KQ3: Developing tourism at what cost?

(ELECTIVE GEO)
• Can be both positive and negative

1) Economic
2) Socio-Cultural
3) Environmental
 Economic impacts
(Positive)

 Employment
opportunities
 Growth in
income
 Development of
infrastructure &
facilities
 Positive Economic Impacts:
Employment Opportunities
• Work performed for a wage or
salary, in cash or in kind.
• Increases employment
opportunities in tourism-related
jobs.
- Directly linked e.g. workers in hotels,
transportation, souvenir shops and
tour agencies.
- Indirectly linked e.g. taxi drivers,
retail shop owners.
- 56.7% of Maldives population
involved in tourism industry.
Tourism is the largest economic industry in Maldives in earning foreign
exchange revenues and generating employment in the country.
• Tourism industries tend to be labour-intensive

Area of Service Tourism Jobs

Travel-related Travel agents, tour operators, guides, airlines,
services cruise companies, railways, taxis
Accommodation & Hotel operators & staff (incl. receptionists,
Hospitality (incl. food porters & chambermaids), restaurants, cafes,
& beverage) food-catering businesses
Entertainment & Nature reserve guides & theme park operators,
Leisure facilities nightspot operators & entertainers, theatres,
museums, theme parks

Tourism Tourism coordinators, visitor information staff,

organisations advisory council members

• In 2011, the UNWTO estimated that the tourism industry employed

over 235 million people worldwide.
• This is roughly 6 to 8% of all the jobs in the world.
 Positive Economic Impacts:
Growth in Income
• For INDIVIDUALS
E.g. Fishermen in Pamilacan Island (Philippines) hired
by tour companies to take tourists for whale and
dolphin watching tours. Filipino fishermen paid
between US$80 and US$100 per boat trip by local
tour companies. This will help to improve their
standard of living (on top of their fishing income).
• Similarly, tour companies will also experience an
increase in revenue.
• There will be an overall increase in revenue for the
country through taxes collected from the fishermen
and tour companies.
• Tourism receipts – money received from tourist
spending, help to generate large revenue for many
countries.
• In 2011, worldwide tourism receipts exceeded US$1
trillion.
 Positive Economic Impacts:
Growth in Income
• For COUNTRY
- When tourists visit a country, they usually
spend on food, accommodation,
entertainment, sightseeing and shopping.
- Tourist spendings enable food, hotel,
leisure, retail and transport industries to
make profits.
- The government of the country will also
receive revenue through taxes paid by these
industries. Changi Airport
Tax on arrival: $21/-
- Hence, if tourist expenditure increases, Departure tax: $6/-
more revenue is generated for the
destination country.
 REVENUE from tour companies INCOME from taxi-drivers

TAXES collected from tour companies &

taxi-driver + TOURISM RECEIPTS

 REVENUE for the country

TOURISM RECEIPTS = money received from tourist spending

In 2016, the total contribution by tourism on Singapore’s
GDP (Gross Domestic Product), was US$28.7 billion, or
9.9% of GDP.
 Positive Economic Impacts:
Infrastructure Development
• Construction of transport and communication
networks, electrical frameworks & systems for water
and waste disposal to enhance tourists stay in the
country. But these facilities also enrich the lives of the
locals.
Transportation e.g. train infrastructure, Singapore
underground rail system
Sports e.g. Beijing National Stadium
Power e.g. Electricity pylons to transmit power
• E.g. $ 42 billion invested in infrastructure prior to
Beijing Olympics
Road and train infrastructure that link airports, cities and
tourist sites allow tourists access to local attractions. They
also allow local people better access to more markets,
healthcare, education and jobs – enhance tourism and bring
benefits to the locals.
Sporting venues built for major events such as the Olympic
Games and World Cup will improve the sporting
infrastructure of the host countries. They are also useful even
after the key event.
 In Athens, Greece, and Beijing, China, underground rail systems
were expanded to move large numbers of visitors during the
Summer Olympics Games in 2004 and 2008 respectively.
 Both rail systems continue to serve local populations and tourists
even after the Games.
Developing infrastructure
IMPROVE the economy:
• create jobs for local
workers (construction)
• boost local industries
when raw materials are
purchased from them
 Economic impacts
(Negative)
 Income leakage
 Seasonal
unemployment
 Under-use facilities
at certain times of
the year
 Shortage of
services
 Negative Economic Impacts:
Income Leakage
• The revenue generated from tourism
does not always remain in the
country where tourists spend their
money.
• This is because a large portion of the
tourism receipts is lost as a leakage,
esp. in LDCs.
• In these LDCs, the leakage occurs
when revenue earned from tourism
is paid to other countries for the
import of goods and services
needed to meet the needs of the
tourists.
Example:
• British tourists fly into Phuket, Thailand, on British Airways.
• They stay in British-owned InterContinental Hotel.
• They may eat mostly imported food such as British cookies,
baked beans, cheese & puddings available in supermarkets.
• Since tour companies, businesses and hotels in Phuket may
be owned by foreign companies, hence much of the profits
earned goes to the foreign owners instead of local businesses
and workers.
• This outflow of money and development opportunities from
Bangkok to other countries is known as LEAKAGE.
 Local operators/companies
• Hotels
TOURIST SPENDING • Restaurants/food outlets
• Accommodation • Cultural shows
• Food Income to the economy • Tourist attractions
• Entertainment Job opportunities for • Tour buses/guides
• Sightseeing local people
• Shopping Foreign-owned operators /
• Transport companies
• Airline companies
• Hotels
• Tour agents

Tourist expenditure in a country can contribute to its

economy or become LEAKAGES from its economy.
For every US$1 spent by a tourist in Phuket, 70 cents leaked into the global
economy, 24 cents go to the Thai economy and only 6 cents go to the Phuket
economy.
Leakage of tourism revenue
• Thailand: 70% of money spent by tourists leaked
out due to foreign owned tour operators, airlines,
hotels, imported food etc.
• Caribbean : 80% leakage
• India: 40% leakage
 Negative Economic Impacts:
Seasonal Unemployment
• Periodic rise and fall of tourist numbers throughout a year because
certain tourist activities depend on climatic conditions.
• These countries may experience a rise in tourist numbers for
several months followed by a drop in tourist numbers for the next
few months.
• As a result, people in some tourist-related jobs may have to find
other sources of income when employment in the tourism
industry is temporarily unavailable.
 Negative Economic Impacts:
Seasonal Unemployment
1) Due to climatic conditions e.g. EU peak during summer
months due to the warm weather in countries such as
Italy and Spain, while Sapporo in Japan peak during
winter months as tourists engage in winter sports
 • In many European
countries such as Spain,
UK, France and Greece,
majority of the hotel
stays take place in
SUMMER.
• Warm weather in
summer allows tourists
to do many activities
HOLIDAYS IN UK such as relaxing by the
beach or hiking.
• During summer,
employment in hotels
and restaurants across
Europe peaks. Hence
need to employ more
workers to cater to
tourists numbers.
Sapporo’s Snow Festival
• Many tourists visit Sapporo (Hokkaido) in winter to attend the snow
festival as well as engage in winter sports such as skiing and
snowboarding.
• Mountain ski resort operators will employ many workers during
winter to cater to the high tourist demand.
• These workers may go back to other jobs (e.g. farming, fishing) at
other times of the year until the next tourist season returns.
• This decreases the income of these people who are only SEASONALLY
employed and in turn affects the country’s economy.
2) Coincide with school holidays/ vacations e.g.
Malaysia tourist numbers peak during Singapore
school vacations
3) Fewer tourists during the monsoon season where
rainfall is heavy e.g. India during SW monsoon and
P. Malaysia during NE monsoon where beach
resorts along east coast will close until the next
tourist season which results in decrease in income.

Problems that seasonal workers face include:

• Job and income insecurity
• No guarantee of employment from one season to
the next
 Negative Economic Impacts:
Under use of facilities at certain times of the year
• Usually event-based facilities.
• Under-usage of facilities after event but can be costly to
maintain.
• E.g. Olympic-based venues
• Income from tourists normally pays for the cost of
maintaining such facilities. Hence some of these facilities
may become neglected when the no. of tourists drop
drastically.
• Public resources spent on these under use infrastructure
and facilities may reduce government spending in other
critical areas such as education and health which has direct
impact on the welfare of the local people.
• Since 2008 Olympics, the BN in
Beijing only held a few big-time
events.
• Revenue earned was not enough to
maintain the BN.
• $480 million to build & $11 million to
maintain yearly.
• Most of BN’s current revenue has
come from tourists who pay 50 yuan
to view the big empty stadium.
• But as memories of the 2008
Olympics fade, fewer tourists will
want to see this attraction.
• Foreign tourists appear to have lost
interest in the BN.
• BN is an empty museum piece now.
 Negative Economic Impacts:
Shortage of services
• Tourist infrastructure needs land, water and power.
• Can lead to shortage of services e.g. water supplies
or power in non-tourist areas, compromising the
needs of locals.
Large amounts of water are required to water the grass on golf courses
and fill swimming pools.
 Drinking water for nearby residents could be diverted to
meet the needs of tourist infrastructure.
The tourism industry consumes 65% of Bali’s water
supply while the poor find their wells going dry but
yet cannot afford tap water.
Large amounts of electricity are required to power tourist
facilities.
 Locals can suffer from a shortage of water or
power when they cannot afford to pay as much
as tourists.
Conflict of resource use
• According to WWF for Nature, tourists and tourism facilities in
Spain use up to 850 litres of water per person daily, almost 4x
the daily consumption of an average city dweller.
• The competition for resources may result in local communities
having to pay higher taxes to increase water supply.
 Social impacts
(Positive)
 Preservation of local customs and heritage
 Positive social impacts:
Preservation of Local Customs &
Heritage
• Protection of the way people live,
including their economic activities,
traditional beliefs and religious practices
- Heritage encapsulated in landmarks,
art, language etc.
- Customs shown in practices e.g. food,
utensil usage, greeting formalities
• As local people become more actively
involved in preserving their culture,
heritage and sites, enhance sense of
history, pride and sense of belonging to
the local community.
 Entertainment

Buildings & Monuments Way of greeting

Art

Way of eating
 Positive social impacts:
Preservation of Local Cultures &
Heritage
• Tourists are interested in authentic local cultures
(dance, rituals etc.).
• E.g. tourism has revived Balinese interest in their
own traditions & culture which reinforced their
cultural identity and pride.
 Positive social impacts:
Preservation of Local Cultures & Heritage
• Tourists interested in the way of life: Temple stay experience in
monasteries. The accommodations are inexpensive and the
rules are the same--no smoking, drinking or loud music.
• But staying in the monasteries and eating with pilgrims and
monks gives one a sense of the rhythm of religious life
throughout Asia.
 Positive social impacts:
Preservation of Local Cultures & Heritage
• Important sites of heritage and culture are
preserved and restored to their former glory due to
tourism. E.g. Angkor Wat complex in Siem Reap,
Cambodia, has entry fees that help fund
conservation efforts.
 Positive social impacts:
Examples of other sites restored to glory:
• Great Pyramids of Giza, Egypt
• Borobudur Temple, Indonesia
• Historical Church, Malacca
 Social impacts
(Negative)

 Dilution of local
customs and
heritage
 Increased crime
rate
 Negative social impacts:
Dilution of local customs & Heritage
• Tourism can turn local cultures into commodities when religious
rituals, ethnic rites and festivals are reduced to conform to tourist
expectations. Sacred sites and objects may not be respected when
they are perceived as goods/commodities to trade. Overtime,
cultural erosion may occur due to commodification.
• E.g. Kecak Dance, part of traditional religious ritual performed on
special occasions in Bali, has been shortened (to fit into tourists’
itinerary), taken out of its religious context and performed on a
daily basis, to different groups of paying tourists.
• Some dancers may deliberately pose for tourists to take
photographs.
• Therefore, the authenticity and significance of these cultural
events may be reduced when they become commercialised.
 Negative social impacts:
Dilution of local customs & Heritage
• Commercialisation of cultures and
customs.
• E.g. Kayan Lahwi women in
Thailand
• Local business people charge
tourists around US$10 to enter
villages to take photos with the
“long-necked dragon women”.
• Hence some tourists treat the
women as exhibits that they have
paid for. These tourists sometimes
aggressively take photographs of
the women without permission.
PADAUNG
or “long
necks” in
Northern
Thailand
“Zooification” where the local tribes (long-necked
women) treated as exhibits
Tourists become insensitive to local customs and cultures e.g. sacred
sites and objects may not be respected.

KOTA KINABALU, June 2, 2015

Foreigners photographed topless and naked on Mt Kinabalu
Mount Kinabalu, a World Heritage Site, is sacred to the locals, some of whom deem
it as the final resting place of their ancestors. The Dusun community still holds yearly
sacrificial rituals to appease the spirits and ask for permission for the safety of the
climbers. “Such actions truly defile the sanctity of sacred sites,” an exasperated
Sabah Tourism, Culture and Environment Minister Datuk Seri Masidi Manjun said.
NAKED TOURISM:
• Tourists posing for nude pictures across the grassy fields of
Machu Picchu that threatens Peru’s cultural heritage.
• TENSIONS between tourists and locals – can cause discomfort
and anger to locals as well as other tourists.
Local street vendors selling handicrafts in a temple in Nepal
that are mass produced and copied so they are losing their
significance.
Tirta Empul Tampaksiring is a tourist attraction as well as a sacred temple in Bali.
On certain days it is always full of visitors. There is a central fountain and the water
coming out of the ground never run out. The Balinese use these springs for
spiritual cleaning. When overcrowded with tourists, the temple ambience will be
compromised for the locals who go there for their spiritual cleansing.
 Negative social impacts:
Increased Crime
(1)Muggings, Pick-pocketing
• e.g. Widespread pick-pocketing in Louvre
(Paris, France), the most visited museum
in the world

(2)Cheating, Scamming (“Tourist Traps”)

• e.g. Syndicate posing as police officers to
cheat tourists off credit cards in London

(3)Tourists are easy targets because they

carry large sums of money and valuables,
tend to be off guard as they are on holidays
and less likely to report crimes as they wish
to avoid problems
Louvre is the world’s most heavily visited museum (about 10
million visitors yearly). Louvre is an important source of
income for Paris, France. Organized gangs (mostly minors
who can get into Louvre free of charge) pretend to talk to
the tourist in groups and rob him/her in the process.
 Negative social impacts:
Increased Crime
• Tourism may encourage vices & inappropriate activities.
• Unethical and illegal practices such as sexual exploitation of
children and young women is often closely associated with
tourism development (still prevalent in some parts of Thailand).
• Tourists may be attracted by the availability of drugs in certain
countries like Netherlands (drug trade flourishing).
• Legislation of gambling in casinos like in Macau and Monaco,
may affect the locals, esp. young ones who may view gambling
as a quick way to become rich.
• In some countries, the conservative local people may frown
upon scantily-clad tourists at beaches, alcohol consumption and
inappropriate dressing – all these may affect the impressionable
youths.
 Environmental impacts
(Positive)

 Conservation of
natural
environment
 Positive environmental impacts:
Conservation of Natural Environments
• Tourism earnings to fund protection of coral reefs,
rainforests, mountainous areas etc.
• E.g. Sepilok Orang-Utan Rehabilitation Centre in Sabah
Malaysia, partly relies on visitor entry fees to pay its staff
who help rehabilitate orang-utans that have been injured
or orphaned.
• In Kenya, the survival of animals in the country’s nature reserves
and national parks relies on funding received from international
tourists who want to see these animals in the wild.
• A single lion can generate US$7,000 a year in tourist revenue and a
herd of elephants around US$600,000 a year.
• The money raised from wildlife tourism becomes a way to continue
to preserve the animals and their habitats.
 Environmental impacts
(Negative)
 Vandalism
 Littering and pollution
 Destruction of habitats
 Increased carbon
footprint
 Increased congestion
 Negative environmental impacts:
Vandalism
• Act of deliberately damaging tourism sites

Graffiti on the Great Wall of China

Vandalism on Angkor wat

• Every year, 10 million
visitors come to the
Great Wall of China
(UNESCO World
Heritage Site).

• Many bricks covered

with English or
French phrases.

• Overnight campers
use the site as a
public toilet.

• Beer cans, cigarette

butts and takeaway
food boxes strewn
everywhere.
 Negative environmental impacts:
Littering and Pollution
• Irresponsible tourists on cruise ships often dump plastic bottles, food
packaging and old batteries OVERBOARD from cruise ships, causing
harbours, marinas and oceans to be polluted.
• E.g. Solid & liquid wastes dumped into the Caribbean Sea by cruise
ships estimated to produced more than 70 000 tons of waste each
year. Solid waste and litter degrade physical appearance of water,
shoreline and cause death of marine animals.
Construction of hotels & other tourist facilities often leads
to increased sewage pollution which causes damage to
coral reefs because it stimulates growth of algae which will
hinder their ability to survive.
 Negative environmental impacts:
Destruction of Habitats
• Popular tourist sites, such as quiet stretches of sandy beaches and scenic villages,
can be overwhelmed with visitors during busy times of the year. When too many
tourists visit a destination, they may destroy habitats and wildlife.
• Careless tourists may trample on plants while others may collect eggs and feathers
of birds as souvenirs.
• These tourists may also make too much noise which can disturb and frighten off
animals.
 Negative environmental impacts:
Destruction of Habitats
• E.g. Egypt’s Red Sea coast has developed into a major diving and
snorkeling destination for about 1.2 million visitors annually.
• Unfortunately, the habitats of coral reefs and exotic fish have been
damaged by some swimmers collecting shells or corals as
souvenirs, and by hotels and restaurants in the area dumping
waste and sewage into the sea.
• Though tourism in the Great Barrier Reef, Australia, generates millions of
dollars annually, the fragile ecosystems there are being threatened by too
much diving activities, excessive fishing & pollution.
• Other ‘culprits’ : Construction of resorts (runoff of sediments) & artificial
beaches, boats & seaplanes in the area, trampling on reef flats & tourists
urinating (increased level of nutrients).
 Negative environmental impacts:
Increased Carbon Footprint
• Carbon footprint refers to
the amount of
greenhouse gas
emissions that would be
produced by activities
that involve the use of
fossil fuels.
• These activities may
include travelling by
planes and tour buses,
and electricity
consumption by hotels.
• Carbon footprint is measured in equivalent amounts in carbon
dioxide.
• The carbon footprint of a 1-way economy class flight from
Singapore to Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, is 30 kg of carbon dioxide per
passenger.
• With more tourists travelling, there will be a higher carbon
footprint which will result in greater amount of greenhouse gases
being emitted.
 Negative environmental impacts:
Increased Congestion
• Large numbers of tourists can cause overcrowding in areas close
to popular attractions.
• Due to the large crowd, tourist shops and accommodations can
cluster near such areas and make them even more congested.
• This often causes vehicular and pedestrian traffic to become
congested as well.
 Negative environmental impacts:
Increased Congestion
• In Rome, Italy, many older walkways and narrow streets
are filled with tourists.
• Apart from adding to local traffic, the huge inflow of
cars and buses can contribute to air pollution.
 MACAU
• 35 casinos
• World’s biggest
gambling market
• Huge influx of Chinese
tourists during Lunar
New Year holiday
(deemed “world’s
biggest migration)

• Crammed hydrofoil ferry

• Jammed border checkpoints
• Extremely congested tourist trails
• Strained infrastructure
• Congestion infuriates local residents
 ‘Inca Trail” – Excessive hiking & Littering (water bottles, plastic wrappers) along the
route. With more hotels and restaurants built to accommodate the needs of
tourists, heaps of garbage are piled along the banks of Urubamba River.
 Use of helicopters – NOISE pollution to flora & fauna (thankfully helicopters banned
in 2010).
 Timber has been cut along the Inca Trail for fuel for cooking.
 Treading destroys land and artefactsr weight and combined footsteps of tourists
slowly damage the land and artefacts on the site. When ancient city was built in the
15th century, it had 800 inhabitants. It was not designed for more but now sees
almost 2500 visitors daily.
TENSIONS IN MANAGING IMPACTS OF TOURISM
• Tourism can produce TENSIONS due to differences
between the needs or expectations of different groups:
the tourists, the locals, the government, the tour
operators and the environment.
• These differences need to be balanced when managing
the impact of tourism.
 Tensions can arise when the needs of tourists conflict with the
needs of locals.
 For example, tourists may want to wear skimpy clothing on a hot,
sunny day. However, such clothing could make many locals in a
conservative country uncomfortable because it goes against their
values.
 Case Study: Bali, Indonesia.
BALI, whose
cultural landscape
is a World
Heritage Site, is
renowned for its
Hindu temples,
art, dance, food
and customs.

• In 2012, there were 2.9 million international tourist arrivals to Bali.

• As Bali has a resident population of 4.2 million, the large inflow of tourists
has caused some TENSIONS between tourists and locals.
• Tourist sites such as Kuta are often congested, partly due to large inflow of
ever-increasing foreign tourists, hence making it very difficult for locals to
conduct their daily business.
• Locals expect tourists to respect local customs and values, which tourists
sometimes fail to do. For example, many locals in Bali still object to public
displays of affection, which some tourists may perceive as acceptable.
• The large numbers of hotels, resorts, convention centres and other facilities
potentially deprive some locals of their water supply.
• The tourism industry consumes 65% of Bali’s water supply, resulting in
water shortages in some areas.
• Most vulnerable are the island’s poorest, who used to rely on dug wells
that have now gone dry.
• At the same time, these people cannot afford to be connected to the city’s
tap water supply.
 Tensions can arise when the needs of tourists conflict with the
need to conserve the environment.
 For instance, some natural attractions may be dependent on
tourist income for their conservation. However, the tourist inflow
may contribute to the damage of the attraction itself.
 Case Study: Machu Picchu, Peru, where there are tensions
between tourists and the need to conserve the environment.
• Machu Picchu was a city built by the Inca Civilisation on the slopes
of Andes Mountains 2430 m above sea level.
• Machu Picchu’s rich history and breath-taking landscape draw an
average of 3300 visitors daily.
• The site’s popularity has therefore caused some tensions between
the needs of tourists and the need to conserve the environment.
• Physically able tourists opt to use the ‘Inca
Trail’ for its stunning mountain scenery, cloud
forests, rivers as well as several Inca ruins.
Originally built by the Incas, the trail is also
populated with rare indigenous plant and
wildlife.
• However, the trail is slowly being eroded by
the >75000 tourists that hike on it each year.
Some hikers also leave behind rubbish such as
water bottles and plastic wrappers along the
trail.
• Tourists may prefer to reach
the site using helicopters for
convenience.
• In 2010, however, authorities
banned helicopters from the
site for fear that its noise
disturbs the area’s
indigenous wildlife.
• Tourists visit Machu
Picchu for its stunning
natural landscape and
rich history.
• However, the sheer
weight and combined
footsteps of tourists
visiting Machu Picchu
every year slowly
damage the land and
artefacts on the site.
What is Sustainable Tourism?
If we don’t reduce
the negative impacts Unable to benefit Not
of tourism, we will from tourism in the = sustainable
run out of tourism future
resources

We manage impacts of Enough for future use

tourism to ensure that it = OR future generations
is SUSTAINABLE

We achieve Careful management and use

sustainable CONSERVATION = of resources such that
tourism through resources will not be depleted
Sustainable tourism is a form of tourism organised
in a way that allows it to continue without causing
damage to the environment or without leaving
negative impacts on the surrounding society and
culture so as to benefit future generations. In the
process, it should maximise benefits for the local
communities and also address the needs of
visitors, industry and host communities.
 How to achieve sustainable tourism?
1. CONSERVATION OF FRAGILE ENVIRONMENTS (e.g. coral
reefs & mangroves) and PROMOTING SUSTAINABLE
TOURISM can be made possible via:
- laws and regulations
- support from local population
2. Responsibilities of various groups in conserving and
protecting tourist areas:
- Local communities
- Visitors
- Tour operators
- Planning authorities
- Non Government Organisations
 SUSTAINABLE TOURISM
Conservation via Laws & Regulations
Case Study: Machu Picchu, Peru (South America)
 SUSTAINABLE TOURISM
Conservation via Laws & Regulations
Case Study: Machu Picchu, Peru (South America)
• Machu Picchu was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage cultural
and natural site in 1983, mandated under the UN Convention and
Peruvian Law.
• Independent hikes without an authorized Inca Trail Guide are not
permitted. From 2017 onwards, all visitors entering Machu Picchu
must be accompanied by a certified guide who can lead no more
than 16 visitors. The guides and their charges can only follow one
of the 3 assigned circuits – no straying allowed. Only licensed tour
operators are permitted to sell Inca Trail packages.
• All visitors must use stipulated camp sites that have been
equipped with proper toilet facilities.
• Inca Trail will be closed one month each year (Jan or Feb) for
maintenance.
Such flights had been allowed during the 1990s!
 SUSTAINABLE TOURISM
CONSERVATION via Laws & Regulations
Case Study: Sepilok Orang Utan Rehabilitation Centre, Malaysia
• Created for the conservation of wild animals in the region. The
facility provides medical care for orphaned and confiscated orang
utans as well as dozens of other wildlife species.
• The creation of reserve areas minimizes the impact of
deforestation on orang utans and far fewer young apes become
the victim of the illegal pet trade as a result of these ‘sanctuaries’.
Babies are often caught during logging or forest clearance or
captured by poachers who slaughter the adult apes to reach them.
• The Malaysian Government has clamped down on illegal trading,
outlawing all such practice and imposing prison sentences on
anyone caught keeping them as pets.
Sustainable Tourism via Laws and Regulations
 Sustainable Tourism via Laws and Regulations
Case Study: Bhutan
1. The tourism industry in Bhutan is founded on the principle of sustainability:
• respect the culture & traditions of the people and their environments,
• conserve the natural & cultural heritage and
• improve the well-being of the people.
2. The Bhutan government adopted a policy of “high-value, low-volume” tourism in
order to maximize foreign exchange earnings and minimize potentially harmful
cultural and environmental impacts.
3. Tourists are kept to a manageable level through a government regulated tourist
tariff – US$200/person/day – which covers all food, accommodation, transport
and guide services. This tariff has succeeded in providing a source of revenue for
education, health care and building transport infrastructure.
4. All visitors are required to have guide accompaniment throughout their stay in
Bhutan. Guides have been trained and licensed by the Tourism Council of Bhutan.
Independent travel is not permitted. All tourists visiting Bhutan are required to
travel through an authorized tour operator on a pre-planned, pre-paid, guided
package tour. The tour operator is responsible for all logistical arrangements
during your stay in Bhutan.
 Sustainable Tourism via Laws and Regulations
Case Study: CHINATOWN (SINGAPORE)
• For Chinatown, the development into a tourist attraction
has had numerous social impacts.
• In 1983, due to overcrowding and hygiene issues in
Chinatown, street hawkers were removed and its residents
relocated to newly-built HDB flats.
• To inject new life into Chinatown, the STB implemented the
Chinatown Experience Guide Plan in 1998 to lure
pedestrians back by attracting businesses to set up shop
under stricter hygiene conditions.
• The Food Street was developed with support from various
government agencies and private stakeholders. This
includes an approximately S$1 million investment from the
STB.
 Sustainable Tourism via Laws and Regulations
Case Study: CHINATOWN (SINGAPORE)
• Today, most of Chinatown has undergone extensive urban
renewal. Several national conservation buildings have been
preserved as historical icons, including signature shophouses
with their 5-foot wide covered passageways.
• Chinatown has since been ‘revitalized’ by the new
businesses that moved in, attracting many local and foreign
visitors.
• However, these commercial activities have also played a role
in eroding the original heritage of Chinatown. Many of them
are now focused on tourist souvenirs and accommodation.
• There must be a careful balance between heritage and
modernization to prevent Chinatown from becoming a shell
without a soul.
 Sustainable Tourism via Laws and Regulations
Case Study: CHINATOWN (SINGAPORE)
• How is the impact managed?
• To retain Chinatown’s cultural heritage, the authorities
infused authentic and historical elements into the area.
• 33 heritage markers were installed by STB throughout
Chinatown as part of the Chinatown Experience Guide Plan.
• The Plan also resulted in the creation of the Chinatown
Heritage Centre.
• As Chinatown is a designated conservation site,
developments to the area are unlikely to occur and this
allows its existing environment to be conserved.
 Sustainable Tourism via Laws and Regulations
Case Study: IRs (SINGAPORE)
• Both MBS and RWS have contributed to an increase in
Singapore’s income through tourism.
• The opening of the IRs has created many employment
opportunities in the hotels, restaurants, theme parks and
casinos.
• In 2012, the IRs contributed record-high tourism receipts of
US$18.5 billion.
• The IRs have placed Singapore in a more prominent
position on the world map as a vibrant city with a range of
leisure activities for tourists and residents alike.
• Drawbacks: Rising gambling habits among locals
 Sustainable Tourism via Laws and Regulations
Case Study: IRs (SINGAPORE)
• How is the impact managed?
• The National Council on Problem Gambling was setup to
address problem gambling.
• The Council implements casino entry levies and casino exclusion
orders for Singaporeans an PRs.
• The Council carries out effective programmes for public
education and treatment services for problem gamblers and
their families.
• Advertisements are placed on primetime TV to warn against
gambling.
• The government has also pledged to keep a close watch on the
industry and introduce stricter rules.
• Both IRs have been fined in 2012 for disregarding social
safeguards.
• To curb the rise in gambling addicts in Singapore (presence of RWS and MBS
casinos), an entrance fee of $100 for Singaporeans and PRs is imposed.
• A casino levy of $2000 for one year is another alternative to the $100 one-time
entrance fee.
• HOWEVER, the cost of $100 per entry or $2000 per year still does not deter
habitual gambling.
• The two IRs also open the doors to undesirable activities such as money
laundering, prostitution and organized crime.
 Sustainable Tourism at International Level
• United nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation
(UNESCO) is very involved in conservation.
• UNESCO seeks to encourage the identification, protection and
preservation of cultural and natural heritage around the world
considered to be of outstanding value to humanity.
• Encourage participation of the local population in the
preservation of their cultural and natural heritage;
• Help States Parties safeguard World Heritage properties by
providing technical assistance and professional training; and
• the World Heritage Fund provides about US$4 million annually.
• UNESCO provides funding to threatened sites to conserve them.
• World heritage sites has increased from 12 sites in 1978 to 1031
by 2014.
List of the 37 UNESCO World Heritage Sites
in Southeast Asia

• 2 World Heritage Sites in Cambodia

• 8 World Heritage Sites in Indonesia
• 2 World Heritage Sites in Laos
• 4 World Heritage Sites in Malaysia
• 1 World Heritage Site in Myanmar
• 6 World Heritage Sites in the Philippines
• 1 World Heritage Site in Singapore
• 5 World Heritage Sites in Thailand
• 8 World Heritage Sites in Vietnam

Note: there are currently no World Heritage Sites listed by UNESCO in Brunei
and Timor Leste.
 Sustainable Tourism via Support from Locals
COMMUNITY-BASED TOURISM (CBT)
Case Study: Candirejo Village in Java, Indonesia
• Locals can also play a key role in conserving and protecting
tourist areas.
• With support from the government, the villagers in
Candirejo set up a cooperative in 2003 to manage ad
implement the community’s tourism-related programmes.
• The villagers also participated in decision-making through
discussions and consultations with the cooperative about
the programmes to be carried out.
• These programmes included developing homestay
accommodations, developing organic farms and organising
local transport.
 Sustainable Tourism via Support from Locals
COMMUNITY-BASED TOURISM (CBT)
Case Study: Candirejo Village in Java, Indonesia
• The programmes also trained villagers to produce
handicrafts, to provide catering and to work as tour
guides.
• By 2004, the village had 22 homestays, 22 andongs (local
transport of horse-drawn carts) and 6 local restaurants.
• This was in contrast in 2002 when the village had only 10
homestays, 5 andongs and no restaurants.
• The village also reported 63 new jobs, 5 new businesses
and a 12.5% increase in average income per villager from
2001 to 2003.
 Sustainable Tourism via Support from Locals
COMMUNITY-BASED TOURISM (CBT)
Case Study: Candirejo Village in Java, Indonesia
Plus points:
• Locals have a say over tourism activities and promote
authentic traditional culture.
• Tourists experience community lifestyle by partaking in
above activities.
• CBT is both socially and economically sustainable because
local people can benefit from the jobs created.
• Money earned from tourism can be used to improve local
amenities/facilities (roads, schools, clinics etc.) and living
conditions of the villagers.
 Sustainable Tourism via Support from Locals
COMMUNITY-BASED TOURISM (CBT)
Case Study: Candirejo Village in Java, Indonesia
Drawbacks:
• Local communities often face funding problems when
setting up businesses or investing in vehicles to facilitate
tourism.
• As CBT is conducted on a small scale, there is less revenue
to earn from tourists.
• Some tourists may have unrealistic expectations of their
trips. They may be dissatisfied with the conditions of
village life and make unreasonable demands to the villages
(want ceiling fans etc.), resulting in conflict with locals.
• Seasonal nature of tourism may likely to cause a drop in
incomes during off-peak seasons.
 Sustainable Tourism via Ecotourism
• Ecotourism is RESPONSIBLE travel to NATURAL
AREAS that CONSERVES the environment and
IMPROVES the well-being of the local people.
• It aims to let visitors appreciate the scenery of the
area and help them appreciate local culture. It also
ensures that part of the revenue earned is put back
into maintaining and protecting the area.
• There is conscious effort in such tours to increase
the employment of locals and minimize the impact
on the natural environment by reducing the volume
of waste generated, using recycled materials and
conserving resources such as water and energy.
 Sustainable Tourism via Ecotourism
Case Study: Waitomo Glowworm Caves (New Zealand)

• Tours to the Waitomo Glowworm Caves are managed by the NZ government

in partnership with the local Maori.
• A special advisory group have been tasked to monitor the cave and
recommend the best tourism practices. They determine the management
of the cave environment and decide the no. of people who can visit each
day.
• The CO2 levels in the caves are monitored constantly. Cave closures due to
high CO2 can occur 3-10 times a year between 30 mins to 2 hours.
• Knowledgeable guides, many of whom are local people whose parents and
grandparents have guided in the caves.
• Tourism also benefit the local Maori, who won the caves and receive a
portion of the entrance fees. The local Maori also receive income from
being employed as part of the cave staff.
• Biggest issue facing Waitomo Glowworm Caves: how to deliver ongoing
customer experience and managing the natural environment amidst rising
visitor numbers?
Sustainable Tourism via Ecotourism
Case Study: Phang Nga Bay, Phuket, Thailand
Low-impact tours in and around Phang Nga Bay area offer
visitors a chance to see the natural beauty of Phuket in a non-
invasive way using canoes that hire local guides.
 Sustainable Tourism via Ecotourism
LIMITATIONS:
• Some profit-driven tour operators attempt to take advantage of
ecotourism’s growing popularity by offering nature-based packages
that looked like ecotourism-related but are not environmentally
sustainable.
• For ecotourism to succeed, tourist numbers must be maintained
within the carrying capacity of the environments and tourists should
be accompanied by guides who can educate them on protecting the
environment. Some tour operators view large numbers as a source
of higher income. E.g. as firefly watching became popular in the
Kampung Kuantan mangroves in Malaysia, motorized boats replaced
the manually rowed sampans to cater to large crowds, and some tour
operators allowed tourists to catch fireflies, threatening the
sustainability of the area.
• Ecotourism may suffer in areas where laws are not strictly enforced.
E.g. Gabon in Africa has a large area of forests and wide variety of
wildlife. Lack of regulations has resulted in the frequent hunting and
poaching of animals such as elephants and gorillas.
1. Local communities
2. Planning
authorities
3. NGOs
4. Tour operators
5. Visitors
1. Local Communities
• Community-based tourism
• Case study: Candirejo Village, Java, Indonesia

2. Planning Authorities
• Implementing laws and policies
• Case studies:
- Wakatobi National Park (Indonesia)
- Matang Mangrove Forest (Perak, Malaysia)
- Machu Picchu (Peru, South America)
- Sepilok Orang Utan Rehab Centre (Malaysia)
- Bhutan’s “high-value, low-volume” tourism policy
- Singapore (Chinatown and the IRs)
3. Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs)
• NGOs operate independently of the government.
• The International Ecotourism Society (TIES), the largest and
oldest ecotourism organization in the world, seek to educate
tourists, as well as influence the tourism industry,
governments and other key organizations to integrate the
principles of ecotourism into their operations and policies.
 Example:
• The Nature Society of
Singapore (NSS) is run by
volunteers who organize
activities such as conservation
projects and nature walks,
hence bringing greater
awareness of environmental
issues.
• In 2001, NSS played a critical role in reverting plans to reclaim
mudflats of Chek Jawa, which is a natural coastal habitat on Pulau
Ubin.
• As a result, the unique wildlife there has been preserved, and in
2007, a boardwalk was constructed to allow visitors to tour the
area in a sustainable manner.
• NSS had also successfully campaigned for the protection of the
mangrove and bird populations at Sungei Buloh – presently named
as Sungei Buloh Wetland Reserve.
• HOWEVER, NGOs have difficulty in obtaining
external funding.
• As non-profit organizations that often rely on
donations, NGOs may be hampered by the lack of
financial resources.
• Furthermore, NGOs also need support such as
manpower, expertise and marketing campaigns
from the local communities and government.
4. Tour Operators
• International tour operator organizations such as the Tour
Operators Initiative (TOI) advise tour operators on the
implementation of the principles of sustainable tourism in
their tour packages.
• TOI also encourages tour operators to brief tourists on
responsible behavior at their destinations.
• Tour operators are in the best position to regulate tourist
behavior to maintain quality of tourist sites – preventing
tourists from littering, wandering into restricted areas or
making too much noise.
 Example:
• A briefing by a tour guide at Machu
Picchu (Peru), a UNESCO World
Heritage Site, is often the fastest way
for tourists to know about the
culture and history of this place.
• This briefing also serves to remind
tourists to practise appropriate
behaviour (stay within walking path).

• As tour operators act as the intermediaries

between tourists and the various service
providers in tourist areas, they can help local
communities make preparations for visitor
arrivals, provide feedback on their service
standards and to improve the sustainability of
their activities.
• In this way, tour operators play a role in
maintaining healthy interactions between
tourists and local communities.
• HOWEVER, tour businesses need to make money to survive. The
need to generate profits can sometimes bring tour operators into
conflict with other stakeholders.
• Also it may override concerns to preserve the environment as when
addressing these concerns would reduce their profits.

• Example: Motorised boats have been bring large crowds to watch

fireflies in the Kampung Kuantan mangroves in Malaysia, causing
disturbances to the fireflies and the peace of the mangrove habitat.
In order to make tourists happy, some tour operators even allow
tourists to catch fireflies in the area.
5. Visitors
• Responsibility has been
placed upon tourists planning
to visit an area to first gather
information on the area and
its local population before
they depart.
• Learning about the culture,
traditions and background of
a destination would enable
tourists to better appreciate
the locals’ way of life, as well
as the problems they face.
 Example: Visitors should
dress appropriately to visit
temples in Thailand to
respect the local population
of the place or remove
footwear at certain places
of worship like mosques and
Hindu temples in Singapore.

Example: Trekkers aware of the

problem of deforestation in the
Annapurna regions in Nepal can
use less wood for hot water
baths so as not to further deplete
scarce wood resources there.
• HOWEVER, even though codes of conduct such as the Global Code of
Ethics for Tourism exist, their effectiveness is limited as it is often up to
tourists to practise responsible behaviour at tourist destinations.
• If planning authorities do not actively promote these codes, and tour
operators do not convey them to tourists, the principles of sustainable
tourism would not be applied (do not want to offend tourists)
• Visitors may still exhibit irresponsible behaviours that can damage a
tourist attraction (e.g. vandalism and littering). In some cases, the sheer
no. of tourists alone can damage a tourist site through their collective
footsteps, noise or touch.
Conclusion
• Each group of stakeholders in tourism
has to play their role in the sustainability
of tourism.
• No single group can achieve
conservation and protection of tourist
areas solely through its own efforts.
• Close cooperation among the various
groups is required.
• E.g. Planning authorities can allocate
space for an information centre where
tourists can learn about the
environment and culture of a place.
NGOs can help set up the
exhibits/displays info centre based on
their knowledge and research. Tour
operators can ensure that they bring the
tourists visit the information centre as
part of the itinerary. And the informed
tourists can regulate their behavior.