MODULE 11: PRE-NATAL DEVELOPMENT Amnion – is a bag or an envelope that contains a

clear fluid in which the developing embryo floats.

The Stages of Pre-natal Development
1. Germinal Period – this includes the a) creation
of the zygote, b) continued cell division and c)
the attachment of the zygote to the uterine wall.
In this period, the differentiation of cells already
begins as inner and outer layers of the organism are
formed. The blastocyst, the inner layer of cells that
develops during the germinal period, develops later
into the embryo. The trophoblast, the outer layer of
cells that develops also during the germinal period,
later provides nutrition and support for the embryo.
2. Embryonic Period – in this stage, the name of
the mass cells, zygote, become embryo. The
following developments take place:
a) cell differentiation intensifies
b) life-support systems for the embryo
develop
c) organs appear
As the zygote gets attached to the wall of the uterus,
two layers of cells are formed. The embryo’s
endoderm, the inner layer of cells, develops into
the digestive and respiratory systems. The outer
layer of cells is divided into two parts – the
ectoderm and the mesoderm.
Ectoderm is the outermost layer which becomes
the nervous system, sensory receptors (eyes, ears,
nose) and skin parts (nails, hair).
Mesoderm is the middle layer which becomes the
circulatory, skeletal, muscular, excretory and
reproductive systems. This process of organ
formation during the first two months of pre-natal
development is called organogenesis.
As the three layers of the embryo form, the support
systems of the embryo develop rapidly. These life-
support systems are the placenta, the umbilical
cord and the amnion.
Placenta – is a life-support system that consists of a
disk-shaped group of tissues in which small blood
vessels from the mother and the offspring intertwine
but do not join.
3. Fetal Period – Growth and development
continue dramatically during this period.
Teratology and Hazards to Prenatal
Development
Teratology is the field that investigates the causes
of congenital defects. A teratogen is that which
causes the birth defects. It comes from the Greek
word “tera” which means “monster”.
Clusters of hazards to Prenatal development:
1) Prescription and nonprescription drugs
2) Psychoactive drugs – includes nicotine,
caffeine, and illegal drugs such as marijuana,
cocaine and heroin.
Heavy drinking by pregnant women results to
the so-called fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)
which is a cluster of abnormalities that appears
in the children of mothers who drink alcohol
heavily during pregnancy.
3) Environmental hazards – include radiation in the
jobsites and X-rays, environmental pollutants,
toxic wastes, and prolonged exposure to heat in
saunas and bath tubs.
4) Other maternal factors such as Rubella, syphilis,
genital herpes, AIDS, nutrition, high anxiety
and stress, age.
A mother can infect her child in three (3) ways:
1) during gestation across the placenta, 2)
during delivery through contact with maternal
bloods or fluids, and 3) postpartum (after birth)
through breast-feeding.
5) Paternal factors
MODULE 12: PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
OF INFANTS AND TODDLERS
Cephalocaudal trend – is the postnatal growth
from conception to 5 months when the head grows
more than the body.

Umbilical cord – contains two arteries and one vein

that connects the baby to the placenta.
Proximodistal trend – is the pre-natal growth from
5 months to birth when the fetus grows from the
inside of the body outwards.
Myelination/Myelinization – the process by which
the axons are covered and insulated by layers of fat
cells, begins prenatally and continues after birth. It
increases the speed at which information travels
through the nervous system.
Motor Development
Along this aspect of motor development,
infants and toddlers begin from reflexes, to gross
motor skills and fine motor skills.
Reflexes
Some of the most common reflexes that babies have
are:
 Sucking Reflex – it is initiated when
something touches the roof of an infant’s
mouth. It is very strong in some infants and
they may need to suck on a pacifier for
comfort.
 Rooting Reflex – is most evident when an
infant’s cheek is stroked. The baby responds
by turning his/her head in the direction of
the touch and opening their mouth for
feeding.
 Gripping Reflex – Babies will grasp
anything that is placed in their palm. The
strength of this grip is strong, and most
babies can support their entire weight in
their grip.
 Curling Reflex - When the sole of a baby’s
foot is stroked, the infant will respond by
curling or spreading out his/her toes.
 Startle/Moro Reflex – Infants will respond
to sudden sounds or movements by throwing
their arms and legs out, and throwing their
head back.
 Galant Reflex – is shown when an infant’s
middle or lower back is stroked next to the
spinal cord. The baby will respond by
curving his/her body toward the side which
is being stroked.
 Tonic Neck Reflex – is demonstrated in
infants who are placed in their abdomens.
Whichever side is the child’s head is facing,
the limbs on that side will straighten, while
the opposite limbs will curl.
Gross Motor Skills
- This dramatic motor development is
shown in babies unable to even lift their
heads to being able to grab things off the
cabinet, to chase the ball and to walk
away from parent.
Fine Motor Skills
- Are skills that involve a refined use of
the small muscles controlling the hand,
fingers, and thumb. The development of
these skills allows one to be able to
complete tasks such as writing, drawing
and buttoning.
MODULE 13: COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT OF INFANTS AND
TODDLERS
Cognitive development in infancy refers to
development in the way a baby thinks. This
includes his/her language, communication
and exploration skills.
There are four stages of Cognitive
development according to Piaget – the
sensorimotor, the preoperational, the
concrete operational and the formal
operational stage.
Six Sub-stages of Sensorimotor
development stage (Santrock, 2002):
Sensorimotor stage – in this stage, infants
construct an understanding of the world by
coordinating sensory experiences (such as
seeing and hearing) with physical, motor
actions.
SUB-STAGE AGE DESCRIPTION
Simple Reflexes Birth-6 weeks Coordination of sensation
and action through
reflexive behaviors. Over
the first six weeks of life,
these reflexes begin to
become voluntary actions.
First habits and primary 6 weeks -4 Coordination of sensation
circular reactions phase months and two types of schemes:
habits (reflex) and
primary circular
 reactions. Primary circular  Acquiring the sense of object permanence is
reaction because the action
is focused on the infant’s one of the infant’s most important
body. Circular reaction accomplishments, according to Piaget.
because it is a repetition of
an action that initially
Object permanence is the understanding that
occurred by chance. At objects continue to exist even when the
this phase, passive objects are not immediately perceptible
reactions, caused by
classical or operant through senses. Before the infant’s
conditioning can begin. acquisition of the sense of object
Secondary circular 4-8 months Development of habits.
reaction phase Infants become more permanence, the principle that applies is
object-oriented, moving “out of sight, out of mind”.
beyond self-preoccupation
repeat actions that bring Holophrases – one-word utterances that the
interesting or pleasurable
results. This stage is infant uses to convey intentions, desires, and
associated primarily with demands.
the development of
coordination between
vision and comprehension.
Overextension error – when the child
This is perhaps one of the overextends the meaning of words in his/her
most important stages of a existing lexicon to cover things and ideas for
child’s growth as it
signifies the dawn of logic. which a new word is lacking.
Coordination of 8-12 months Coordination of vision and
reactions stage touch-hand-eye Telegraphic speech – two-word or three-word
secondary circular coordination; of schemes utterances with rudimentary syntax but with
and intentionality. This
stage is associated articles and prepositions missing.
primarily with the
development of logic and  Noam Chomsky, a noted linguist, claims
the coordination between
means and ends. This is an
that humans have an innate language
extremely important stage acquisition device (LAD). This LAD is a
of development, holding metaphorical organ that is responsible for
what Piaget calls the “first
proper intelligence”. Also, language learning.
this stage marks the
beginning of goal
orientation, the deliberate
planning of steps to meet MODULE 14: SOCIO-EMOTIONAL
an objective. The action is
directed towards a goal. DEVELOPMENT OF INFANTS AND
Tertiary circular 12-18 months This stage is associated TODDLERS
reactions, novelty, and primarily with the
curiosity discovery of new means to Simply put, socio-emotional development has
meet goals. Piaget
describes the child at this something to do with the development of
juncture as the “young person’s ability to master one’s emotions and
scientist”, conducting
pseudo-experiments to
the ability to relate to others.
discover new methods of
meeting challenges.  According to Dr. John Bowly, the father of
Internalization of 18-24 months Infants develop the ability attachment theory, the beginnings of
Schemes (Invention of to use primitive symbols
New Means through and form enduring mental attachment occur within the first 6 months
Mental combination) representations. This stage of a baby’s life with a variety of built-in
is associated primarily
with the beginnings of
signals that baby uses to keep her caregiver
insight, or true creativity. engaged.
This marks the passage  Temperament is a word that “captures the
into preoperational stage.
Object Permanence – is the understanding that ways that people differ, even at birth, in
objects continue to exist even when they cannot be such things as their emotional reactions,
seen, heard, or touched. activity level, attention span, persistence,
and ability to regulate their emotions”.
 Every baby expresses personality traits we 2. Non-locomotor skills – ones are those
call temperament. How a child responds where the child stays in place like bending,
emotionally to objects, events, and people is stretching, turning, and swaying.
a reflection of his individual temperament. 3. Manipulative skills – are those that involve
projecting and receiving objects, like
Researchers Thomas, Chess, and Birch
throwing, striking, bouncing, catching, and
described nine different temperament
dribbling.
categories these include:
Fine Motor Development – refers to acquiring
 Activity level
ability to use smaller muscles in the arm, hands
 Mood
and fingers purposefully. It also involves self-
 Threshold for distress
help skills like using the spoon and fork when
 Rhythmicity
eating, buttoning, zipping, combing, and
 Intensity of response
brushing.
 Approach-Withdrawal
 Distractibility Viktor Lowenfeld came up with the Stages of
 Adaptability Drawing in early childhood:
 Persistence
1) Scribbling stage – this stage begins with
Three (3) Basic Types of Temperament: large zig-zag lines which later become
circular markings. Soon, discrete shapes are
1) Easy child – easily readily establishes
drawn.
regular routines, is generally cheerful, and
2) Preschematic stage – may already include
adapts readily to new experiences.
early representations, at this point adults
2) Difficult child – is irregular in daily
may be able to recognize the drawings.
routines, is slow to accept new experiences
Children at this stage tend to give the same
and tends to react negatively and intensely
names to their drawings several times.
to new things.
3) Schematic stage – more elaborate scenes
3) Slow-to-warm-up child – shows mild, low-
are depicted. Children usually draw from
key reactions to environmental changes, is
experience and exposure.
negative in mood, and adjusts slowly to new
experiences. MODULE 16: COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
 A sense of morality presupposes awareness OF PRESCHOOLERS
of the existence of moral standards and the
There are two substages of Piaget’s operational
ability to evaluate oneself against standards.
thought, namely symbolic substage and intuitive
MODULE 15: PRESCHOOLERS’ substage.
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
Symbolic substage – preschool children show
The preschooler years is commonly as “the progress in their cognitive abilities by being able to
years before formal schooling begins”. It draw objects that are not present, by their dramatic
roughly covers 3-5 years of age. It is very increase in their language and make-believe play.
important as it lays foundation to later
Intuitive substage – preschool children begin to
development.
use primitive reasoning and ask a litany of
Gross Motor Development – refers to questions.
acquiring skills that involve the large muscles. It
Animism – indicate that preschool children believe
is categorized into three skills:
that inanimate objects have “lifelike” qualities and
1. Locomotor skills – are those that involve are capable of action.
going from one place to another, like
walking, running, climbing, and skipping.
Egocentrism – the inability to distinguish between Scaffolding – a term that refers to the “changing
one’s own perspective and someone else’s support over the course of a teaching lesson, with
perspective. the more skilled person adjusting guidance to fit the
child’s current performance level.” The more
Centration – the preschool child’s preoperational
skilled person is also called More Knowledgeable
thought that is focusing or centering of one’s
Other (MKO).
attention on one characteristic to the exclusion of
others. This is also referred to as unidimensional Information Processing Model – is another way of
thought. examining and understanding how children develop
cognitively. This model conceptualizes children’s
Conservation – the awareness that the basic
mental process through the metaphor of a computer
property of an object or a substance is conserved
processing, encoding, storing, and decoding data.
even if its appearance is changed.
Irreversibility – preschool child is not yet capable
of reversible thinking.
Transductive reasoning – shows that preschool
children do not use deductive or inductive
reasoning; instead they jump from one particular to
another and see cause where none exists.
 Our brain is composed of numerous cells
called neurons that connect to each other to
function. Cell connections are what we call
synapses, sometimes also referred to as
synaptic connections.
The children’s language development has four
main areas:
1. Phonology (speech sounds)
2. Semantics (word meaning)
3. Syntax (sentence construction)
4. Pragmatics (conversation or social uses of
language)
Fast mapping – a process by which children absorb
the meaning of a new word after hearing it once or
twice in conversation.
 Vygotsky believed that young children use
language both to communicate socially and
to plan, guide and monitor their behavior in
a self-regulatory fashion – called inner
speech or private speech.
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) – refer to
tasks too difficult for a child to master alone but can
be mastered with the guidance and assistance of
adults or more skilled children.