Alphabetical list of water treatment units:

Activated Carbon

Activated carbon is a broad-scale adsorbent of dissolved substances. Dissolved, colloidal, and

particulate substances are attracted and attached to the surface of the carbon particles. It is used to
remove taste- and odour-causing compounds as well as toxic organic chemicals. Activated carbon
may be used for dechlorination. A variety of activated carbon adsorbers can be designed, including
batch and continuous flow units. Activated carbon can also be used as one of the media in a
filtration unit.

Advanced Oxidation

Highly reactive oxidizing agents such as ozone, hydrogen peroxide, chlorine, and permanganate are
used for a variety of purposes. Taste and odour removal, oxidation of iron and manganese to states
where they will precipitate, oxidation of natural organic matter, and oxidation of emerging
contaminants are common applications.

Aeration and Air Stripping

Aerators expose water to air to remove volatile dissolved components that are in excess of their
saturation concentration. Some toxic organics are volatile. Taste- and odor-causing compounds may
be removed to satisfactory levels. Groundwaters may have a high CO 2 content that will be stripped
to tolerable levels in aeration. Volatile organic chemicals (VOCs) will be removed in these processes.
The addition of dissolved oxygen will enhance the oxidation of iron, manganese, and other metals to
higher and more insoluble oxidation states. These precipitates will be removed in sedimentation
basins and filtration units.

Ballasted Flocculation

A ballasted flocculation process is an enhanced physical–chemical three-stage solids removal

process. The first stage is a rapid mixer where a chemical coagulating agent is added to raw water to
coagulate solids. This is followed by a flocculation tank where polymer and microsand are added.
Under gentle mixing conditions, the flocs attach to the microsand with bonding assisted by the
polymer. This is followed by clarification. The sand-sludge is collected and sent to a hydro-cyclone to
separate the sand from the sludge; the microsand is returned to the flocculation basin. The process
has a higher rate of throughput and is more efficient than a conventional coagulation–flocculation–
sedimentation sequence.

Biological Treatment

Biological treatment is used for ammonia nitrogen conversion to nitrate, nitrogen removal and
removal of organics in water. It can be accomplished in filters, fluidized beds, or packed beds
containing granular activated carbon.

Chemical Feed Mixers

Many processes rely on the addition of chemical agents. Mixers are designed to disperse the
chemicals rapidly and thoroughly throughout the water.
Coagulant Recovery

The sludge generated with alum and iron coagulant salts may be regenerated by addition of acid.
Recalcination is used to recover calcium oxide (CaO) from calcium carbonate (CaCO 3) sludge by
heating the sludge to drive off carbon dioxide (CO 2). Calcium oxide is then slaked by adding water to
convert it to lime [Ca(OH)2].

Coagulation

the process of adding chemical reagents in a mixing device to destabilize colloidal particles and allow
them to agglomerate or flocculate with other suspended particles to form larger, more readily
settled particles. Coagulating agents used are typically iron and aluminium salts along with lime, and
commercially made (sometimes natural) polymers.

Dechlorination

the removal of excess chlorine. Activated carbon and sulfur dioxide (SO2) are two common
dechlorinating agents.

Disinfection

the removal or inactivation of pathogenic microorganisms (not necessarily sterilization). Chemical

agents, commonly chlorine (Cl 2), chlorine dioxide (ClO2), chloramines (NH3−xClx), or ozone may be
used, or the water may be exposed to ultraviolet (UV) light. Chloramines are formed by reacting
ammonia with chlorine. Disinfection (or possibly fluoridation) is the last treatment applied to water.

Dissolved Air Flotation (DAF)

In this process, air is injected at high pressure into water in one tank and then released in a second
tank where the water is exposed to the atmosphere. The reduction of pressure causes the release of
fine bubbles of air to which solids attach as the bubbles rise. The thickened sludge that accumulates
at the surface of the second tank is skimmed to remove the solids. DAF is an alternative to
sedimentation.

Filtration

Filtration accomplishes polishing of a water and is required for almost every water. Filtration follows
sedimentation if the latter is provided. Water moves through tanks that contain sand and/or other
types of media. Fine solids that did not settle out in a sedimentation basin will be entrapped in the
filter. There also will be significant removal of bacteria in a filter but not enough (more than 1-log
reduction of bacteria is usually required) to provide a safe water. Larger microorganisms, such as
protista, are completely removed in a properly operated filter. Two filtration types are in common
use. Slow sand filters have only sand media. They are cleaned by scraping off the top layer of media
on a periodic basis as the filter clogs. Rapid filters are sand filters or multimedia filters that have a
layer of anthracite, sand, and possibly other media.

Flocculation

Flocculators provide gentle agitation of a water that has been coagulated to promote particle
contact and formation of larger particles. Hydraulic or mechanically driven flocculators may be
designed. Flocculators follow the rapid mixing coagulation tank and precede sedimentation and
filtration units.
Fluoridation

Fluoride is added to waters to reduce the incidence of dental caries in the population. It is added by
a chemical feeder. Pumping and flowing through the distribution pipes will ensure that the fluoride
ion is thoroughly dispersed in the water. Fluoride is added at the end of the treatment train.

Ion Exchange

Ion exchange can be used to remove hardness ions (multivalent cations), nitrates, or other inorganic
constituents. Ion exchangers contain large molecular weight organic substances (resins) that have
the ability to exchange one ion for another.

Membrane Treatment

Membrane treatment can be used for removal of both soluble and particulate matter. Applications
can include softening, reduction of microbes, and SS removal.

Ozone (O3)

Used as a disinfectant. Ozone is highly reactive; therefore, it leaves no residual disinfection power
(or tastes) in water as it moves through the distribution system. Because of its high reactivity, it is
also commonly used in advanced oxidation processes.

Pipes, Channels, and Other Conduits

Flow in pipes and channels should have a minimum velocity of 0.3 m s−1 to avoid deposition of SS.
Recommended velocities at various locations in the plant depend on the state of the water.

Prechlorination or Pre-oxidation

Instead of using aeration, high concentrations of nuisance metals, such as Fe and Mn and other
metals that may be toxic, can be oxidized to more insoluble states by chlorine or other oxidants. The
precipitates will be removed by downstream processes of coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation,
and filtration. Sulfides (S2−) are also oxidized to sulfates. This treatment is also used to retard
microbial growth throughout the plant.

Recarbonation

In water-softening plants, it is often necessary to add an excess of lime to facilitate removal of

hardness ions. After sedimentation of the CaCO 3 and Mg (OH)2 precipitates, the pH of the water is
high because of the excess lime. Carbon dioxide is added to neutralize the excess OH −.

Reverse Osmosis (Membrane) and Electrodialysis

used for the removal of high concentrations of dissolved solids. Reverse osmosis essentially “filters”
dissolved solids from the water by forcing the water through a membrane by applying pressure in
excess of the osmotic pressure of the dissolved components in the solution. Electrodialysis uses
electric current that induces ions to migrate through a membrane. These technologies are primarily
used to desalinate brackish waters or to remove ions such as fluoride. They are also used for
softening.
Screens and Bar Racks

are used to remove coarse debris from a raw water source. This debris may damage pumps or
deposit in channels, causing clogging. They are located at the intake for the water source and at the
beginning of the treatment plant. Screenings are collected and disposed at a landfill site.

Sedimentation

Exposing the water to relatively quiescent conditions will allow settleable solids to be removed by
the action of the force of gravity. The sludge accumulated in these tanks may be disposed of in
landfills or into sewers for ultimate removal in the wastewater treatment plant, avoiding discharge
of the sludge to a receiving water body. Waters, particularly groundwaters that have a low
concentration of SS, may not require sedimentation. They can be directly filtered.

Sludge (Residuals) Concentration and Dewatering

The purpose of sludge concentration units is to reduce the volume of sludge for ultimate disposal in
a landfill. Vacuum dewatering, filter presses, belt filters, and centrifugation are commonly used to
separate the solids from the water. Chemical agents are added to the sludge going into the
dewatering unit to improve the efficiency of the device. Sludges are also dewatered in drying beds
that may be solar or freeze–thaw types.

Sludge Thickening

Thickening is a settling process where the sludge concentrates in a basin by the action of gravity.
Thickened sludge is usually further dewatered before disposal.

Softening

Softening is the removal of multivalent cations (hardness) in the water. As noted above, ion
exchange can be used to accomplish this task. Lime–soda ash [Ca(OH) 2-Na2CO3] softening involves
the addition of these agents in a particular sequence, followed by flocculation, sedimentation, and
filtration. Softening will be practiced in conjunction with coagulation.

Super-chlorination

Chlorine is a strong oxidizing agent that can destroy some taste and odor (T&O) compounds.

Ultrafiltration

In ultrafiltration or nanofiltration, pressure is used to drive a liquid through a membrane. The

process is used to separate higher molecular weight compounds and/or microorganisms from water.
Microfiltration uses membranes with larger-sized openings to filter small particles, bacteria, and
protozoans from a water. For smaller treatment plants, these filtration processes may be used in
place of granular media filtration.

Water Stabilization

Water stabilization refers to the adjustment of the pH, alkalinity, and calcium content of a water
such that there is a slight tendency for the finished water to precipitate CaCO 3.