2.2 Techniques of Circuit Analysis - v2

1
Index
• Kirchhoff’s laws in the frequency domain.

• Series, parallel, and Delta-to Wye simplifications.
• Source transformation and Thévenin-Norton
equivalent circuits.
• The node-voltage method.
• The mesh-current method.
• Phasor diagrams.
2
Kirchhoff’s laws in the frequency domain
3
Kirchhoff’s voltage law in the frequency domain
We begin by assuming that represent voltages around a closed path in a circuit.
We also assume that the circuit is operating in a sinusoidal steady state. Thus
Kirchhoff’s voltage law requires that:
𝑣1 + 𝑣2 + ⋯ + 𝑣𝑛 = 0
In the sinusoidal steady state
𝑉𝑚1 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃1 + 𝑉𝑚2 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃2 + ⋯ + 𝑉𝑚𝑛 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃𝑛 = 0
Euler’s identity
ℛ{𝑉𝑚1 𝑒 𝑗𝜃1 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 } + ℛ{𝑉𝑚2 𝑒 𝑗𝜃2 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 } + ⋯ + ℛ{𝑉𝑚𝑛 𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝑛 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 } = 0
4
ℛ{𝑉𝑚1 𝑒 𝑗𝜃1 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 } + ℛ{𝑉𝑚2 𝑒 𝑗𝜃2 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 } + ⋯ + ℛ{𝑉𝑚𝑛 𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝑛 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 } = 0
Rewrite
ℛ{𝑉𝑚1 𝑒 𝑗𝜃1 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 + 𝑉𝑚2 𝑒 𝑗𝜃2 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 + ⋯ + 𝑉𝑚𝑛 𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝑛 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 } = 0
Factoring the term 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 from each term yields
ℛ{(𝑉𝑚1 𝑒 𝑗𝜃1 + 𝑉𝑚2 𝑒 𝑗𝜃2 + ⋯ + 𝑉𝑚𝑛 𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝑛 )𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 } = 0
5
ℛ{𝑽1 + 𝑽2 + ⋯ + 𝑽𝑛 )𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 } = 0
But 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 ≠ 0
𝑽1 + 𝑽2 + ⋯ + 𝑽𝑛 = 0
KVL in the frequency domain

This equation applies to phasor voltages.
6
Kirchhoff’s current law in the frequency domain
A similar derivation applies to a set of sinusoidal currents. Thus if:
𝑖1 + 𝑖2 + ⋯ + 𝑖𝑛 = 0
𝑰1 + 𝑰2 + ⋯ + 𝑰𝑛 = 0
KCL in the frequency domain

This equation applies to phasor current.
7
Series, parallel, and Delta-to Wye simplifications.
8
The rules for combining impedances in series or parallel and for making delta-to-wye
transformations are the same as those for resistors. The only difference is that
combining impedances involves the algebraic manipulation of complex numbers.
Impedances in series
Impedances in series can be combined into a single impedance by simply adding the
individual impedances.
The circuit shown in the figures defines the problem in general terms.
The impedances 𝑍1 , 𝑍2 , … , 𝑍𝑛 are connected in series between terminals a, b.
When impedances are in series, they carry the same phasor current 𝑰. From 𝑽 = 𝑍𝑰, the
voltage drop across each impedance is 𝑍1 𝑰, 𝑍2 𝑰, … , 𝑍𝑛 𝑰 and from Kirchhoff’s voltage
law:
𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝑍1 𝑰 + 𝑍2 𝑰 + ⋯ + 𝑍𝑛 𝑰 = (𝑍1 + 𝑍2 + ⋯ + 𝑍𝑛 ) 𝑰
9
Impedances in series
The equivalent impedance between terminals a and b:
𝑽𝑎𝑏
𝑍𝑎𝑏 = = 𝑍1 + 𝑍2 + ⋯ + 𝑍𝑛
𝑰
10
Example
A 90 Ω resistor, a 32 𝑚𝐻 inductor, and a 5 𝜇𝐹 capacitor are connected in series
across the terminals of a sinusoidal voltage source, as shown in the figure. The
steady-state expression for the source voltage 𝑣𝑠 is 750 cos 5000𝑡 + 30º 𝑉.
a) Construct the frequency-domain equivalent circuit.
b) Calculate the steady-state current 𝑖 by the phasor method.
11
Impedances in parallel.
Impedances connected in parallel may be reduced to a single equivalent impedance by
the reciprocal relationship.
1 1 1 1
= + + ⋯+
𝑍𝑎𝑏 𝑍1 𝑍2 𝑍𝑛
The figure depicts the parallel connection of impedances. Note that when impedances
are in parallel, they have the same voltage across their terminals.
12
Combining Kirchhoff’s current law with the phasor-domain version of Ohm’s law.
𝑰1 + 𝑰2 + ⋯ + 𝑰𝑛 = 0
𝑽 𝑽 𝑽 𝑽
= + + ⋯+
𝑍𝑎𝑏 𝑍1 𝑍2 𝑍𝑛
13
For the special case of just two impedances in parallel
𝑍1 𝑍2
𝑍𝑎𝑏 =
𝑍1 + 𝑍2
1
𝑌= = 𝐺 + 𝑗𝐵 (siemens)
𝑍
Admittance is, of course, a complex number, whose real part, 𝐺, is called conductance
and whose imaginary part, 𝐵, is called susceptance.
Like admittance, conductance and susceptance are measured in siemens (S).
14
Conductance and susceptance.
𝑌𝑎𝑏 = 𝑌1 + 𝑌2 + ⋯ + 𝑌𝑛
The admittance of each of the ideal passive circuit elements also is worth noting and is summarized in the Table.
15
Example
The sinusoidal current source in the circuit shown in the figure produces the current
𝑖𝑠 = 8𝑐𝑜𝑠200000𝑡 𝐴.
a) Construct the frequency-domain equivalent circuit.
b) Find the steady-state expressions for 𝑣, 𝑖1 , 𝑖2 and 𝑖3 .
16
Delta-to-Wye transformations
The 𝜟-to-𝒀 transformation that we discussed in the previous chapter with regard to
resistive circuits also applies to impedances.
The figure defines the Δ-connected impedances along with the 𝑌-equivalent circuit.
The 𝒀 impedances as functions of the 𝜟 impedances are:
𝑍𝑏 𝑍𝑐
𝑍1 =
𝑍𝑎 + 𝑍𝑏 + 𝑍𝑐
𝑍𝑐 𝑍𝑎
𝑍2 =
𝑍𝑎 𝑍𝑏
𝑍3 =
17
Delta-to-Wye transformations
The 𝛥-to-𝑌 transformation also may be reversed; that is, we can start with the Y
structure and replace it with an equivalent 𝛥 structure.
The 𝜟 impedances as functions of the 𝒀 impedances are:
𝑍1 𝑍2 + 𝑍2 𝑍3 + 𝑍3 𝑍1
𝑍𝑎 =
𝑍1
𝑍1 𝑍2 + 𝑍2 𝑍3 + 𝑍3 𝑍1
𝑍𝑏 =
𝑍2
𝑍1 𝑍2 + 𝑍2 𝑍3 + 𝑍3 𝑍1
𝑍𝑐 =
𝑍3
18
Use a 𝛥 -to-𝑌 impedance transformation to find 𝑰0 , 𝑰1 , 𝑰2 , 𝑰3 , 𝑰4 , 𝑰5 , 𝑽1 , and 𝑽2 in the
circuit of the figure.
19
Source transformation and Thévenin-Norton
equivalent circuits
20
equivalent circuits
The source transformations introduced in previous chapter and the Thévenin- Norton
equivalent circuits discussed earlier are analytical techniques that also can be applied
to frequency-domain circuits.
We prove the validity of these techniques by following the same process used in the
previous chapter, except that we substitute impedance (𝑍) for resistance (𝑅).
The figure shows a source-transformation equivalent circuit with the nomenclature of
the frequency domain.
21
equivalent circuits
The left figure illustrates the frequency-domain version of a Thévenin equivalent circuit.
The right figure shows the frequency-domain equivalent of a Norton equivalent circuit.
The techniques for finding the Thévenin equivalent voltage and impedance are identical
to those used for resistive circuits, except that the frequency-domain equivalent circuit
involves the manipulation of complex quantities. The same holds for finding the Norton
equivalent current and impedance.
22
equivalent circuits
Example
Use the concept of source transformation to find the phasor voltage 𝑽0 in the circuit
shown in the figure.
23
equivalent circuits
We can replace the series combination of the voltage source (40∠0º)
and the impedance of 1 + 𝑗3 Ω with the parallel combination of a current
source and 1 + 𝑗3 Ω impedance. The source current is:
40 40
𝑰= = 1 − 𝑗3 = 4 − 𝑗12𝐴
1 + 𝑗3 10
Note that the polarity

reference of the 40 V source
determines the reference
direction for 𝑰.
24
equivalent circuits
Next, we combine the two parallel branches into a single impedance
(1 + 𝑗3)(9 − 𝑗3)
𝑍= = 1.8 + 𝑗2.4 Ω
10
𝑽 = 4 − 𝑗12 1.8 + 𝑗2.4 = 36 − 𝑗12𝑉
25
equivalent circuits
Also note that we have reduced the circuit to a simple series circuit. We
calculate the current by dividing the voltage of the source by the total
series impedance:
36 − 𝑗12 12(3 − 𝑗1) 39 + 𝑗27

𝑰0 = = =
12 − 𝑗16 4(3 − 𝑗4) 25
𝑰0 = 1.56 + 𝑗1.08𝐴
26
equivalent circuits
We now obtain the value of 𝑽0 by multiplying by the impedance 10 - j19:
𝑽0 = 1.56 + 𝑗1.08 10 − 𝑗19
𝑽0 = 36.12 − 𝑗18.84 𝑉
27
equivalent circuits
Example
Find the Thévenin equivalent circuit with respect to terminals a, b for the
circuit shown in the figure.
28
The node-voltage method
29
We introduced the basic concepts of the node-voltage method of circuit analysis.
The same concepts apply when we use the node-voltage method to analyze frequency-
domain circuits.
Example.
Use the node-voltage method to find the branch
currents 𝑰𝑎 , 𝑰𝑏 and 𝑰𝑐 in the circuit of the figure.
30
Three essential nodes, so there are 2 equations to solve the circuit.
𝑽2 −𝑽1
𝑰𝑥 = ;
1+𝑗2
𝑽2 −𝑽1 𝑽 𝑽2 −20𝑰𝑥 𝑽 𝑽1 −𝑽2
(Node 2) 2
+ −𝑗5 + = 0; (Node 1) −10.6 + 101 + = 0;
1+𝑗2 5 1+𝑗2
Multipliying by 1 + 𝑗2
Multipliying by 1 + 𝑗2
(Node 2 and 𝑰𝑥 ) −5𝑽1 + (4.8 + 𝑗06)𝑽2 =0; (Node 1) 𝑽1 1.1 + 𝑗0.2 − 𝑽2 = 10.6 + 𝑗21.2;
31
(Node 2 and 𝑰𝑥 ) −5𝑽1 + (4.8 + 𝑗06)𝑽2 =0;

𝑽1 = 68.40 − 𝑗16.80𝑉;
(Node 1) 𝑽1 1.1 + 𝑗0.2 − 𝑽2 = 10.6 + 𝑗21.2; 𝑽2 = 68 − 𝑗26𝑉.
32
𝑽
𝑰𝑎 = 101 = 6.84 − 𝑗1.68 𝐴; Checking
𝑽1 −𝑽2
𝑰𝑥 = = 3.76 + 𝑗1.68 𝐴; 𝑰𝑎 + 𝑰𝑥 = 6.84 − 𝑗1.68 + 3.76 + 𝑗1.68 = 10.6𝐴;
1+𝑗2
𝑽2 −20𝑰𝑥
𝑰𝑏 = = −1.44 − 𝑗11.92 𝐴; 𝑰𝑥 = 𝑰𝑏 + 𝑰𝑐 = −1.44 − 𝑗11.92 + 5.2 + 𝑗13.6 = 3.76 + 𝑗1.68 𝐴;
5
2𝑽
𝑰𝑐 = −𝑗5 = 5.2 + 𝑗13.6 𝐴;
33
The mesh-current method
34
We can also use the mesh-current method to analyze frequency-domain circuits.
The procedures used in frequency-domain applications are the same as those used in
analyzing resistive circuits.
Example.
Use the mesh-current method to find the
voltages 𝑽1 , 𝑽2 and 𝑽3 in the circuit of the figure.
35
The circuit has two meshes. The reference direction for the mesh currents is clockwise.
(Mesh 1) 150 = 1 + 𝑗2 𝑰1 + 12 − 𝑗16 𝑰1 − 𝑰2 ; Simplifying:

150 = 13 − 𝑗14 𝑰1 − (12 − 𝑗16)𝑰2 ; (1)
(Mesh 2) 0 = 12 − 𝑗16 𝑰2 − 𝑰1 + 1 + 𝑗3 𝑰2 + 39𝑰𝑥 ; (2)
𝑰𝑥 = 𝑰1 − 𝑰2 . (3)
Substituting (3) in (2):

0 = 27 + 𝑗16 𝑰1 − 26 + 𝑗13 𝑰2 ; (4)
Then, we can achieve the currents:
𝑰1 = −26 − 𝑗52 𝐴;
𝑰2 = −24 − 𝑗58 𝐴;
𝑰𝑥 = −2 + 𝑗6 𝐴;
36
The three voltages are:
𝑽1 = 1 + 𝑗2 𝑰1 = 78 − 𝑗104𝑉;
𝑽2 = 12 − 𝑗16 𝑰𝑥 = 72 + 𝑗104𝑉;
𝑽3 = 1 + 𝑗3 𝑰2 = 150 − 𝑗130𝑉;
You can check summing all the voltages.
37
Phasor diagrams
38
Phasor diagrams
When we are using the phasor method to analyze the steady-state sinusoidal operation
of a circuit, a diagram of the phasor currents and voltages may give further insight into
the behavior of the circuit.
A phasor diagram shows the magnitude and phase angle of each phasor quantity in the
complex-number plane.
Phase angles are measured counterclockwise from the positive real axis, and
magnitudes are measured from the origin of the axes.
For example, the figure shows the phasor quantities 10∠30º, 12∠150º, 5∠ − 45º and
8∠ − 170º.
39
Phasor diagrams
Constructing phasor diagrams of circuit quantities generally involves both currents and
voltages.
As a result, two different magnitude scales are necessary, one for currents and one for
voltages.
The ability to visualize a phasor quantity on the complex-number plane can be useful
when you are checking pocket calculator calculations.
The typical pocket calculator doesn’t offer a printout of the data entered. But when the
calculated angle is displayed, you can compare it to your mental image as a check on
whether you keyed in the appropriate values.
For example, suppose that you are to compute the polar form of −7 − 𝑗3. Without
making any calculations, you should anticipate a magnitude greater than 7 and an
angle in the third quadrant that is more negative than −135º or less positive than 225º
as illustrated in the figure. (−7 − 𝑗3) = 7.62∠ − 156.80º.
40
Phasor diagrams
Example
For the circuit, use a phasor diagram to find the value of R that will cause the current
5𝑟𝑎𝑑
through that resistor, 𝑖𝑅 to lag the source current, 𝑖𝑠 , by 45º when 𝜔 = 𝑠 .
41
Phasor diagrams
By Kirchhoff’s current law, the sum of the currents 𝑰𝑅 , 𝑰𝐿 and 𝑰𝐶 must equal the source
current 𝑰𝑠 . If we assume that the phase angle of the voltage 𝑽𝑚 is zero, we can draw
the current phasors for each of the components. The current phasor for the inductor is
given by
𝑉𝑚 ∠0º
𝑰𝐿 = = 𝑉𝑚 ∠ − 90ºA
𝑗(5000)(0.2·10−3 )
𝑉𝑚 ∠0º
𝑰𝐶 = = 4𝑉𝑚 ∠90ºA
−𝑗/(5000)(800·10−6 )
𝑉𝑚 ∠0º 𝑉𝑚
𝑰𝑅 = = ∠0ºA
𝑅 𝑅
42
Phasor diagrams
The phasor diagram also shows the source current phasor, sketched as a dotted line,
which must be the sum of the current phasors of the three circuit components and must
be at an angle that is 45º more positive than the current phasor for the resistor.
As you can see, summing the phasors makes an isosceles triangle, so the length of the
1
current phasor for the resistor must equal 3𝑉𝑚 . Therefore, the value of the resistor is 3 Ω.
43
Phasor diagrams
Example
The circuit has a load consisting of the parallel combination of the resistor and inductor.
Use phasor diagrams to explore the effect of adding a capacitor across the terminals of
the load on the amplitude of 𝑽𝑠 if we adjust 𝑽𝑠 so that the amplitude of 𝑽𝐿 remains
constant. Utility companies use this technique to control the voltage drop on their lines.
44
45

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1

• Kirchhoff’s laws in the frequency domain.

In the sinusoidal steady state

𝑉𝑚1 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃1 + 𝑉𝑚2 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃2 + ⋯ + 𝑉𝑚𝑛 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃𝑛 = 0

ℛ{𝑉𝑚1 𝑒 𝑗𝜃1 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 } + ℛ{𝑉𝑚2 𝑒 𝑗𝜃2 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 } + ⋯ + ℛ{𝑉𝑚𝑛 𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝑛 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 } = 0

ℛ{𝑉𝑚1 𝑒 𝑗𝜃1 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 } + ℛ{𝑉𝑚2 𝑒 𝑗𝜃2 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 } + ⋯ + ℛ{𝑉𝑚𝑛 𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝑛 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 } = 0

ℛ{𝑉𝑚1 𝑒 𝑗𝜃1 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 + 𝑉𝑚2 𝑒 𝑗𝜃2 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 + ⋯ + 𝑉𝑚𝑛 𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝑛 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 } = 0

Factoring the term 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 from each term yields

ℛ{(𝑉𝑚1 𝑒 𝑗𝜃1 + 𝑉𝑚2 𝑒 𝑗𝜃2 + ⋯ + 𝑉𝑚𝑛 𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝑛 )𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 } = 0

KVL in the frequency domain

KCL in the frequency domain

Note that the polarity

𝑽 = 4 − 𝑗12 1.8 + 𝑗2.4 = 36 − 𝑗12𝑉

36 − 𝑗12 12(3 − 𝑗1) 39 + 𝑗27

We now obtain the value of 𝑽0 by multiplying by the impedance 10 - j19:

𝑽0 = 1.56 + 𝑗1.08 10 − 𝑗19

(Node 2 and 𝑰𝑥 ) −5𝑽1 + (4.8 + 𝑗06)𝑽2 =0;

(Node 1) 𝑽1 1.1 + 𝑗0.2 − 𝑽2 = 10.6 + 𝑗21.2; 𝑽2 = 68 − 𝑗26𝑉.

(Mesh 1) 150 = 1 + 𝑗2 𝑰1 + 12 − 𝑗16 𝑰1 − 𝑰2 ; Simplifying:

Substituting (3) in (2):

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