.00 6.00
Potassium 1.98 1.90 3.10 6.10 19.10
Chloride
Salt 2.16 1.50 3.00 6.00 18.00
Salt Gel 2.20-2.40 0.70 1.50 3.00 8.80
Soda Ash 2.51 1.60 3.00 6.00 17.80
Sodium 2.16 0.72 1.45 2.90 8.70
Bicarbonate
Soltex 1.2-1.5 0.50 1.00 2.00 6.00
Starch 1.45 0.63 1.25 2.50 7.50
Page-19
10.17 BRINE DENSITY TABLE
It becomes more and more common to use low solids or completely solids-free systems
to drill certain sections of a well. The main application of these systems is to drill the
reservoir section where a minimized solids content provides exceptionally low formation
damage. The density of those systems is not adjusted with solids, but instead with heavy
brines, and normally only a small amount of soluble solids (Calcium Carbonate or sized
Salts) is added to build a thin filter cake for fluid loss control.
BRINE MAXIMUM DENSITY MAXIMUM DENSITY

(kg/m3) (lb/gal)
KCl (Potassium Chloride) 1160 9.6
NaCl (Sodium Chloride) 1200 10.0
NaCOOH (Sodium Formate) 1340 11.2
CaCl2 (Calcium Chloride) 1390 11.6
NaBr (Sodium Bromide) 1510 12.6
KCOOH (Potassium 1560 13.0
Formate)
CaBr2 (Calcium Bromide) 1810 15.1
CaCl2 / CaBr2 1870 15.6
ZnBr2 (Zinc Bromide) 2300 19.2
CsCOOH (Cesium Formate) 2340 19.5
Note: Do not use the above mentioned densities without referencing the Brine tables for freeze
and crystallization points
10.18 PROPERTIES OF SODIUM CHLORIDE SOLUTIONS (Salt)

% Salt Density Salt Salt Chlorides Water Freezing
(kg/m3) Content NaCl Cl- Volume Point
(kg/m3) (mg/L) (mg/L) (m3) (C)
1 1006 8.56 10050 6100 0.998 -0.6
3 1018 25.68 30660 18600 0.996 -1.8
4 1030 45.65 41070 24920 0.993 -2.4
6 1042 62.77 62480 37910 0.981 -3.7
7 1054 79.89 73500 44600 0.976 -4.4
9 1066 99.86 95760 57500 0.969 -5.8
11 1078 116.98 118700 71950 0.952 -7.4
12 1090 134.10 130300 79070 0.952 -8.2
14 1102 154.07 153100 92900 0.948 -9.9
15 1114 174.04 165800 100500 0.940 -10.9
17 1126 194.02 190600 115500 0.933 -12.9
18 1138 211.14 202700 123000 0.926 -14.0
20 1150 231.11 229600 139320 0.919 -16.5
21 1162 251.08 242800 147200 0.909 -18.6
23 1174 271.05 269700 163500 0.902 -20.7
24 1186 291.03 283300 171900 0.895 -15.0
26 1198 311.00 311300 188900 0.888 -3.9
Properties based on 20C and 100% purity
Page-20
mg/L Salt (NaCl) = mg/L Chlorides X 1.65
mg/L Chlorides = mg/L Salt (NaCl) X 0.0606 Return to Table of Contents
10.19 PROPERTIES OF POTASSIUM CHLORIDE SOLUTIONS (KCl)
% KCl Density KCl KCl K+ Cl- Final Freezing

(kg/m3) (kg/m3) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) Volume Point
Factor ( C)
1 1006 11.4 10050 5271 4779 1.004 0
2 1013 20.0 20220 10605 9615 1.008 -1
4 1026 39.9 40960 21482 19478 1.016 -2
6 1039 62.8 62210 32627 29583 1.024 -3
8 1052 82.8 84000 44056 39945 1.033 -4
10 1065 105.6 106300 55752 50548 1.043 -5
12 1079 128.4 129200 67762 61439 1.053 -6
14 1093 154.1 152700 80087 72613 1.064 -7
16 1106 176.9 176700 92674 84026 1.076 -8
18 1120 202.6 201300 105576 95724 1.088 -9
20 1135 225.4 226600 118845 107755 1.102 -10
22 1149 251.1 252400 132376 120024 1.115 1
24 1160 279.6 279000 146327 132673 1.028 13
10.20 PROPERTIES OF POTASSIUM SULFATE SOLUTIONS (K2SO4)
% K2SO4 Density K2SO4 K+ SO4-2 Final Freezing

(kg/m3) (kg/m3) (mg/L) (mg/L) Volume Point
Factor ( C)
1.0 1008 10.0 4532 5568 1.004 -0.28
1.5 1012 15.1 6821 8379 1.005 -0.06
2.0 1016 20.2 9110 11190 1.006 -0.05
2.5 1020 25.4 11443 14057 1.007 -0.06
3.0 1024 30.5 13776 16924 1.008 -0.06
3.5 1028 36.0 16110 19790 1.009 -0.11
4.0 1032 41.5 18488 22712 1.011 -0.11
4.5 1037 46.5 20911 25689 1.012 -1.06
5.0 1041 52.0 23920 28610 1.013 -1.17
5.5 1045 57.3 25758 31642 1.014 -
6.0 1049 62.7 28181 34619 1.016 -
6.5 1053 68.1 30649 37651 1.017 -
7.0 1057 73.8 33162 40738 1.019 -
7.5 1061 79.2 35675 43825 1.020 -
8.0 1066 84.9 381888 46912 1.021 -
8.5 1070 90.6 40746 50054 1.023 -
9.0 1074 96.3 43304 53196 1.024 -
9.5 1078 102.0 45907 56393 1.026 -
10.0 1083 107.8 48509 59591 1.027 -
Properties based on 20C and 100% purity Return to Table of Contents
Page-21
10.21 PROPERTIES OF 94% PURE CALCIUM CHLORIDE SOLUTIONS (CaCL2)
WEIGHT DENSITY CaCl2 CaCl2 Ca+2 Cl- Volume Freezing Water

(%) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) Final Point Activity
Solution (C)
1 1007 10.0 10084 3647 6453 1.003 0 0.994
2 1015 20.0 20337 7331 12969 1.005 -1 0.989
3 1023 30.5 30763 11087 19613 1.007 -1 0.985
4 1032 41.3 41363 14915 26385 1.009 -2 0.980
5 1040 51.9 52142 18779 33221 1.013 -3 0.975
6 1049 62.7 63101 22715 40185 1.016 -4 0.971
7 1057 73.8 74245 26723 47277 1.019 -4 0.965
8 1066 85.2 85574 30804 54496 1.022 -5 0.960
9 1075 96.3 97094 34921 61779 1.025 -6 0.954
10 1084 108.0 108805 39110 69190 1.028 -6 0.948
11 1092 120.0 120712 43407 76793 1.031 -7 0.940
12 1101 132.0 132816 47741 84459 1.035 -8 0.932
13 1111 143.9 145121 52147 92253 1.038 -9 0.924
14 1120 156.5 157630 56625 100175 1.042 -10 0.914
15 1129 169.0 170346 61175 108225 1.046 -11 0.904
16 1139 181.8 183270 65797 116403 1.050 -12 0.892
17 1148 194.6 196407 70492 124708 1.156 -13 0.880
18 1158 207.8 209759 75259 133141 1.166 -14 0.867
19 1168 221.4 223329 80134 141766 1.176 -16 0.852
20 1178 234.8 237120 85045 150455 1.186 -18 0.837
22 1198 262.7 265375 95157 168343 1.207 -23 0.804
24 1218 291.5 294159 105557 186743 1.227 -25 0.767
26 1239 321.2 324659 116319 205781 1.249 -30 0.726
28 1260 352.0 354734 127405 225395 1.271 -41 0.683
30 1282 383.6 387795 138853 245647 1.293 -44 0.637
32 1304 416.1 420864 150626 266474 1.316 -33 0.590
34 1326 449.7 454964 162796 288004 1.152 -20 0.541
36 1349 484.5 490118 175363 310237 1.168 -6 0.492
38 1372 520.1 526349 188291 333109 1.187 +3 0.443
40 1396 556.9 554243 201617 356683 1.203 +12 0.395
 Milligrams/litre (mg/L) may be converted to parts per million (ppm) by dividing mg/L
by the specific gravity.
Specific Gravity = Density (kg/m3)

1000
 mg/L CaCl2 = mg/L Chlorides X 1.5652

 mg/L Chlorides = mg/L CaCl2 X 0.6389
 ppm CaCl2 = % CaCl2 by weight X 10000 Return to Table of Contents
Page-22
10.22 PROPERTIES OF ENVIROFLOC (Calcium Nitrate) SOLUTIONS
Weight Density Envirofloc Calcium Nitrate Volume Water

(%) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) Final Activity
Solution
1 1005 10.05 1.864 6.343 1.005 1.00
2 1011 20.22 3.750 12.76 1.009 0.99
3 1017 30.51 5.658 19.26 1.013 0.99
4 1024 40.96 7.596 25.85 1.017 0.99
5 1030 51.50 9.550 32.50 1.021 0.98
6 1036 62.16 11.53 39.23 1.026 0.98
7 1043 73.01 13.54 46.08 1.030 0.97
8 1049 83.92 15.56 52.97 1.035 0.97
10 1062 106.2 19.69 67.03 1.044 0.96
12 1075 129.0 23.92 81.42 1.054 0.95
14 1090 152.6 28.30 96.32 1.063 0.94
16 1104 176.6 32.76 111.5 1.073 0.93
18 1119 201.4 37.35 127.1 1.082 0.92
20 1133 226.6 42.02 143.0 1.094 0.91
22 1148 252.6 46.83 159.4 1.105 0.90
24 1163 279.1 51.76 176.2 1.116 0.89
26 1178 306.3 56.80 193.3 1.128 0.88
28 1193 334.0 61.94 210.8 1.141 0.87
30 1208 362.4 67.20 228.7 1.154 0.86
32 1224 391.7 72.63 247.2 1.168 0.85
34 1239 421.3 78.12 265.9 1.182 0.84
36 1255 451.8 83.78 285.2 1.197 0.82
38 1272 483.4 89.63 305.1 1.211 0.81
40 1288 515.2 95.54 325.2 1.227 0.80
42 1305 548.1 101.6 345.9 1.243 0.79
44 1322 581.7 107.9 367.1 1.259 0.77
46 1340 616.4 114.3 389.0 1.276 0.76
48 1358 651.8 120.9 411.4 1.293 0.74
50 1377 688.5 127.7 434.6 1.311 0.73
52 1395 725.4 134.5 457.8 1.330 0.71
54 1416 764.6 141.8 482.6 1.348 0.70
56 1436 804.2 149.1 507.6 1.368 0.68
58 1457 845.1 156.7 533.4 1.388 0.67
60 1478 886.8 164.4 559.7 1.408 0.65
62 1498 928.8 172.2 586.2 1.431 0.63
64 1519 972.2 180.3 613.6 1.453 0.61
66 1539 1016 188.4 641.1 1.476 0.60
68 1560 1061 196.7 669.5 1.501 0.58
70 1581 1107 205.2 698.5 1.525 0.56
Envirofloc = 5.393 X Calcium

Calcium = 0.1854 X Envirofloc
Nitrate = 0.6312 X Envirofloc
Ammonium = 0.0167 X Envirofloc
Nitrate = 3.404 X Calcium
mg/L = 1000 (kg/m3) Return to Table of Contents
Page-23
10.23 PROPERTIES OF SODIUM – CALCIUM CHLORIDE BLENDS

DENSITY WATER 100% NaCl 94-97% CaCl2 Crystallization
(kg/m3 @ 15.5C) (m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) Point
(C)
1210 0.887 251 83 -20
1222 0.875 199 148 -23
1234 0.875 154 205 -26
1246 0.876 117 253 -29
1258 0.871 91 296 -32
1270 0.868 71 330 -36
1282 0.866 57 359 -39
1294 0.864 46 385 -41
1306 0.862 37 410 -31
1318 0.859 29 430 -24
1330 0.854 23 453 -18
10.24 PROPERTIES OF AMMONIUM CHLORIDE SOLUTIONS
WEIGHT DENSITY Cl- NH4+ NH4Cl Water Crystallization

(%) (kg/m3) (mg/L) (mg/L) (kg/m3) (m3) Point
(C)
1 1001 6066 3934 10.0 0.991 -0.6
2 1005 12193 7907 20.0 0.984 -1.3
3 1008 18320 11880 30.2 0.977 -1.9
4 1011 24508 15892 40.2 0.970 -2.5
5 1014 30756 19944 50.4 0.963 -3.2
6 1017 37004 23996 60.9 0.956 -3.9
7 1020 43313 28087 71.2 0.948 -4.7
8 1023 49622 32178 81.5 0.941 -5.4
9 1026 55992 36308 92.1 0.933 -6.2
10 1029 62422 40478 102.6 0.926 -6.9
11 1032 68852 44648 113.1 0.918 -7.8
12 1034 75282 48818 123.7 0.910 -8.6
13 1037 81773 53027 134.5 0.902 -9.4
14 1040 88325 57275 145.3 0.895 -
15 1043 94877 61523 155.9 0.887 -11.7
16 1046 101489 65811 167.0 0.878 -
17 1049 108101 70099 177.8 0.870 -
18 1051 114774 74426 188.7 0.862 -
19 1054 121508 78792 199.8 0.854 -
20 1057 128180 83120 210.9 0.845 -
22 1062 141769 91931 233.1 0.828 -
24 1067 155418 100782 255.6 0.811 -0.5
Page-24
10.25 PROPERTIES OF MAGNESIUM CHLORIDE SOLUTIONS
WEIGHT DENSITY Cl- Mg+2 MgCl2 Water Crystallization Water
(%) (kg/m3) (mg/L) (mg/L) (kg/m3) (m3) Point Activity
(C)
1 1006 7492 2568 10.1 0.9962 -0.5 0.995
2 1014 1506 5178 20.5 0.9941 -1.1 0.990
3 1023 22842 7830 31.3 0.9919 -1.7 0.984
4 1031 30703 10524 42.4 0.9897 -2.3 0.978
5 1039 38696 13264 53.9 0.9874 -3.0 0.972
6 1048 46814 16047 65.7 0.9850 -4.3 0.964
7 1056 55060 18873 80.0 0.9825 -5.4 0.957
8 1065 63444 21747 90.5 0.9799 -5.8 0.948
9 1074 71957 24665 10.5 0.9772 -6.8 0.939
10 1083 80608 27631 116.9 0.9744 -7.7 0.929
12 1101 98329 33705 145.0 0.9685 -9.7 0.906
14 1119 116635 39980 174.8 0.9623 -14.5 0.879
16 1137 135477 46439 206.4 0.9552 -18.8 0.848
18 1155 154838 53075 239.7 0.9474 -25.0 0.812
20 1174 174856 59937 275.1 0.9394 -33.2 0.772
22 1194 195553 67031 312.8 0.9312 -28.1 0.727
24 1214 216940 74362 352.9 0.9226 -24.3 0.677
26 1235 239006 81926 395.4 0.9136 -20.5 0.624
28 1256 261748 89722 440.3 0.9039 -17.1 0.567
30 1276 285091 97723 487.6 0.8934 -16.4 0.507
10.26 PROPERTIES OF POTASSIUM ACETATE SOLUTIONS

WEIGHT DENSITY K+ C2 H3 O 2 - KC2H3O2 Water Crystallization Water
(%) (kg/m3) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (m3) Point Activity
(C)
1 1004 3984 6016 10.0 0.994 0.0 0.99
2 1009 7967 12033 20.0 0.989 -0.3 0.98
3 1014 11951 18049 29.9 0.984 -0.5 0.97
4 1019 15935 24065 40.0 0.979 - 0.96
5 1024 19918 30082 49.9 0.974 - 0.95
6 1029 25040 37817 62.7 0.966 - 0.94
7 1034 29593 44693 74.1 0.960 - 0.93
8 1040 34146 51568 85.5 0.954 - 0.92
9 1045 39837 60163 99.8 0.945 - 0.91
10 1050 44390 67039 111.1 0.938 - 0.90
11 1055 48943 73915 122.5 0.932 - 0.89
12 1060 54634 82509 136.8 0.923 - 0.88
13 1065 59186 89385 148.2 0.917 - 0.87
14 1070 64877 97980 162.4 0.907 - 0.86
15 1076 70568 106574 176.7 0.898 - 0.85
16 1081 76259 115169 191.1 0.889 - 0.84
17 1086 81950 123764 205.2 0.880 - 0.83
18 1091 87641 132359 219.4 0.871 - 0.82
19 1097 93332 140953 233.7 0.863 - 0.81
20 1102 100162 151267 250.8 0.851 - 0.80
21 1086 105853 159862 265.0 0.820 - 0.79
22 1113 112682 170175 282.1 0.830 - 0.78
23 1119 119511 180489 299.2 0.819 - 0.77
24 1124 126340 190803 316.3 0.807 -17.2 0.76
25 1129 133169 201116 333.4 0.795 - 0.75
Page-25
10.27 COMMON CHEMICAL FORMULAS AND NAMES

COMMON NAME CHEMICAL NAME CHEMICAL FORMULA
Aluminum Sterate Aluminum Sterate Al(C18H3O2)3
Ammonium Bisulfite Ammonium Bisulfite (NH4)HSO3
Anhydrite Calcium Sulfate CaSO4
Barite Barium Sulfate BaSO4
Barium Carbonate Barium Carbonate BaCO3
Bicarb (Baking Soda) Sodium Bicarbonate NaHCO3
Calcium Carbonate Calcium Carbonate CaCO3
Calcium Chloride Calcium Chloride CaCl2
Caustic Potash Potassium Hydroxide KOH
Caustic Soda Sodium Hydroxide NaOH
DAP Diammonium Phosphate (NH4)2HPO4
Dolomite Calcium Magnesium CaMg(CO3)2
Carbonate
Envirofloc Calcium Ammonium 5Ca(NO3)2.NH4NO3.10H2O
Decahydrate
Galena Lead Sulfide PbS
Gypsum Calcium Sulfate CaSO4.2H20
H2S Hydrogen Sulfide H2S
Hematite Ferric Oxide Fe2O3
Hot or Quick Lime Calcium Oxide CaO
Ironite Sponge Iron Oxide Fe2O4
Lime Calcium Hydroxide Ca(OH)2
Limestone Calcium Carbonate CaCO3
Potash Potassium Chloride KCl
Potassium Sulfate Potassium Sulfate K2SO4
Salt Sodium Chloride NaCl
SAPP Sodium Acid Pyrophosphate Na2H2P2O7
Silica Silicon Dioxide SiO2
Soda Ash Sodium Carbonate Na2CO3
Sodium Sulfite Sodium Sulfite Na2SO3
Zinc Carbonate Zinc Carbonate ZnCO3
Page-26
10.28 COMMON DRILLING MUD CATIONS (+ ions)
ION NAME SYMBOL VALENCE
Aluminum Al +3
Ammonium NH4 +1
Barium Ba +2
Calcium Ca +2
Carbon C +4
Cesium Cs +1
Chromium (Chromic) Cr +3
Chromium (Chromus) Cr +2
Copper (Cuprium) Cu +2
Hydrogen H +1
Iron (Ferric) Fe +3
Iron (Ferrous) Fe +2
Lead (Plumbic) Pb +4
Lead (Plumbus) Pb +2
Magnesium Mg +2
Manganese Mn +2
Nickel Ni +2
Phosphorus P +5
Potassium K +1
Silicon Si +4
Silver Ag +1
Sodium Na +1
Zinc Zn +2
10.29 COMMON DRILLING MUD ANIONS (- ions)

ION NAME SYMBOL VALENCE
Bicarbonate HCO3 -1
Bisulfate HSO4 -1
Bisulfide HS -1
Bisulfite HSO3 -1
Bromate BrO3 -1
Bromide Br -1
Carbonate CO3 -2
Chloride Cl -1
Chromate CrO4 -2
Dichromate Cr2O7 -2
Fluoride F -1
Hydroxide OH -1
Hypochlorite ClO -1
Nitrate NO3 -1
Nitrite NO2 -1
Perchlorate ClO4 -1
Phosphate PO4 -3
Sulfate SO4 -2
Sulfide S -2
Sulfite SO3 -2
Page-27
10.30 SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF COMMON MATERIALS
MATERIAL SPECIFIC GRAVITY

Barite 4.2-4.3
Bentonite 2.3-2.4
Blacknight 1.08
Calcium Carbonate 2.7
Calcium Chloride (94%) 2.2
Calcium Chloride (Flake) 1.85
Calcium Lignosulfonte 1.53
Calcium Oxide (Hot Lime) 3.4
Calcium Sulfate 2.96
Caustic Potash 2.044
Cement 3.0-3.2
Citric Acid 1.665
Clays (Drilled Solids) 2.5-2.7
CMC 1.59
Diesel Fuel 0.84
Dolomite 2.8-3.0
Envirofloc 1.12
Feldspar 2.4-2.7
Fresh Water 1.0
Galena 6.5-6.7
Gypsum 2.9
HEC 10 Polymer 1.38-1.40
Hematite 5.26
Iron 7.8
Ironite Sponge 4.9-5.3
Lead 11.3
Lignite 1.5
Lime (Hydrated) 2.34
Lime (Hot or Quick Lime) 3.2-3.4
Limestone 2.7-2.9
Potassium Chloride 1.99
Pyrite 5.02
Quartz 2.65
Salt 2.165
Salt Gel 2.55
Sand 2.4-2.8
SAPP 1.862
Sea Water 1.2
Soda Ash 2.53
Sodium Bicarbonate 2.16
Sodium Sulfite 2.63
Starch 1.5
Steel 7.8
X-Pel-G 1.06
Zinc Carbonate 4.4
Page-28
10.31 RECOMMENDED SOLIDS CONTENT OF WATER BASE MUDS
Approximate range of field muds in good condition
10.32 SUGGESTED RANGES OF PLASTIC VISCOSITY
Page-29
10.33 SUGGESTED RANGES OF YIELD POINT
10.34 GENERAL FORMULAS

1. Annular Volume; m3 =
[Hole Capacity, m3/m – (Pipe Displacement, m3/m + Pipe Capacity, m3/m)] X Length, m
2. Pipe Volume; m3 =
Pipe Capacity, m3/m X Length, m
3. Total Hole Volume; m3 =
(Hole Capacity, m3/m – Pipe Displacement, m3/m) X Length, m
4. Tank Volume; m3 =
Length, m X Width, m X Height, m
5. Total Circulating Volume; m3 =
Total Hole Volume, m3 + Tank Volume, m3
6. Total Circulating Time; min =
Total Circulating Volume, m3

Pump Output, m3/min
7. Bottoms Up Time; min =
Total Annular Volume, m3

Pump Output, m3/min
8. Annular Velocity; m3/min =
Pump Output, m3/min X 1273000

(Dh2) – (Dp2)
Dh = Hole Diameter, mm
Dp = Pipe Diameter, mm
Page-30
Hydrostatic Pressure; kPa =
Density, kg/m3 X 0.00981 X Depth, m
9. Pressure Gradient; kPa/m =
Density, kg/m3 X 0.00981
10. Barite Required for a Mud Density Increase; kg/m3 =
4259 (W2 – W1)

4250 – W2
W2 = Desired Mud Density, kg/m3

W1 = Initial Mud Density, kg/m3
11. Volume Increase form Barite Addition; m3 =
Amount of Barite Added, kg

4250
12. Density Reduction with Water; water required m3 =
V (W1 – W2)
W2 – 1000
V = Initial Starting Volume, m3

W1 = Initial Mud Density , kg/m3
W2 = Desired Mud density, kg/m3
13. Density Reduction with Oil; final mud density, kg/m3 =
W1 + % Oil (Wo)
1 + % Oil
W1 = Initial Mud Density, kg/m3

Wo = Density of Oil, kg/m3
% Oil = Volume Fraction of Oil, i.e.: 2% oil as a volume fraction is 0.02
14. Pressure Loss at the Bit;  Pb (mPa) =
MW X Q2 X 248__
(d12 + d22 + d32)2
MW = Mud Weight , kg/m3

d1, d2, d3 = Bit Nozzle Diameter, mm
15. Hydraulic Horsepower at the Bit; HHb (W) =
Q X  Pb X (1.66X104)

 Pb = Pressure Loss at the Bit, mPa
Page-31
16. Hydraulic Horsepower Across the Face of the Bit,; HH (MH/m 2) =
HHb X 1.27
d2
HHb – Hydraulic Horsepower at the Bit, W

d = Diameter of the Bit, mm
17. Equivalent Circulating Density; kg/m3 =
MW + [  P_____ ]
L X 0.00981
MW = Mud Weight
 P = Sum of all the Annular Pressure Losses, kPa
L = Depth of Interest, m
18. “n” Factor Power Law Index =
3.32 log10 (600 )

(300 )
 = Viscometer Dial Reading
19. Volume Fraction of Solids (unweighted muds); % volume fraction =
[ ( MW – 1 )] X 0.625
1000
MW = Mud Weight, kg/m3
Page-32

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2202Return to Glossary

Chapter 1 Drilling Fluid Test Procedures

Chapter 2 Water Base Mud Systems

Chapter 4 Drilling Fluid Contaminants

Chapter 5 Mud Related Drilling Problems

Chapter 6 Solids Control

Chapter 7 Product Data Information

Chapter 10 Engineering Data

TABLE OF CONTENTS – CHAPTER 1 Return to Glossary

1.1 MUD DENSITY (Unpressurized Mud Balance) 1

DRILLING FLUID TEST PROCEDURES

1.1 MUD DENSITY (Unpressurized Mud Balance) Return to Table of Contents

Mud Balance Calibration:

Note: A more accurate reading is obtained if the mud balance is

kg/m3 = lb/gal X 119.82

kPa/m = 22.62 X psi/ft

Return to Table of Contents

1.2 MUD DENSITY (Tru-Wate Pressurized Mud Balance)

kg/m3 = lb/gal X 119.82

kPa/m = 22.62 X psi/ft

Return to Table of Contents

1.2.1 OBTAINING TRU-WATE DENSITY WITH AN UNPRESSURIZED BALANCE

1. In a viscosity cup, add 500 ml of water.

Water Density = 1000 kg/m3 (500 ml)

0.5 (1000) + 0.5 (x) = 1060 kg/m3

1.3 MARSH FUNNEL VISCOSITY

Consequently, funnel viscosity should only be used to provide an indication of change or

Marsh Funnel Calibration:

X = True Marsh Funnel Viscosity

The most common field viscometers are:

Baroid Rheometer Model 280

The operation of these models is similar.

Fann Model HC34A

Fann Model 34A

PROCEDURES FOR RHEOLOGICAL MEASUREMENTS

Apparent Viscosity (mPa.s) = D600

Yield Point (Pa) = D300 - PV

Gel Strength measurements can be made as a continuation of the steady state

Initial Gel Strength, G0 (Pa) = D0

After every usage, the instrument should be thoroughly cleaned.

1.5 FILTRATION TESTS Return to Table of Contents

Standard Filtration Test Instruments:

1. Rig Style, Standard Filter Press

The instrument is assembled in the following order:

2. Baroid, OFI Half Area Filter Press

Standard API Test Procedure:

High Temperature – High Pressure Filtration Test

1. Baroid, OFI HT - HP Filter Presses

2. Magcobar, OFI HT – HP Filter Presses

High Temperature – High Pressure Filtration Test Procedure:

1.6 SAND CONTENT Return to Table of Contents

Return to Table of Contents

1. Fill the lower chamber with a freshly obtained mud sample.

1.7.1 SOLIDS CALCULATIONS Return to Table of Contents

Volume Fraction of Solids (% Solids) = [(Mud Weight (kg/m 3) / 1000) – 1] X 0.625

Fo (volume fraction of oil) = cm3 oil / 10

1. Low Density, Unweighted Mud (No Oil, No Salt)

1. Measure Mud Density, D (kg/m3)

a. Volume Fraction of Solids, Fs

Fs = [(D /1000) – 1] X 0.625

b. Volume Fraction of Water, Fw

c. Total Amount of Low Gravity Solids, LGS (kg/m3)

LGS = D – (Fw X 1000)

Example (No Oil, No Salt):