LESSON 1: THE NATURE, GOALS, AND PERSPECTIVE OF
ANTHROPOLOGY
ANTHROPOLOGY – THE STUDY OF ALL ASPECTS OF HUMAN LIFE AND
CULTURE.
The term anthropology originates from two Greek terms, Anthropos which mean
“man/humankind” and logos that means “study”.
NATURE OF ANTHROPOLOGY
SOCIETY – PEOPLE WHO INTERACT IN A DEFINITE GROUP AND SHARE
CULTURE.
SOCIOLOGIST – AN EXPERT IN DEVELOPMENT, STRUCTURE, AND
FUNCTION OF HUMAN SOCIETY.
CULTURE – A WAY OF LIFE LEARNING OF HUMAN SOCIETY
GENERALLY SHARE COMMON CULTURAL PATTERN IN SOCIAL
GROUPS.
EVOLUTION – A BROADEST SENSE THAT EXPLAIN WHAT WE SEE
TODAY IS DIFFERENT FROM WHAT EXISTED IN THE PAST.
GOALS OF ANTHROPOLOGY
– AIMED TO UNDERSTAND OUR EVOLUTIONARY ORIGINS, OUR
DISTINCTIVENESS AS A SPECIES, AND THE FORM OF SOCIAL
EXISTENCE.
Three sub-fields of anthropology
Sociocultural anthropology
● Content and variation of particular cultures
● Cultural changes and social transformation.
Biological anthropology
● Aspects of human evolutionary biology.
Archaeology
● Material remains of present and past cultural systems.
PERSPECTIVE OF ANTHROPOLOGY
- A DISCIPLINE OF SOCIAL SCIENCE IS ITS HOLISTIC APPROACH TO THE
STUDY OF HUMAN.
LESSON 2: THE NATURE, GOALS AND PERSPECTIVE OF SOCIOLOGY
SOCIOLOGY – THE SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF HUMAN SOCIETY AND
SOCIAL INTERACTIONS.
The causes and consequences of social changes refers to any significant alternation
in behavior patterns and cultural values and norms over time. By “significant”
alternation, sociologists mean changes yielding profound social consequences.
NATURE OF SOCIOLOGY
A SOCIAL SCIENCE THAT STUDIED HUMAN SOCIETIES, THEIR
INTERACTIONS, AND THE PROCESSES THAT PRESERVE AND CHANGE
THEM. IT DOES THIS BY EXAMINING THE DYNAMICS OF CONSTITUENT
PARTS OF SOCIETIES SUCH AS INSTITUTIONS, COMMUNITIES,
POPULATIONS, AND GENDER, RACIAL, OR AGE GROUPS.
SOCIOLOGICAL IMAGINATION
– IS A TERM USED IN THE FIELD OF SOCIOLOGY TO DESCRIBE A
FRAMEWORK FOR UNDERSTANDING SOCIAL REALITY THAT PLACES
PERSONAL EXPERIENCES WITHIN A BROADER SOCIAL AND
HISTORICAL CONTEXT.
GOALS OF SOCIOLOGY
– IS TO YIELD GENERELIZATIONS-GENERAL STATEMENTS REGARDING
TRENDS AMONG VARIOUS DIMENSIONS OF SOCIAL LIFE.
PERSPECTIVE OF SOCIOLOGY
– THE BASIC INSIGHT OF SOCIOLOGY IS THAT HUMAN BEHAVIOR IS
SHAPED BY THE GROUPS TO WHICH PEOPLE BELONG AND BY THE
SOCIAL INTERACTION THAT TAKES PLACE WITHIN THOSE GROUPS.
Auguste Comte (1798-1857) – responsible for coining the term “sociology”. He set
out to develop the “science of man” that would be based on empirical observation.
● Social statics – forces which produces order and stability.
● Social Dynamics – forces which contribute to social change.
Harriet Martineau (1802-1876) – known for translating Comte’s Positive
Philosophy into English and authored of entitled Theory and Practice of Society in
America.
Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) – well known for proposing a doctrine called “Social
Darwinism” and authored of the first sociology text the Principles of Sociology.
Karl Marx (1820-1883) – the father of the social conflict theory and analyzed hoe
the economic system of capitalism leads to conflict and inequality among different
groups in society.
● Bourgeoisie – owners of the means of production (capitalists)
● Proletariant – the workers
IMPERIUM – (Latin: “command”, “empire”) involving both military and judicial
authority.
DOMINIUM – (Latin: “dominus” means “lord”) the ownership along with the right
to possession and use.

FORMS OF GOVERNMENT
LESSON 3: THE NATURE, GOALS, AND PERSPECTIVE OF POLITICAL
SCIENCE RULED BY ONE RULED BY FEW RULED BY MANY

POLITICAL SCIENCE – THE THEORY AND PRACTICE of GOVERNMENT Monarchy Aristocracy Democracy
AND POLITICS AT THE LOCAL, STATE, NATIONAL, AND
- Absolute Oligarchy Exercised by central or
INTERNATIONAL LEVELS. - Limited national
NATURE OF POLITICAL SCIENCE
Authoritarian - Unitary
POLITICAL THEORY – THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF POLITICAL - Federal
THOUGHT AS WELL AS PROBLEMS IN CONTEMPORARY POLITICAL LIFE
As to relationship
THAT HAVE A PHILOSOPHICAL DIMENSION. between executive &
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION – REFERD TO THE EMPLEMENTATION OF legislative
GOVERNMENT POLICY AND PREPARATION OF CIVIL SERVANTS FOR - Parliamentary
WORKING IN THE PUBLIC SERVICE.
- Presidential
COMPARATIVE POLITICS – THE STUDY OF OTHER COUNTRIES AND
ANALYZES OF SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES VETWEEN THOSE
POLITICAL UNITS. PERSPECTIVE OF POLITICAL SCIENCE
INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS – ALSO KNOWN AS “INTERNATIONAL – HELPS US RESEARCH AND EXPLAIN GOVERNMENT AND LEGISLATIVE
STUDIES” IT DEALS WITH THE INTERCONNECTEDNESS OF POLITICS, PROCESSES SO THAT CITIZENS CAN BE MORE INFORMED ABOUT
ECONOMICS, AND LAW ON A GLOBAL SETUP. POLICIES THAT AFFECT THEIR COMMUNITIES, COUNTRY, AND THEIR
LIVELIHOOD.
PUBLIC LAW – REFERS TO THE PROCESS BY WHICH GOVERNMENTS
TRANSLATE THEIR POLOTICAL VISION INTO PROGRAMS AND ACTIONS
TO CARRY OUT RESULTS FAVORABLE TO ITS CONSTITUENCY.
LESSON 4: DEFINITION AND ASPECTS OF CULTURE
GOALS OF POLITICAL SCIENCE
CULTURE – IS DEFINED AS THE WAY OF LIFE LEARNED AND SHARED
– TO DEEPEN HUMAN UNDERSTANDING OF THE FORMS AND NATURE BY PEOPLE IN SOCIAL GROUPS.
OF POLITICAL ACTION AND TO DEVELOP THEORETICAL TOOLS FOR
INTERPRETING POLITICALLY MEANINGFUL PHENOMENA. There are different aspects of culture:

STATE – is derived from the term “status”. It is the most universal of all social 1. Dynamics, Flexible and Adaptive
institutions, an entity of power and authority within given population and territory.
Culture constantly changes and adapts to the current state of society. It continuously
restores itself whenever customs do not fit in the current situation anymore. It does
no remain stagnant.
2. Shared and Contested
Culture is learned and acquired through different interactions with people. Culture is
shared learning experience, because culture constantly changes that we get to share
the learning process with other people.
3. Learned and Transmitted Through Socialization and Enculturation
Socialization is the process by which we learn and internalize the foundations and
patterns of behavior that are laid low with culture.
Enculturation happens when we teach an individual or group of people the norms
and values through unconscious repetition.
Acculturation happens to a person or group of people who adopts the value, beliefs,
practices, customs, and traditions of another culture.
4. Integrated and at Times unstable
All aspects of a culture are related to one another and to truly understand a culture,
one must learn about all of its part, not only a few. To keep the culture functioning,
all aspects of the culture must be integrated.
5. Requires Language and Other Forms of Communication
A particular language that unique to a specific group of people with a unique culture.
When people are interacting with another language, they are also interacting with
culture of that person.
Everything that can be said in one language cannot be said in another; meanings are
not directly translatable.
LESSON 5: HUMAN CULTURAL VARIATION AND SOCIAL
DIFFERENCES
HUMAN CULTURAL VARIATION
Cultural variations refer to the differences in social behaviors that different cultures
exhibit around the world, and result both progressive and aggressive interactions due
to the evolution of those cultures being influenced by one another.
Religion – derived from the Latin word religare meaning “to bind together.” It’s a
system of beliefs and practices on a supernatural level. There are five great religions
of the world: Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Judaism, and Buddhism.
Ethnicity – It is the expression of the set of cultural ideas held by distinct ethics or
indigenous group.
Nationality – It is the legal relationship that binds a person and a country.
SOCIAL DIFFERENCES
It refers to the differences among the individuals based on social characteristics and
qualities.
Gender – It is the socially-constructed characteristics of being male or female. It
serves as a guide on how males and females think and acts about themselves.
Sex – It refers to the biological description of a person based on their anatomy while
gender pertains to one's sense of self as masculine or feminine regardless of the
external genitalia and socially-constructed characteristics.
LGBT is an acronym for lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender.
Socio-economic status – It refers to the category of persons who have more or less
the same socio-economic privileges.
Three economic classes:
(1) low-income – monthly income between P 10,481 and P 20,962
(2) middle-class – monthly income between P 41,924 and P 73,367
(3) high-income – monthly income between P 125,772 and P 209,620.
Exceptionality – It refers to the state of being intellectually gifted and/or having
physically or mentally challenged conditions. Differences in personality/behavior
communication or combination of more than one specific exceptionality/disability.
LESSON 6: SOCIAL AND CULTURAL BEHAVIOR, PHENOMENA AND
CHANGE
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR & CHANGES
Social behavior pertains to a behavior among two or more organisms within the same This tendency of people to align their beliefs and behaviors with those of a group is
species and encompasses any behavior in which one member affects the other due to also called a herd mentality.
their interaction.

1. ALTERNATIVE SOCIAL CHANGE – refers to a social change that seeks

limited societal change or a change in minor aspects of an individual. LESSON 7: CULTURAL RELATIVISM

2. REDEMPTIVE SOCIAL CHANGE – a social change that seeks total individual ETHNOCENTRISM is the tendency of people to put their own culture at the center
change. Defining characteristic of the search for a new inner-state. and to use their cultural standards to judge the behavior and beliefs of people of
different cultures. Ethnocentric People think their cultural beliefs are morally
3. REFORMATIVE SOCIAL CHANGE – seek partial change in social systems. correct and others are morally questionable.
Change a part of the system by gaining equal voting rights the same as men.
CULTURAL RELATIVISM id the view that the behavior in one culture should not
be judged by the standards of another. The goal of cultural relativism it to be
objective and sensitive to diverse cultures without ignoring international standards of
POLITICAL BEHAVIOR & CHANGE justice and morality.
- pertains to any form of involvement in the political process or any activity which
has political consequences.
LESSON 8: BIOLOGICAL AND CULTURAL EVOLUTION FROM HOMO
POLITICAL CHANGE HABILIS TO HOMO SAPIENS
INTERNAL EXTERNAL The Transition from Early to Modern Humans
Regular events: Usually achieved through military Humans are classified under the order primates. Physical and genetic similarities
threats or action but could occur show that the modern human species, Homo sapiens, has a very close relationship
- Death of the rulers through embargoes and/or with holding with another group of primate species, the apes.
- Election foreign aid.
Basic Stages of Man’s Evolution
Irregular events:
Evolution involves the gradual changes from simple to more complex forms. Human
- Coup d’etat
are believed to have begun in the oceans billion of years ago. The Origin of Species,
- Rebellion
the evolution theory of Darwin.

Basic stages of human evolution:

CULTURAL BEHAVIOR, CHANGE & PHENOMENON
Inventions may be either technological or ideological. The latter includes such
things as the invention of algebra and calculus.
Discovery a new perception of an aspect of reality that already exists.
1. Australopithecusafarensis – the fossil of this genus was first discovered in 1924
in South Africa.
2. Homo Habilis – this is one of the earliest member of the genus Homo, has a
slightly larger braincase and smaller face and teeth.

Diffusion is spreading of cultural traits from group to another group. 3. Homo rudolfensis – originally considered to be H.habilis, it differ is in its larger
braincase, longer face, and longer molar and premolar teeth.

4. Homo erectus – the oldest known humans to have possessed modern human-like
Cultural Phenomenon, also known as the bandwagon effect, occurs when certain way body proportions with relatively elongated legs and shorter arms compared to the
becomes acceptable because other individuals tend to do it as well. size of the torso.
5. Homo floresiensis – remains of one of the most recently discovered early human
species.
6. Homo heidelbergensis – its’ early human species had a very large brow ridge, and
a larger braincase and flatter face than older early human species. It can live in colder
climates.
7. Homo neanderthalis – our closest extinct human relative.
8. Homo sapiens – all other living human beings on this planet belong to is Homo
sapiens
HUMAN CULTURAL EVOLUTION
Human cultural traits like behaviors, ideas, and technologies that can be learned from
other individuals can exhibit complex patterns of transmission and evolution, and
researches have developed theoretical models, both verbal and mathematical, to
facilitate our understanding of these patterns
SIGNIFICANCE OF ARTIFACTUAL EVIDENCE
Artifactual evidences are the only source of knowledge in understanding the lifestyle
and the developments that occurred in each transitional stage of human evolution.
LESSON 9: CULTURAL AND SOCIOPOLITICAL EVOLUTION: from
hunting and gathering to agricultural, industrial, and post-industrial
revolutions
Gerhard Lenski, an American Sociologist argued that human society undergoes
transformation and evolution and, in the process, develops technological
advancement.
Neolithic Period (New Stone Age) – the final stage of cultural evolution or
technological development.
Early Neolithic: People who used early stone implements probably came from the
Asian mainland and reached the Philippines by way of Indochina, coming across the
Chine Sea to Luzon.
Mid Neolithic: The Duyung cave wherein a large stone adze and four adzes made
from the hinge of a giant clam.
Late Neolithic: The expensive use of jade and nephrite materials for both ornaments
and tools.
DIFFERENT TYPE OF SOCIETIES
1. HUNTING AND GATHERING – the oldest and most basic way to economic
subsistence. People hunt and gather food for survival
2. HORTICULTURAL AND PASTORAL – grow a crops with simple tools, while
pastoral societies raise livestock.
3. AGRICULTURAL AND NEOLITHIC REVOLUTION – societies grow a
crops, thank to the use of plows, oxen, and other devices. That lead to social
inequality.
4. INDUSTRIAL – the production of goods using advanced sources of energy to
drive large machinery.
LESSON 10: BECOMING A MEMBER OF SOCIETY: ENCULTURATION
AND SOCIALIZATION
Socialization plays an important part of the discovering your identity.
Self-Identity – refers to the establishment of your unique sense of identity and your
awareness of how you relate to your society and the world.
Result – refers to outcomes of socialization, and are evident when individuals begin
to practice the behaviors, attitudes and values.
Process – refers to the methods of interaction that enable the content to be given the
person undergoing socialization.
Content – refers to ideas, beliefs, behavior, and other information that are passed on
by members of society to the individual.
Social Context – refers to the particular circumstances of a society and consists if its
culture, language and the social structures that define social class, ethnicity, and
gender.
LESSON 11: NORMS AND VALUES
VALUES
- defined as a measure of goodness or desirability. They provide general guidelines
for conduct.
- define as appropriate and acceptable behavior in particular situations. Values are
cherished only through the observance of norms.
NORMS
- defined how the value of privacy is translated into action in particular situations and 2. Identification – is the process of adopting certain behaviors that enable the
circumstances. individual to have a satisfying relationship with the members of his or her group.

- norms relating to privacy may insist that person’s letter must not be opened without 3. Internalization – is the process of accepting the social norms, attitudes, roles, and
permission. values transmitted by people and social groups within society as one’s own.

- known as correct or proper forms of behavior. TYPES OF DEVIANCE

Sanctions – are reactions from others to the behavior of an individual or group, 1. Formal Deviance – includes criminal violation of formally-enacted laws.
which aim of ensuring the given norm a strictly adhered.
2. Informal Deviance – refers to violations of informal social norms, which are
(1) Sanctions can be positive or negative. norms that have not been codified into law.

a. Negative Sanctions – criticisms, gossips

b. Positive Sanctions – praises, promotions

(2) Sanctions can be formal and informal.

LESSON 13: FORMS AND FUNCTIONS OF SOCIAL ORGANIZATIONS
(a) Formal Sanctions are given by government agencies like police,
courts. It can be positive or negative. Social Group
(1) Formal Negative Sanctions: punishments through the prison, – is a collection of individuals who have relations with one another that make them
fines interdependent to some significant degree.
(2) Formal Positive Sanctions: rewards through medals, diploma,
degree Social Aggregate
(b) Informal Sanctions positive and negative are routine features of every
– is a mere collection of people in the same place at the same time and does not
society. It can be positive and negative.
necessarily influence an individual’s social actions due to lack if direct interaction
(1) Positive Informal Sanctions: pat on the back, praises, smile
and interdependence with the people composing it.
(2) Negative Informal Sanctions: scolding, insulting, physically
shunning, gossip.

Different Kinds of Social Organizations (Groups)

LESSON 12: CONFORMITY AND DEVIANCE
Conformity is the process of altering one’s thoughts and actions to adapt to accepted
behavior within one’s group or society.
Deviance is a behavior that elicits a strong negative reaction from group members
and involves actions that violate commonly-held social norms.
TYPES OF CONFORMITY
Primary Group – is a small, intimate, and less specialized group whereby members
engage in face to face and emotion-based interaction and interdependence over an
extended period of time.
Secondary Group – is a larger, less intimate, and more specialized groups whereby
members engage in impersonal and objective-oriented relationship for a limited
period of time.
In-Group – is a group to which a person belongs and with which he or she feels a
sense of identity.

1. Compliance – is the process of outwardly conforming to social pressure but Out-Group – is a group to which one does not belong and to which he or she may
privately disagreeing with it. feel a sense of competitiveness or hostility.
Reference Group – is a group to which an individual compares himself or herself. It
has a strong influence on an individual’s belief, values, behavior, and attitudes.
UNDERSTANDING,
Network – refers to the structure of relationship between social actors or group.

CULTURE, SOCIETY,
AND POLITICS

Victorino, Jasmine Joy A.

12 – Stem C Pagkakaisa

GENERAL BIOLOGY 1

Victorino, Jasmine Joy A.

12 – Stem C Pagkakaisa