Disciplines and

Ideas in the
Social Science
Quarter 1 – Module 4:
Concepts and Principles of the
Social Science Theories
 What I Need to Know

This module was designed and written with you in mind. It is here to help
you master the Concepts and Principles of the Major Social Science Theories.
The scope of this module permits it to be used in many different learning
situations. The language used recognizes the diverse vocabulary level of
students. The lessons are arranged to follow the standard sequence of the
course. But the order in which you read them can be changed to correspond
with the textbook you are now using.

The module has one lesson:

 Lesson 1 – The Major Social Science Theories

After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. define the different concepts and principles of the three major social
science theories;
2. apply those concepts into a real-life situation and concerns by
showing their skills; and
3. analyze the basic concepts and principles of the major social science
theories.

Lesson The Major Social Science

1 Theories

The social sciences are not only composed of disciplines that showcase
how it views and studies every facet of society. The disciplines prove how social
science is applicable and practical, meaning that the social sciences are things
that you can use every day to understand reality much better. Without the
disciplines, the social sciences would not exist at all.

But the social sciences also have theoretical foundations and ideological
thrusts. That is why apart from the disciplines, the social sciences have what
we call the dominant approaches and ideas that are present within the different
disciplines. These are the roots of a discipline, or better yet, the very inspiration
of the different social sciences. A particular approach or ideology has the
capacity to influence all of the disciplines, for the theory that each ideology
provides encompasses all of the disciplines and affects them in many ways. This
module shall discuss different dominant approaches and ideas that are present
in today’s society, and how each of these approaches and ideas play a role in
the character and everyday living of society.
Notes to the Teacher
This Alternative Delivery Mode has been developed to help you facilitate the learners in understand
 What is It

Functionalism

According to Vincent, 2001, Functionalism, also called structural-

functional theory, sees society as a structure with interrelated parts designed to
meet the biological and social needs of the individuals in that society.

Functionalist sociologists like Parsons and Durkheim have been

concerned with the search for functions that institutions may have in society.

However, another functionalist sociologist R. Merton has adopted a

concept of dysfunction – this refers to the effects of any institution which
detracts from the conservation of society.

An example of a function which helps maintain society is that of the

family, its function is to ensure the continuity of society by reproducing and
socializing new members.

Another institution which performs an important function is religion

functionalist sociologists believe that it helps achieve social solidarity and
shared norms and values, however it could be argued that it fails to do this as a
result of increasing secularization in recent years and therefore it creates a
divide between members of society rather than binding them together (moral
glue).

Table 1: Concepts of Structural - Functionalism According to

Quexbook, 2018

Concepts Description
 Functionalists believe that without collective
conscience/ shared values and beliefs, achieving
social order is impossible and social order is
crucial for the well-being of society.
 They believe that value consensus forms the basic
Collective integrating principle in society. And if members of
Conscience and society have shared values, they therefore also
Value Consensus have similar identities, this helps cooperation and
avoids conflict.
 Value consensus also ensures that people have
shared: Goals, Roles and Norms. Norms can be
described as specific guidelines of appropriate
behavior; for example, queuing when buying

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 things.
 Functionalists believe that there are four main
basic needs that an individual requires in order to
exist in society.
Social Order
 They also believe that these four basic needs are
essential for maintaining social order. They are:
food, shelter, money and clothing.
 Durkheim believes that education transmits
society’s norms and values. Education brings
together a mass and changes them into a united
whole which leads to social solidarity.
 Parsons (1961) believes that education leads to
universalistic values and that education performs
Functionalism and a link between family and the wider society which
Education in turn leads to secondary socialization.
 Education also allows people to train for their
future roles in society. Schools instill the value of
achievement and the value of equality of
opportunity.
 Education helps match people with jobs suited to
them.
 George Peter Murdock believes that the family
provides four vital functions for society: sexual,
reproductive, economic, and educational.
Functionalism and  The family is the primary point of socialization in
Family that it provides children with values and norms.
Family also stabilizes adult personalities.
 A family unit provides emotional security for each
person in the relationship.
 The media operate in the public interest by
reflecting the interests of the audience. It portrays
Functionalism and public opinion.
Media  The media understands that society has a wide
diversity of culture and this is shown by the
different amounts of stories it covers.
 Durkheim shows us that there is such a thing as
society, and that it is this entity called society
that creates crime and deviance.
 Crime and deviance are socially constructed –
they are not natural, obvious, or theologically
Functionalism and inspired categories.
Crime and  They are concepts that were brought into the
Deviance world solely by humankind.
 Moreover, Durkheim goes beyond this and shows
us how socially constructed definitions of crime
and deviance are linked into a wider social
structure.

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Marxism

According to Quexbook, 2018, Marxism is a social, political, and

economic philosophy named after Karl Marx, which examines the effect
of capitalism on labor, productivity, and economic development and
argues for a worker revolution to overturn capitalism in favor of
communism.
Marxism posits that the struggle between social classes, specifically
between the bourgeoisie, or capitalists, and the proletariat, or workers, defines
economic relations in a capitalist economy and will inevitably lead to
revolutionary communism.

Concepts of Marxism

Certain concepts are key to an understanding of Marxism, a political

theory that has shaped world politics for over 150 years. Key Marxist concepts
are diametrically the opposite to capitalism, and some believe have created a
mentality of a society that is very much a ‘them and us’ one.

Marxism believes that capitalism can only thrive on the exploitation of

the working class.

Marxism believes that there was a real contradiction between human

nature and the way that we must work in a capitalist society.

Marxism has a dialectic approach to life in that everything has two sides.

Marxism believes that capitalism is not only an economic system but is

also a political system.

The profit difference between what goods are sold for and what they
actually cost to make; Marxism refers to as a “surplus profit”.

Marxism believes that economic conflict produces class (rich, middle and
poor) and inherently class produces conflict.

A Marxist analysis called ‘Polarisation of the Classes’ describes the

historical process of the class structure becoming increasingly polarised –
pushed to two ends with noting in the middle. It says that soon classes will
disappear and be absorbed either into the bourgeoisie or the proletariat.

Capitalism largely shapes the educational system; without the education

system the economy would become a massive failure as without education we
are without jobs and employment which is what keeps society moving.

Education helps to maintain the bourgeoisie and the proletariat so that

there can workers producing goods and services and others benefiting from it.

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Schools transmit an ideology which states that capitalism is just and
reasonable. Ruling class project their view of the world which becomes the
consensus view (hegemony).
Marxists believe that a key part in the control of the Proletariat is the use
of alienation in all aspects of society, including the family, the education system
and the media. This provides the Bourgeoisie with a supple mass of workers
who do not mind working for the external rewards of a constant wage.

Marxists believe that deviance is any behavior that differs from the
societal norm. It is seen as deviant because as a society, we do not accept it.

Deviance can vary from simply odd behavior to behavior that can harm
society or is considered dangerous or disrespectful.

Neo-Marxism is based on ideas initially projected by Karl Marx. Marx

believed that economic power led to political power and that this is the key to
understanding societies.

Neo-Marxists believe the economic system creates a wealthy class of

owners and a poor class of workers. They also believe that certain social
institutions such as churches, prisons and schools have been created to
maintain the division between the powerful and the powerless.

Symbolic Interactionism

According to Quex book, 2018, The symbolic interaction perspective,

also called symbolic interactionism, is a major framework of
the sociological theory.

This perspective relies on the symbolic meaning that people develop and
build upon in the process of social interaction. Although symbolic
interactionism traces its origins to Max Weber's assertion that individuals act
according to their interpretation of the meaning of their world

A social psychological theory developed from the work of Charles Horton

Cooley and George Herbert Mead in the early part of the twentieth century (the
actual name of the theory comes from Herbert Blumer, one of Mead’s students).

According to this theory, people inhabit a world that is in large part

socially construct

Concepts of Symbolic Interactionism

The most important conceptual building block on which symbolic interactionists
have based their analysis of human conduct is the concept of the symbol, or, as
Mead called it, the significant symbol.

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 Symbol is a vocal or other kind of gesture that has the same meaning
and solicits the same reaction between the one using it and to whom it is
directed.

Conventional Signs anything associated with some other thing or event,

but it is produced and controlled by the very organisms that have learned to
respond to it.

Natural Signs are those that show appropriateness with its use, that is,
the sign is in its literal form.

Object is anything to which attention can be paid and towards which

action can be directed.

Tangible anything that can be seen by the naked eye and can be touched
(physical).

Intangible not having a physical appearance; cannot be touched or seen

by the naked eye (social).

An act starts with an impulse, which occurs when people’s existing

adjustment or line of activity is disturbed.

In perception, people begin to name or designate objects. Thus, gives

direction to an act.

In the manipulation stage, people take concrete steps to reach our goal.

Finally, the act ends with consummation when people’s original

adjustment or line of activity is restored.

Principles of the Three Major Social Science Theories

Table 2: Principles of Structural – Functionalism (Trueman, 2015)

Social Science Theory Principles

Structural - Functionalism  Societies should be examined holistically

in an interrelated system framework.
 Causation is reciprocal and, in many
instances, multiple.
 Social systems are generally in a state of
equilibrium.
 The functionalists are less interested in
the history of a society, but more
concerned with social interaction.

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  The functionalists attempt to find the
interrelationships between the
compounds of social structure.

Marxism  Both Hegel and Marx have dealt with a

basic question – How is man to be
reconciled with him and with the world?
Hegel was of opinion that mind of man
passes through history and finally comes
to realize what is the world.
 Both Hegel and Marx thought that man
was the product of self-knowledge and he
goes on reconciling with the world. But to
Hegel the concept of self- knowledge is
associated with Spirit or Absolute Idea
 Marx has rejected it and has laid down
the famous doctrine of alienation. That is,
he tries to understand himself or the
world around him through the alienation.
 The theory of alienation is the product of
the alienated labor. In fact, alienation
occupies a very important place in Marx’s
theory.
 In capitalist economy there is a division of
labor which means that a labor produces
a single or small part of an article. The
capitalist system has introduced this
division of labor to have better results.
 But its harmful consequence is with the
passing away of time man is gradually
alienated from the whole production
system and finally the society.
 The general meaning of alienation is that
it is the “subjugation of man by his own
work, which has assumed the guise of
independent things”.
 The entire economic process including
production and distribution is beyond the
control of workers. They work just like
machine.
 In the opinion of Marx, since alienation is
the greatest evil of capitalist system the
workers must be freed from this evil.
 But he has warned us by saying that
there is no scope of freeing individuals
from the curse of alienation because it is

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 an integral part of the capitalist system.
 If we go through Marx’s analysis, we shall
find that the only way of freeing man from
alienation is the establishment of
communism or communist society.
Symbolic Interactionism  Human beings, unlike lower animals, are
endowed with the capacity for thought.
(Blumer, 1969; Manis and  The capacity for thought is shaped by
Meltzer, 1978; A. Rose,
social interaction.
1962; Snow, 2001)
 In social interaction, people learn the
meanings and the symbols that allow
them to exercise their distinctively human
capacity for thought.
 Meanings and symbols allow people to
carry on distinctively human action and
interaction.
 People are able to modify or alter the
meanings and symbols that they use in
action and interaction on the basis of
their interpretation of the situation.
 People are able to make these
modifications and alterations because, in
part, of their ability to interact with
themselves, which allows them to
examine possible courses of action,
assess their relative advantages and
disadvantages, and then choose one.
 The intertwined patterns of action and
interaction make up groups and societies.

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