Other translation methods by Newmark:

Plain prose translation: this refers to the prose translation of poems and poetic drama where
stanzas are translated into paragraphs, prose punctuation is introduced, original metaphors and
SL culture are retained. No sound-effects are reproduced in this type.

Cognitive translation: this type of translation reproduces the information in SL texts, converts the
SL grammar to its normal TL substitutions and reduces any figurative language to literal
language.

Academic translation: This translation method is practised in some British universities. It reduces
the SL text to an 'elegant' idiomatic educated TL version. It follows a non-existent literary
register.

Which strategy?

When translating a text, it is important to decide what strategies to use. According to Pym
(1992), the choice depends to the following factors:

1. What is the purpose of translating a certain text?

2. How can we recognise a certain type of translation once it is made available to us?
3. Are there extratextual factors which are beyond the translator's control?
4. Does paratext (notes, interpolations, etc.) play a role in our choice of a translation strategy?

Newmark V Diagram
Newmark draws a V diagram to classify translation types which are SL biased and others which are TL biased. The
following diagram is adopted from Newmark (1 988, p. 45):

SL emphasis TL emphasis

Word-for-word translation Adaptation

Literal translation Free translation

Faithful translation Idiomatic translation

Semantic translation Communicative translation

Equivalence: Equivalence is an important concept in translation and is the goal translators

keenly seek to achieve. Nida (1 964) proposed what is known as formal equivalence and
dynamic equivalence. Formal correspondence "focuses attention on the message itself, in both
form and content," whereas dynamic equivalence is based on "the principle of equivalent effect"
(p. 1 59). Popovic (1976) classifies equivalence into four types:

Linguistic equivalence: When there is word-word translation there is

equivalence/similarity/identicality/homogeneity between languages (SL and TL).

Paradigmatic equivalence: It refers to the similarity in the grammatical structures between the
two texts. on preserving the structures of the SL text as closely as possible but not so closely that
the TL structures are distorted.

Stylistic equivalence: It suggests the similarity in the perceived meaning or its influence on the
readers’ mind conveyed through the translated message. In other words, there is functional
equivalence of elements in both original and translation aiming at an expressive identity with the
invariant of identical meaning. The idiomatic expressions are quite crucial for conveying the
socio-cultural context of a given language.

Textual (syntagmatic) equivalence focuses on equivalence of form and shape.

Equivalent effect:
Some translation scholars argued for the principle of equivalent effect in translation. Among the
well-known translation theorists who supported this principle in translation are: (1) Nida (1 964)
who said that dynamic equivalence is based upon "the principle of equivalent effect" (p. 1 59)
and (2) Newmark (1981) who said that "Communicative translation attempts to produce on its
readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original" (p. 3 9).
Newmark (1988, p. 48) believes that 'equivalent effect' is a desirable result rather than an aim of
translation (italics original). He highlights two factors which challenge the equivalent

effect: (a) if the ST aims to affect and the TT aims to inform (different purpose) and (b) the
significant cultural gap between the SL and the TL.

Equivalence typology

Baker (20 1 8) classifies equivalence into different levels as follows: • Equivalence at word level
(pp. 1 0-46). Baker adopted a bottom-up approach in her analysis. The word level equivalence is
the first element to be examined by translators who analyse ST units into words aiming to find
direct ' equivalents ' in the TL. Baker says that translators should consider the morphemes which
indicate number, gender, and tense (p. 11).

Equivalence at the collocation level: Baker (20 18, p. 54) defines collocation as the tendency of
certain words to co-occur regularly in a certain language. Such tendency depends on
propositional meaning. Cheque often occurs with bank, pay, money and write than with moon
and butter. She discusses the difficulties of translating collocations which include the effect of
ST patterning, misinterpreting the meaning of SL collocation and accuracy vs. naturalness.

Exercise: Translate the following focusing on the underlined:

1. There is a close cooperation between the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan and the Palestinian
Authority.

2. Islam prohibits committing suicide.

3. The manager wrote a cheque to the new employee.

Grammatical equivalence: Baker (20 1 8, pp. 94- 1 23) discusses equivalence at the
grammatical level and says that different grammatical systems are used in different languages to
express any kind of information. She explains that the difference in grammatical rules can cause
problems in translation. Grammatical structures can influence the way the information or
message IS carried across through addition or omission of information in the TT due to the lack
of certain grammatical devices in the TL itself. Number, tense and aspect, voice, person and
gender may cause problems in translation if translators are not aware of their effect on
translation.

Textual equivalence: Baker (pp. 134-1 73) examines equivalence between a SL text and a TL
text. She focuses on information and cohesion and says that texture plays an important role in
translation because it provides practical guidelines for the understanding and analysis of the ST.
This can help translators produce a cohesive and coherent text for the target culture (TC)
audience in a particular context. Target audience, purpose of translation and text type play a
major role in maintaining the cohesive ties and coherence of the SL text.
Pragmatic equivalence: Baker (pp. 235-268) discusses implicatures and strategies of avoidance
during the translation process. Implicature is not about what is explicitly said but what is
implied. Finding out the implied meanings helps getting the ST message across. It is necessary
that translators recreate the author's intention in another culture to enable TC readers understand
the message.

Non-equivalence

Non-equivalence, or lexical gaps, between English and Kurdish can exist on different levels
including words, phrases sentences and texts. The following are examples of non-equivalence
between English and Kurdish. Non-equivalence here means that there are no direct equivalents in
the TL.

Exercise: Translate into Kurdish:

1. The new measures aim to reduce spam emails.

2. You cannot send this email if your computer is offline.

3. Phishing is the fraudulent attempt to obtain sensitive information such as usernames,

passwords, and credit card details by disguising as a trustworthy entity an electronic
communication.