lectut-MIN-305-pdf-MIN-305 05-Principles of Convection

Principles of Convection
Ravi Kumar
Professor
Department of Mechanical & Industrial Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee- 247677
India
Introduction
• We now wish to examine the methods of calculating convection
heat transfer and, in particular, the ways of predicting the value of
the convection heat-transfer coefficient h.
• The subject of convection heat transfer requires an energy
balance along with an analysis of the fluid dynamics of the
problems concerned.
• Our discussions will first consider some of the simple relations of
fluid dynamics and boundary layer analysis that are important for
a basic understanding of convection heat transfer.
06-11-2015 Prof. Ravi Kumar, Department of Mechanical & Industrial Engineering Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee- 247667 2
…introduction
• Next, we shall impose an energy balance on the flow system and

determine the influence of the flow on the temperature gradients
in the fluid.
• Finally, having obtained a knowledge of the temperature
distribution, the heat-transfer rate from a heated surface to a fluid
that is forced over it may be determined.
Viscous Flow
• The viscous force is described in
terms of a shear stress ‘τ’ between
the fluid layers.
• If this stress is assumed to be
proportional to the normal velocity
gradient, we have the defining
equation for the viscosity,

=

• The region of flow that develops
from the leading edge of the plate in
which the effects of viscosity are
observed is called the boundary
layer.
…viscous flow
The transition from laminar to turbulent flow occurs when

= > 5 × 10

• This particular grouping of terms is called the Reynolds number, and is
dimensionless if a consistent set of units is used for all the properties.
• Although the critical Reynolds number for transition on a flat plate is usually
taken as 5×105 for most analytical purposes, the critical value in a practical
situation is strongly dependent on the surface-roughness conditions and
the “turbulence level” of the free stream.
…viscous flow

= > 2300

2000 < < 4000
=

= =

=

INVISCID FLOW
If a balance of forces is made on an element of incompressible fluid
and these forces are set equal to the change in momentum of the
fluid element, the Bernoulli equation for flow along a streamline
results
1
+ = !"#$%"$

2
In differential form

+ = !"#$%"$

Numerical
• Water at 20◦C flows at 8 kg/s through the diffuser arrangement shown in
Figure. The diameter at section 1 is 3.0 cm, and the diameter at section 2 is
7.0 cm. Determine the increase in static pressure between sections 1 and 2.
Assume frictionless flow.
• Air at 300◦C and 0.7 MPa pressure is expanded isentropically from a tank
until the velocity is 300 m/s. Determine the static temperature, pressure,
and Mach number of the air at the high velocity condition. γ =1.4 for air.
LAMINAR BOUNDARY LAYER ON A FLAT PLATE
Consider the elemental control volume.
Equation of motion for the boundary layer by making a force-and-momentum
balance on this element.
To simplify the analysis we assume:
1. The fluid is incompressible and the flow is steady.
2. No pressure variations in the direction perpendicular to the plate.
3. The viscosity is constant.
4. Viscous-shear forces in the ‘y’ direction are negligible.
(
& '( =

…laminar boundary layer on a flat plate
*)
* * * )+
+ *
* * *
*
+
dx *
*
+
dy
*
) *

*
Mass Flow
Left face =

Right face
+,
=
+
+(
Bottom face =
)
Top face
+-
=
)+
+.
Mass balance
Left face + bottom face = right face + top face
* *)

+
) =
+ +
) +
* *
* *)
**y + **y = 0
* *
12 14
6
13 15
Momentum:
Left face =
.

+,
Right face =

+(
Net Pressure force in the

direction of motion
*
8
*
Shear force in bottom force

+,
=
+.
Shear force in the top
+, + +,
=
+. +. +.
Net viscous shear force

+9,
= 9
+.
Net viscous shear force + net pressure force

= net change in momentum (x) + net change in momentum (y)
* *
8
* *

*

8

*
+- +,

) 8
)
+. +.
Prof. Ravi Kumar, Department of Mechanical & Industrial Engineering Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee- 247667
06-11-2015 15
Clearing terms, making use of the continuity

relation, and neglecting second-order differential
+, +, +9 , +:

) 9 8
+( +. +. +(
+, +, +9 , ; +:
) 9 8
+( +. +. < +(
• Consider the boundary-layer

flow system shown in Figure.
• The free-stream velocity
outside the boundary layer is
u∞, and the boundary-layer
thickness is δ.
• Momentum-and-force balance
is made on the control volume
bounded by the planes 1, 2, A-
A, and the solid wall.
• The velocity components

normal to the wall are
neglected, and only those in
the X direction are
considered.
• Assume that the control
volume is sufficiently high
that it always encloses the
boundary layer; that is, H>δ.
Mass flow through plane 1:

>
=

?
Momentum flow through plane 1:
>
=

?
Mass flow through plane 2:
>
>
=
=

? ?
> A >
Momentum flow through plane 2: @?
@?

A(
Considering the conservation of mass and the fact that no mass can
enter the control volume through the solid wall, the additional
mass flow in expression must enter through plane A-A. This mass
flow carries with it a momentum in the x direction equal to
>
=

?
Net momentum flow out of the control volume
>
>
=
8 =

? ?
>
>
=
8 =

? ?
This expression may be put in a somewhat more useful
form by recalling the product formula from the differential
calculus
BC BC CB
BC BC 8 CB
>
=

?
>
BC BC 8 CB C =
and η
?
>
>
>
=
=
8 =

? ? ?
η dφ d(ηφ) φ
dη
>
>
=
8 =

? ?

>
>
=
8 =

? ?
>
=

?
>
>
=
8 =

? ?
>
>
8 =
8 =

? ?
Force on plane 1: pH
Force on plane 2:

H

Shear force at the wall:

*
8I 8 J
* .K?
There is no shear force at plane A-A

since the velocity gradient is zero
outside the boundary layer.
Setting the forces on the element

equal to the net increase in
momentum and collecting terms
gives
> >
8I 8 H 8
=
8 =

? ?
> >

8I 8 H 8
=
8 =

? ?
• This is the integral momentum equation of the boundary layer. If the pressure is
constant throughout the flow,

0 = −

• Since the pressure and free-stream velocity are related by the Bernoulli equation.
For the constant-pressure condition, the integral boundary-layer equation
becomes
O S OQ
LM = N = N Q − Q QOR = T J
OP 6 OR RK6
• The upper limit on the integral has been changed to δ because the integrand is
zero for y>δ since u=u∞ for y>δ.
For our approximate analysis we first write down some conditions

that the velocity function must satisfy
0 %$ = 0 = %$ = U
*
= 0 %$ = U
*
For constant pressure condition
U
= 0 %$ = 0
U
= V; + V + VW + VX W
2 Y5 \ 5 Y
8
2 Z [ Z [
Inserting expression of velocity in
>
I
=
8 J
? .K?
]
3 1 W 3 1 W 3

=

8 18 J
? 2U 2 U 2U 2 U .K? 2 U
39 3

U =

280 2 U
Since ρ and u∞ are constants, the variables may be separated to give

140 140
UU =
13 13
U 140
= + !"#$%"$
2 13
At x = 0 the δ = 0, so that
a(
U = 4.64
,b
This may be written in terms of Reynolds number a
c d. ed i. 6
= ≈
P fg fg
Numerical
• Air at 27◦C and 1 atm flows over a flat plate at a speed of 2 m/s. Calculate
the boundary-layer thickness at distances of 20 cm and 40 cm from the
leading edge of the plate. Calculate the mass flow that enters the boundary
layer between x=20 cm and x=40 cm. The viscosity of air at 27◦C is 1.85×10−5
kg/m·s. Assume unit depth in the z direction.
0.56 mm. 7.9 mm, 3.4 gms

ENERGY EQUATION OF THE BOUNDARY LAYER
Consider the elemental control volume
shown in Figure.
To simplify the analysis we assume
1. Incompressible steady flow
2. Constant viscosity, thermal
conductivity, and specific heat
3. Negligible heat conduction in the
direction of flow (x direction), i.e.,
*j *j
≪
* *
…energy equation of the boundary layer
*j * *j
8m *) *j
* * *
) j dx
:
* *
Net viscous work

* dx

*
* *j
ρ j
: j dy
* *
dy
*j
) : j
8m
a *
Viscous shear Force

*
dx
*
Distance travelled per unit time
*
dy
*
Net viscous energy delivered to element

*

*

*j *j * *) *j *
: ) j m

* * * * * *
* *)
0
* *
Z
1z 1z [ z | 12 Z
2 +4 ={ Z+
13 15 [5 }~ 15

*j *j U j *
)
* * U
: *
*j j
~ %" ~U, therefore, ~ ∝
* U

*

~ ≪1
: *
:U
: j
Then the viscous dissipation is small in comparison with the

conduction term.

≪1

: j
a
Let us rearrange Equation by introducing .

Where Pr is called the Prandtl number, above equation becomes
,b9
≪1

As an example, consider the flow of air at u∞ =70 m/s T =20 ◦C= 293 K p=100 kPa
For these conditions cp =1005=J/kg.◦C and Pr =0.7 so that

0.7 70
≪1 = 0.012 ≪ 1.0
: j 1005 ∗ 293
Indicating that the viscous dissipation is small even for large flow velocity of 70 m/s
Thus, for low-velocity incompressible flow, we have
1z 1z 1Z z
2 +4 ={ Z
13 15 15
Momentum equation
12 12 1Z 2
2 +4 = Z
13 15 15
THERMAL BOUNDARY LAYER
*j
8m J ℎ jI 8 j
* I
*j
8m
* I
ℎ
jI 8 j
We need only to find the temperature
gradient at the wall in order to
evaluate the heat-transfer coefficient Uj
8m J
U I
…thermal boundary layer
The conditions that the temperature distribution must satisfy are

*j
j jI %$ 0 = 0 %$ = U
*
j = j %$ = U
+ + +9
In equation + ) = 9
+( +. +.
*j
for y=0 = 0
*
T= V; + V + VW + VX W
Y Uj
z − z Y 5 \ 5 = −m J
= = − U I
z − z Z [ Z [
Energy convected in + viscous work within element + heat transfer at wall

= energy convected out
>
Energy convected through Plane 1:
: @ j
> A >
Plane 2:
: @ j
: @ j dx
A(
A >
Mass flow through AA:
A(
@
dx
and this carries with it an energy equal to
>
: j =

A >
Net Energy in:
: A( @ j 8 j
The net viscous work done within the element:

>

=
?
Heat Transfer at the wall:
*j
8m J
* I
Net energy convected out
=viscous work + heat transfer at wall
>
8
: = j 8 j

>
*j Uj
= 8 m J 8m J
? * I U I

> >
*j
8
: = j 8 j = 8 m J
? * I

> >
*j

: = j 8 j = m J
? *

>
>
*j
= j 8 j = α J

: ? * I
Inserting the velocity and temperature distribution Equations

3 1 W
2 U 2 U
8
W
j 8 jI 3 1
8
j 8 jI 2 U 2 U

>
>
*j
= j 8 j = α J

: ? * I
and neglecting the viscous-dissipation term, gives

>
>
>

= j 8 j = 8 = 18

W
>
3 1 3 1 W *j 3
= 18 8 α J
2 U 2 U 2U 2 U * .K? 2U
making the substitution ζ =δt/δ yields

3 3 X 3
U − =
20 280 2U
Because δt <δ, ζ<1, and the term involving ζ4 is small compared with the ζ2
term, we neglect the ζ4 term
3 3
U =

20 2U
3 U
2U +
=
10 U
3 U
2U
+ UW
=
10
3 U
2U
+ U
W =
10
140 280
UU = U =

13 13
A ;W
W
4
A( ;X a
So that, we have
A ; A W
Noting that
A( W A(
Equation is a linear differential equation of the first order in ζ3
¡X
W 13
V
W
14
W
¡
W
V X
13
14
When the boundary condition
U 0 %$ %" 0 %$
The final solution becomes
;
U
¡
W W

1 ;
¡W ? X
U 1.026
18

a
where Pr =

When the plate is heated over the entire length, x0 =0, and
U 1 ;
¡W

U 1.026
• In the foregoing analysis the assumption was made that ζ<1.
• This assumption is satisfactory for fluids having Prandtl numbers greater
than about 0.7.
• Fortunately, most gases and liquids fall within this category.
• Liquid metals are a notable exception, however, since they have Prandtl
numbers of the order of 0.01.
Returning to analysis
*j
8ℎ
* I 3 m 3 m
ℎ
jI 8 j 2 U 2 U
§
¨ ¡¨
§
] X.£X .? ]¦ ; ¡¨ (© ª
Substituting ≈ in = = 1− we get
( ¤¥ ¤¥ ] ;.?£ (
;
; ¡
W W
; ? X
ℎ( = 0.332m W 1−

;
¡
W W
ℎ( ; ; ? X
« = = 0.332 W 1 −
m
§ §
¬ (
For x0 = 0 « 0.332 ¨ 9

®
@? ℎ(
ℎ= ® = 2ℎ(K®
@?
For a plate where heating starts at x=x0,
W
X
ℎ(¯ ¡® 18
2° °
ℎ(K® ° 8
In this case, the total heat transfer for the plate would be
ℎ(¯ ¡® ° 8 jI 8 j
assuming the heated section is at the constant temperature Tw. For the plate
heated over the entire length
ℎ° ; ;
°
«® 0.664® %" ® =
W
m
Constant Heat Flux
ℎ ; ;
«( 0.453 W
m

«( =
m jI − j
The average temperature difference along the plate, for the constant-heat-
flux condition, may be obtained by performing the integration
°
1 ®
1 ®
m
jI 8 j = jI 8 j =
° ? ° ? m«( ; ;
0.6795 W
W
or = ℎ(K® jI − j

…constant heat flux
Other Relations
• Previous equation is applicable to fluids having Pr between about 0.6 and 50.
• It would not apply to fluids with very low Prandtl numbers like liquid metals or to
high- Prandtl-number fluids like heavy oils or silicones.
• For a very wide range of Pr, following relation correlated a large amount of data
• for laminar flow on an isothermal flat plate:
; ;
0.3387( W

«( ; ! ( > 100
X
0.0468 W
1+

• For the constant-heat-flux case, 0.3387 is changed to 0.4637 and 0.0468 is
changed to 0.0207. Properties are still evaluated at the film temperature.
Numerical
• For the flow system where air at 27◦C and 1 atm flows over a flat plate at a speed of 2 m/s.
assume that the plate is heated over its entire length to a temperature of 60◦C. Calculate
the heat transferred in (a) the first 20 cm of the plate and (b) the first 40 cm of the plate.
• A 1.0-kW heater is constructed of a glass plate with an electrically conducting film that
produces a constant heat flux. The plate is 60 cm by 60 cm and placed in an airstream at
27◦C, 1 atm with u∞ =5 m/s. Calculate the average temperature difference along the plate
and the temperature difference at the trailing edge.
• Air at 1 atm and 300 K flows across a 20-cm-square plate at a free-stream velocity of 20
m/s. The last half of the plate is heated to a constant temperature of 350 K. Calculate the
heat lost by the plate.
• Engine oil at 20◦C is forced over a 20-cm-square plate at a velocity of 1.2 m/s. The plate is
heated to a uniform temperature of 60◦C. Calculate the heat lost by the plate.
#1
For the flow system where air at 27◦C and 1 atm flows over a flat plate at a
speed of 2 m/s. assume that the plate is heated over its entire length to a
temperature of 60◦C. Calculate the heat transferred in (a) the first 20 cm of
the plate and (b) the first 40 cm of the plate.
Properties at 43.5 oC
ν = 17.36x10-6 m2/s
K= 27.49 mW/m.K
Pr=0.7
Cp=1.006 kJ/kg.K
81.28, 114.8
#2
A 1.0-kW heater is constructed of a glass plate with an electrically conducting film
that produces a constant heat flux. The plate is 60 cm by 60 cm and placed in an
airstream at 27◦C, 1 atm with u∞ =5 m/s. Calculate the average temperature
difference along the plate and the temperature difference at the trailing edge.
Properties at 27 oC
ν= 15.69x10-6 m2/s K= 26.24 mW/m.K Pr=0.708 Cp=1.006 kJ/kg.K
°
1 ®
1 ®
m
jI 8 j = jI 8 j =
° ? ° ? m«( ; ;
0.6795 W
ν= 128.22x10-6 m2/s K= 35.0 mW/m.K Pr=0.687
ℎ ; ;
«( = = 0.453 W
m
243, 365.4
#3
• Air at 1 atm and 300 K flows across a 20-cm-square plate at a free-stream
velocity of 20 m/s. The last half of the plate is heated to a constant
temperature of 350 K. Calculate the heat lost by the plate.
Properties at 325 K
ν= 18.23x10-6 m2/s K= 28.14 mW/m.K Pr=0.7
THE RELATION BETWEEN FLUID FRICTION AND HEAT TRANSFER
The shear stress at the wall in terms of a friction coefficient Cf
9
<,b +,
I = V± = ²
+. I
3 U 4.64
and also I and
2 U
;
3 1
I =
2 4.64
;
V± 3 1
= . . .
2 2 4.64

;
¡
= 0.323(
…the relation between fluid friction and heat transfer
The exact solution of the boundary-layer equations yields

V± ;
¡
= 0.332(
2
§ §
¬ (
The equation « = = 0.332 may be rewritten as
¨ 9

«( ℎ( ¡
;
= = 0.332 ¡W ( = ´$( (Stanton number)
.
:
So that,
º ;/ V±
´$( W 0.332( =
2
…the relation between fluid friction and heat transfer
• Reynolds-Colburn analogy, expresses the relation between

fluid friction and heat transfer for laminar flow on a flat
plate.
• It can also be applied to turbulent flow over a flat plate and
in a modified way to turbulent flow in a tube.
• It does not apply to laminar tube flow.
Numerical
• For the flow system in Example (Air at 27◦C and 1 atm flows over a flat plate
at a speed of 2 m/s. Calculate the boundary-layer thickness at distances of
20 cm and 40 cm from the leading edge of the plate) compute the drag
force exerted on the first 40 cm of the plate using the analogy between fluid
friction and heat transfer.
TURBULENT-BOUNDARY-LAYER HEAT TRANSFER
• A very thin region near the plate
surface has a laminar character.
• Farther out, at larger y distances
from the plate, some turbulent
action is experienced, but the
molecular viscous action and
heat conduction are still
important.
• Still farther out, the flow is fully
turbulent, and the main
momentum- and heat-exchange In this fully turbulent region we speak of eddy
mechanism is one involving viscosity and eddy thermal conductivity. These
macroscopic lumps of fluid eddy properties may be10 to 20 times as large
moving about in the flow. as the molecular values.
…turbulent-boundary-layer heat transfer
• The physical mechanism of heat transfer in turbulent flow is quite

similar to that in laminar flow; the primary difference is that one
must deal with the eddy properties instead of the ordinary
thermal conductivity and viscosity.
• The main difficulty in an analytical treatment is that these eddy
properties vary across the boundary layer, and the specific
variation can be determined only from experimental data.
• All completely adequate theory analyses of turbulent flow must
eventually rely on experimental data because there is no
completely agreed theory to predict turbulent-flow behavior.
= + ¼
) = ) + )¼
Fluctuation give rise to a turbulent
shear stress.
• For a unit area of the plane P-P, the

instantaneous turbulent mass-
transport rate across the plane is
ρv’
• The net momentum flux per unit
area, in the x direction, represents
the turbulent shear stress at the
plane P-P, or ρu’v’
• Associated with this mass transport
is a change in the x component of
velocity u’
• The net momentum flux per unit area, in the x direction,

represents the turbulent shear stress at the plane P-P, or ρu’v’
• When a turbulent lump moves upward (v’>0) it enters a region of
higher and is therefore likely to effect a slowing-down
fluctuation in u’, that is, u’<0, so that, the average turbulent-shear
stress will be given as
• = −
¼ )′
• We must note that even though )′ = ′ = 0, the average of the
fluctuation product ′)′ is not zero
Eddy Viscosity and the Mixing Length
The eddy viscosity or eddy diffusivity for momentum εM

= −
) =
¾¿
¼ ¼

We have already likened the macroscopic transport of heat and
momentum in turbulent flow to their molecular counterparts in
laminar flow is a natural consequence of this analogy.
Prandtl mixing length

Distance traveled, on the average, by the turbulent lumps of fluid in
a direction normal to the mean flow.
Lump velocity
+,
+ À ≈ À
+.
While at 8 À
*
8 À ≈ 8 À
*
Prandtl postulated that the
turbulent fluctuation u’ is
proportional to the mean of the
above two quantities or
*
′ ≈ À
*
…eddy viscosity and the mixing length
The distance ‘l’ is called the Prandtl mixing length.

Prandtl also postulated that v’ would be of the same order of
magnitude as u’ so that the turbulent-shear stress of Equation
+,
= −
¼ ) ¼ =
¾¿ can be written
+.

* *
= −
¼ ) ¼ =
À
=
¾¿
* *
The eddy viscosity ¾¿ thus becomes
*
¾¿ = À
*
…eddy viscosity and the mixing length
Prandtl’s hypothesis was that the mixing length is proportional to distance
from the wall, or l=Ky, where K is the proportionality constant.
* *
≈À
¼
%" ¾¿ À
* *
The additional assumption was made that in the near-wall region the shear
stress is approximately constant so that τt ≈τw. When this assumption is
used along with l=Ky, the equation

*
I
Á
*
1 I
À" V
Á
Expressing the shear stress as the sum of a molecular and turbulent part
*
= + ¾¿

*
Universal velocity profile is obtained by adding two non-dimensional

coordinates
Â =
I

ÃÄ
ÅÆ
Â
a
Ç +,
Using these parameters and assuming τ ≈constant in = + ¾¿
< +.

= + ¾¿

I

=
Â

Â
I

Â
Â ¾¿
1

Laminar sublayer È¿ ~0
Buffer layer È¿ ~ν
Turbulent layer È¿ ≫ ν
Therefore, taking È¿ = 0 in Equation
A. Ë
=Â
Ì and integrating
;Â Í
Î
Â = Â +
Â = Â +
Laminar sublayer:
At wall u+ = 0 for y+ = 0 so that, c = 0
hence, Â = Â is the velocity relation (a linear one)
Turbulent Layer:
; ÇÄ
From = . . À" +V
Ï <
Ð2 \ Ò \
=
Ð5 Ñ } 5
1 I 1
=
Á

+,
Substituting relation in ¾¿ = À along with l=Ky
+.
I
¾¿ = Á

I

=
Â

ÓÔ
= Ñ5Â

A. Ë
Substituting this relation in Equation Â = Ì for È¿ ≫ 0 and
;Â Í
Î
integrating
1
= À" Â + Â
Á
• This same form of equation will also be obtained for the buffer
region.
• The limits of each region are obtained by comparing the above
equations with experimental velocity measurements, with the
generally accepted constants:
Laminar sublayer:
0 < Â < 5 Â Â
Buffer Layer:
5 < Â < 30 Â 5.0 ln Â − 3.05
Turbulent Layer:
30 < Â < 400 Â 2.5 ln Â + 5.5
The above equations are called the universal velocity profile.

Turbulent heat transfer is analogous to turbulent momentum transfer.
The turbulent momentum flux postulated by Equation = −
¼ )′
carries a turbulent energy fluctuation proportional to the temperature
gradient.
We thus have, in analogy to Equation

* *
= −
) =
À
¼ ¼
=
¾¿
* *
+
,ÕÖ = −
: ¾> +.
Regions where molecular and turbulent energy transport are

important
*j
,ÕÖ = −
: + ¾>
*
Turbulent Heat Transfer Based on Fluid-Friction Analogy
In the turbulent-flow region, where ¾¿ ≫ and ¾> ≫ , the turbulent
Prandtl number is defined as
¾¿

¾>
If we can expect that the eddy momentum and energy transport will both be
increased in the same proportion compared with their molecular values, we
might anticipate that heat-transfer coefficients can be calculated by
;/ ØÙ
´$( ⁄¨ 0.332( =
9

In the turbulent core of the boundary layer the eddy viscosity may be as high
as 100 times the molecular value experienced in the laminar sublayer, and a
similar behavior is experienced for the eddy diffusivity for heat compared to
the molecular diffusivity.
…turbulent heat transfer based on fluid-friction analogy
The local skin-friction coefficient is given by

;
¡
V±( = 0.0592( 5 ×
10 ≤ ≤ 10Û
V±( = 0.370 °!Ü( ¡.ÝX 10Û
≤ ≤ 10Þ
The average-friction coefficient for a flat plate with a laminar boundary layer
up to Recrit and turbulent thereafter can be calculated from
0.455
V± = − ® < 10 Þ
log ® .ÝX ®
Where the constant A depends on Recrit in accordance with Table.
Recrit 3x105 5x105 106 3x106
A 1055 1742 3340 8940
A somewhat simpler formula can be obtained for lower Reynolds

numbers as
0.074
V± = ;/ − ® < 10Û
®
®
ØÙ
With fluid-friction anology ´$( =
9⁄
¨ the turbulent heat transfer

º ¡;/
´$( W = 0.0296( 5 × 10 ≤ ≤ 10Û
º
´$( W = 0.185 log ( ¡.ÝX 10Û ≤ ≤ 10Þ
Average heat transfer over the entire laminar-turbulent boundary layer is
ØÙ
´$ =
9⁄
¨

?.?ÛX â
For Recrit=5x105 and ReL<107. Equation V± = §/á − can be used to obtain
¤¥à ¤¥à
§
¡á
´$ = 0.037® − 871®¡;
9⁄
¨
«® = ;/W 0.037®?.Ý − 871

The average heat-transfer coefficient can also be obtained by integrating the
local values over the entire length of the plate. Thus,
1 (ãäå¦ ®
ℎ= = ℎ + = ℎ,ÕÖ
° ? (ãäå¦
;/
Using ´$( ⁄¨ = 0.332( for laminar portion and ´$( ⁄¨ =
9 9
¡;/
0.0296( for turbulent portion gives the same result by the above.
For higher Reynolds numbers the friction coefficient from Equation

?.X â
V± = − may be used, so that
æçè ¤¥à 9.áéª ¤¥à
¡.ÝX
«® = ;/W
0.228® À!Ü® − 871 ;/W
If a transition Reynolds number different from 500,000 is chosen, then

Equations must be changed accordingly.
Constant Heat Flux
«( = 1.04∗ «( ê ÄKëì.
Numerical
• Air at 20◦C and 1 atm flows over a flat plate at 35 m/s. The plate is 75 cm
long and is maintained at 60◦C. Assuming unit depth in the z direction,
calculate the heat transfer from the plate.
TURBULENT-BOUNDARY-LAYER THICKNESS
A number of experimental investigations have shown that the velocity
profile in a turbulent boundary layer, outside the laminar sublayer, can
be described by a one-seventh-power relation
;
Û
=
U
where δ is the boundary-layer thickness as before. For purposes of an
integral analysis the
momentum integral can be evaluated with above Equation because
the laminar sublayer is very thin.
However, the wall shear stress cannot be calculated from this
Equation because it yields an infinite value at y=0.
…turbulent-boundary-layer thickness
To determine the turbulent-boundary-layer thickness following Equation is

employed
A > A,
I =
@
− = ²
A( ? A. .K?
for the integral momentum relation and evaluate the wall shear stress from
the empirical relations for skin friction presented previously. According to
9
<,b
Equation I = V± .

§
¡á
And so for Rex<107 we obtain the equation V±( = 0.0592(
;/

I = 0.0296

A > A,
Now using I =
@
− = ² along with the velocity
A( ? A. .K?
profile and wall shear stress, we obtain
; ; ;/
]
Û Û
= 1− = 0.0296
? U U
Integrating
;/
U 72
= 0.0296 ¡;/
7
This equation shall be integrated for two physical situations:

Case-1: The boundary layer is fully turbulent from the leading edge of the
plate.
U ¡;/
= 0.381( U 0 %$ 0

Case-2: The boundary layer follows a laminar growth pattern up to Recrit
=5×105 and a turbulent growth thereafter.

U U %$ Õð 510

U = U = 5.0 ∗ Õð 510 ¡;/
] .?
Now, using =
( ¤¥
§ §
A ] . . a ;/
Integrating @? 1− = 0.0296
ñ ñ
A( ] ] ,b (
;/
72 X/
U − U = 0.0296 − Õð
5 X/
7 4
Combining the various relations above gives
U ¡;/
= 0.381( − 10.256(¡;

This relations applies for 5x105 < Rex <107
Numerical
Calculate the turbulent-boundary-layer thickness at the end of the plate. Air
at 20◦C and 1 atm flows over a flat plate at 35 m/s. The plate is 75 cm long
and is maintained at 60◦C. Consider unit depth in the z direction, calculate
the heat transfer from the plate. Assuming that it develops (a) from the
leading edge of the plate and (b) from the transition point at Recrit =5×105.
HEAT TRANSFER IN LAMINAR TUBE FLOW
It is assumed that the pressure is
uniform at any cross section.
The pressure forces are balanced by
the viscous-shear forces so that
ò = + ò −
A,
ò = 2ò = 2ò
AÕ
1
=
2
1
= + !"#$
4
…heat transfer in laminar tube flow
1
= + !"#$
4
With the boundary condition
u = 0 at r = ro
1
= −
4
Velocity at the center is given by

= − = 1 −
4
AóÄ
It is assumed that there is a constant heat flux at the tube wall =0
A(
The heat flow conducted into the annular element
Õ = −m2ò
j

j j
ÕÂAÕ 8m2ò + +

Net heat convected out of element
*j
2ò. .
. : . .
*
Energy Balance:
Net heat convected out = Heat conducted in
*j j j

: = m +
*
1 * *j 1 *j
=
* * *
+
The boundary conditions on Equation are = 0 at = 0
+Õ
We also assume that the heat flux at the wall is constant, so that the average fluid
+
temperature must increase linearly with x, or = 0
+(
*j
m J = I = constatant
* ÕKÕ
¯
; + + ; +
To solve the equation =
,Õ +Õ +Õ +(
* *j 1 *j
= 1−
* * *
*j 1 *j X
= − + V;
* * 2 4
1 *j X
j= − + V; À" + V
* 4 16
Applying first boundary condition C1 = 0
j = j %$ = 0 V = j
X
1 *j 1
j − j = −
* 4 4
The Bulk Temperature
In tube flow the convection heat-transfer coefficient is usually defined by
= ℎ jI − jÖ
Õ¯
@? 2ò : j
jÖ = j = Õ¯
@? 2ò :
Calculating the bulk temperature we have
7 *j
jÖ = j +
96 *
For wall temperature
3 *j
jI = j +
16 *
Heat transfer coefficient

*j
m
*j * ÕKÕ¯
= ℎ jI − jÖ = m and; ℎ =
* ÕKÕ¯
jI − jÖ
Temperature gradient is given by
*j *j W *j
J = − =
* ÕKÕ * 2 4 ÕKÕ¯
4 *
¯
Û ,¯ Õ 9̄ + W ,¯ Õ 9̄ +
Substituting jÖ = j + ; jI = j + and above equation
Þ£ +( ;£ +(
24 m 48 m ℎ
ℎ= = hence, «A = = 4.364
11 11 m
TURBULENT FLOW IN A TUBE
The heat flow across a fluid element in
laminar flow may be expressed by
j
= −m

j
= −

:
In turbulent flow
j
= − + ¾>

:
We now assume that the heat and momentum
are transported at the same rate; that is, ¾¿ =¾>
Shear stress in turbulent flow and ν=α, or Pr =1

= + ¾¿ = + ¾¿ = −j

:

…turbulent flow in a tube
An additional assumption is that the ratio of the heat transfer per unit area to the
shear stress is constant across the flow field. This is consistent with the assumption
that heat and momentum are transported at the same rate. Thus
I
= = !"#$%"$
I
Ç A, A,
Integrating = + ¾¿ = + ¾¿
< < A. A.
I ,K,õ ö
= = = −j
I : ,K? Ä
I
= jI − jÖ
I :
Heat transfer at the wall may be expressed by
I = ℎI jI − jÖ
…turbulent flow in a tube
Shear stress:
Δ ò Δ
I = =
4ò ° 4 °
Pressure drop may be expressed in terms of friction factor
°
Δ =
2

I =

8
ó ,
Substituting the expressions for τw and qw in Equation Ä õ = jI − jÖ
ÇÄ
ℎ «A
´$ = = =

: A 8
¬ ø,ù ±
Equation ´$ = = = is called the Reynolds analogy for tube flow. It
< ,õ ¤¥ù úÕ Ý
relates the heat-transfer rate to the frictional loss in tube flow and is in fair
agreement with experiments.
An empirical formula for the turbulent-friction factor up to Reynolds numbers of
about 2×105 for the flow in smooth tubes is
0.316
= ;/X
A
±
Inserting the expression in I =

Ý
«A ¡;/X
= 0.0395A
A
W/X
«A = 0.0395A as Pr =1

´$ = /W
8
W/X
«A = 0.0395A ;/W
For calculation purposes, a more correct relation to use for turbulent flow in
a smooth tube is
«A = 0.023A?.Ý ?.W

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Principles of Convection

• Next, we shall impose an energy balance on the flow system and

The transition from laminar to turbulent flow occurs when

2000 <  < 4000

Net Pressure force in the

Shear force in bottom force

Net viscous shear force

Net viscous shear force + net pressure force

Clearing terms, making use of the continuity

• Consider the boundary-layer

• The velocity components

Mass flow through plane 1:

Net momentum flow out of the control volume

Shear force at the wall:

There is no shear force at plane A-A

Setting the forces on the element

 >  >

For our approximate analysis we first write down some conditions

Since ρ and u∞ are constants, the variables may be separated to give

0.56 mm. 7.9 mm, 3.4 gms

Viscous shear Force

:  ) j   m    

Then the viscous dissipation is small in comparison with the

The conditions that the temperature distribution must satisfy are

Energy convected in + viscous work within element + heat transfer at wall

The net viscous work done within the element:

Inserting the velocity and temperature distribution Equations

and neglecting the viscous-dissipation term, gives

making the substitution ζ =δt/δ yields

The exact solution of the boundary-layer equations yields

• Reynolds-Colburn analogy, expresses the relation between

• The physical mechanism of heat transfer in turbulent flow is quite

• For a unit area of the plane P-P, the

• The net momentum flux per unit area, in the x direction,

Prandtl mixing length

The distance ‘l’ is called the Prandtl mixing length.

The above equations are called the universal velocity profile.

We thus have, in analogy to Equation

Regions where molecular and turbulent energy transport are

The local skin-friction coefficient is given by

A somewhat simpler formula can be obtained for lower Reynolds

«® = ;/W 0.037®?.Ý − 871

For higher Reynolds numbers the friction coefficient from Equation

If a transition Reynolds number different from 500,000 is chosen, then

To determine the turbulent-boundary-layer thickness following Equation is

This equation shall be integrated for two physical situations:

Heat transfer coefficient

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2000 < < 4000

> >

: ) j m

«® = ;/W 0.037®?.Ý − 871