⭐

EarthSci Module 2.1: Theories

about the Formation of the
Universe
Hans Lippershey (1570-1619)

A Dutch eyeglass maker.

In 1008, he invented an eye device that could magnify an object 3x which had a
concave eye piece

Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)

In 1609, he heard about the dutch perspective glasses and designed one himself
which magnifies an object 10x.

Albert Einstein

the universe is finite, a closed 4-dimensional sphere. The universe as a whole was
homogeneous.

Georges Lemaître

Belgian Priest, Astronomer, Physics Professor.

Proposed the Big Bang Theory. (it is said that The Big Bang happened 13.8 Billion
years ago)

Expansion of the universe

Proposed because it was observed that the universe is expanding based on

the degree of red shifts.

If moving away from us - shifts long red waves.

If moving towards us - shifts short blue waves.

Background Radiation

EarthSci Module 2.1: Theories about the Formation of the Universe 1

 The afterglow of the big bang is called "Comic Background Radiation."

In 1961, Arro Penzias and Robert Wilson verified its existence.

Abundance of Elements

The proportion of Helium in the universe should be 24%.

Proposed because of the observations made by Edum Hobble and Carl Wirtz.
George Gamow

Theorized that the nuclear reactions created during the big bang created all of the
light elements like hydrogen and helium. The universe started to cool and the
heavier elements were produced as well.

Nuclear Fusion - From Hydrogen to Helium

Assumptions:

1. the universe is at the largest scale, smooth, and homogeneous

2. This smooth universe is dominated by gravity alone therefore it must either contract
to or expand from a single point.

Steady State Theory

The universe is always expanding but maintaining a constant average density, with
matter being continuously created to form new stars and galaxies.

Is proposed by Fred Hoyle, Thomas Gold, and H. Bondi.

Problems:
The universe is not smooth. They say that even if the universe started out smoothly,
there were tiny clumps in its early period. Eventually, these tiny clumps became
bigger and bigger until they formed stars and galaxies that we have today.

The fluctuations found in the in the background radiation indicates that there must
be a hundred times more dark matter than visible matter. But there is no
experimental or observational evidence that dark matter exists. It’s a theory to
make the Big Bang work.

EarthSci Module 2.1: Theories about the Formation of the Universe 2

 Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe
Analysis of WMAP data found that the universe is ~13.8 billion years old.

It also revealed that the content of the universe includes 4% ordinary matter, 23%
unknown type of dark matter, and 73% of mysterious dark energy.

Theories about the formation of the Solar

System
Planet Characteristics
What makes a planet (according to the International Astronomical Union):

Is in orbit around the sun

Has sufficient mass to assume a nearly round shape

is not a satellite (moon)

Has cleared the neighborhood around its orbit

The Terrestrial Planets The Jovian Planets

Mercury Jupiter

Venus Saturn

Earth Uranus

EarthSci Module 2.1: Theories about the Formation of the Universe 3

 Mars Neptune

Characteristics of the Terrestrial Characteristics of the Jovian Planets:

Planets:
gaseous and big
rocky and small
Many moons
No or few moons
Rings
No rings
Less dense than Terrestrial Planets
Denser than Jovian Planets
Made mostly of hydrogen and helium
Made mostly of rocks and metals
The terrestrial planets are the four
The terrestrial planets are the four outermost planets in the solar
innermost planets in the solar system.
system.

Planetary Orbits:
All planets is in an almost circular (elliptical) orbits around the Sun, in an approximately
the same plane (ecliptic).

Sense of revolution:

counter-clockwise

Sense of rotation:

counter-clockwise (with exception of Venus, and Uranus)

Orbits generally inclined by no more that 3.4° (except for Mercury = 7°)

Major Observations Included in Every Theory

The solar system is extremely flat.

There is a clear demarcation (asteroid belt) between the terrestrial and giant
planets.

The Sun's rotation axis has a tilt of 6°.

99.9% of the total mass of the solar system comes from the Sun.

EarthSci Module 2.1: Theories about the Formation of the Universe 4

 Encounter Hypothesis
By George Buffon in (1745)

This was a dualistic theory.

A rogue star passes close to the Sun about 5 billion years ago. Material, in the form
of hot gas, is tidally stripped from the Sun and the rogue star. This material
fragments into smaller lumps which form the planets.

EarthSci Module 2.1: Theories about the Formation of the Universe 5

 Nebular Hypothesis
By Pierre - Simon Laplace in (1796)

EarthSci Module 2.1: Theories about the Formation of the Universe 6

 This was a monistic theory.

States that our solar system started in a huge cloud of gasses (nebula) which was
spinning slowly. It collapsed because of gravity and as it collapse, it started spinning
quickly and began to flatten to conserve angular momentum.

A protostar/proto-sun was created in the nebula’s center.

Planetesimals were formed, becoming protoplanets.

Heavier elements collected in the inner region (closer to the proto-sun), while lighter
elements were pushed away to the outer region (farther from the proto-sun)

Evidences of the Nebular Theory:

1. The Formation of Planets and Solar Debris

a. Rocky planets are nearer the sun and they only have little hydrogen in them,
while gaseous planets are farther from the Sun and are mostly hydrogen.

b. Comets, asteroids, and meteorites recovered on Earth also provide a number of

clues and evidence of Nebular-type development.

c. All of the planets revolve around the Sun in the same plane and direction.

d. Most Solar System objects orbit and rotate in an organized fashion especially
with planets around the Sun.

2. The Composition of the Sun

a. The Sun is mostly composed of hydrogen. This can also be tested.

Observations of the Sun agree incredibly well with what would be expected of a
giant ball of mostly hydrogen generating heat by nuclear fusion in the core. The
composition can also be measured using helioseismology (the study of
'Sunquakes') and agrees with the theory.

3. Nebulae (observational evidence)

a. The various nebulae that astronomers can directly see with telescopes provides
evidence for the nebular theory.

4. Observations of the Solar System

a. The planets orbit the Sun in a clockwise manner. Most of their moons also
rotate in the same direction. This is expected if the same debris around the

EarthSci Module 2.1: Theories about the Formation of the Universe 7

 proto-Sun composed these celestial bodies.

5. Observations throughout the Galaxy

a. Since physics is supposed to work the same everywhere, observations of the

same processes are happening throughout the Galaxy. It would be strange if
the Solar System were to be formed in a different way to other systems since
the laws of physics should be consistent.

b. Stars are observed forming in the depths of giant clouds and dust, with young
stars with disks of debris around them, which look like debris disks where
planets are made out from. Link

💡 The largest known volcano in the solar system is Olympus Mons on Mars

💡 An eclipse of the Moon can be seen by anyone on the side of Earth facing the
Moon at that time

EarthSci Module 2.1: Theories about the Formation of the Universe 8