Range Management Notes

RANGE MANAGEMENT Naeem Javid M.
Hassani
M. Sc (2007-09)
Range
Management
By
Naeem Javid Muhammad Hassani
M. Sc. (2007-2009)
PAKISTAN FOREST INSTITUTE

PESHAWAR
(2007-2009)
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RANGE MANAGEMENT Naeem Javid M. Hassani
M. Sc (2007-09)
CONTENTS
Topic Page Number
RANGE LANDS . . . . . . . . 1
RANGE MANAGEMENT . . . . . . . 1
GOALS OF RANGE MANAGEMENT . . . . . 2
IMPORTANCE OF RANGE LANDS . . . . . 3
PRINCIPLES OF RANGE MANAGEMENT . . . . 4
PROBLEMS AND CONSTRAINTS OF RANGE MANAGEMENT
IN PAKISTAN . . . . . . . . 6
EFFECT OF GRAZING ON RANGE AREA . . . . 7
HOW PLANTS TOLERATE GRAZING? . . . . 8
RANGE ECOREGION OR RANGE ECOLOGICAL REGIONS . 8
A. Tropical Maritime
B. Topical Plains (non sandy)
C. Tropical Plains (Sandy)
D. Subtropical Sub-humid Ecological Region
E. Mediterranean Eco-region
F. Himalayan Eco-region
G. Temperate Humid Eco-zone
H. Sub-alpine Alpine Eco-zone
GRAZING SYSTEMS . . . . . . . 15
IMPORTANT GRAZING SYSTEMS . . . . . 16
In Pakistan:
1. Continuous/ Year long/ Season long Grazing System
2. Rotational Grazing System
3. Deferred Grazing System
4. Deferred Rotational Grazing system
Not in Pakistan:
1. Rest Rotational Grazing System
2. Merril four pastures, three herd grazing system
3. Switch back grazing systems
4. How henhein grazing system
5. Short duration/ Savary/ Holistic resource grazing system
6. High intensity and low frequency grazing system
GRAZING PATTERNS AND PRACTICES IN PAKISTAN . . 20
1. Grazing Patterns in Northern Uplands (Northern Mountains)
2. Grazing patterns in Desert range lands
3. Grazing patterns in Balochistan
RANGE SAMPLING . . . . . . . 22
RANGE ANALYSIS. . . . . . . . 23
NORMAL RANGE . . . . . . . . 23
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STOCKING RATE . . . . . . . . 23
GOLDEN RULE FOR (RANGE MGT) GRAZING SYSTEM . . 23
RANGE CONDITION . . . . . . . 24
RANGE CONDITION CLASSES . . . . . . 24
CARRYING CAPACITY . . . . . . . 25
METHODS OF EVALUATING THE CARRYING CAPACITY . 25
SPECIES COMPOSITION . . . . . . . 26
RANGE TREND . . . . . . . . 27
RANGE UTILIZATION . . . . . . . 28
RANGE IMPROVEMENT . . . . . . . 29
RANGE NUTRITION . . . . . . . 30
PLANT MORPHOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY . . . . 32
IMPORTANT FACTORS FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS . . . 32
POISONOUS PLANTS . . . . . . . 34
RANGE LANDS OF PAKISTAN . . . . . . 35
SHORT QUESTIONS FROM EXAMINATION . . . . 36
1. ANIMAL EQUIVALENT
2. ANIMAL UNIT
3. AUM
4. AUT-ECOLOGY
5. C3 AND C4 GRASSES
6. CARRYING CAPACITY/ GRAZING CAPACITY
7. CLIMAX
8. CRASSULACEAN ACID METABOLISM
9. DRIP/ TRICKLE IRRIGATION SYSTEM
10. ECOSYSTEM
11. FREQUENCY OF USE
12. GRAZING SYSTEM
13. GRAZING FREQUENCY
14. GRAZING INTENSITY
15. HERDING
16. INDICATOR SPECIES
17. INTENSITY OF USE
18. KEY AREA
19. KEY SPECIES
20. MULCHING
21. NICHE OR ECOLOGICAL NICHE
22. PALATABILITY
23. PALATABILITY INDEX
24. PASTURES
25. PLANT SUCCESSION
26. PREFERENCE
27. PREFERENCE INDEX
28. PREFERENCE VALUES
29. PRODUCTIVITY (FORAGE PRODUCTION)
30. RANCH
31. RANGE LAND
32. RANGE MANAGEMENT
33. RANGE READINESS
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34. RANGE SUITABILITY
35. RETROGRESSION
36. SACRIFICE AREA
37. SALTING
38. SEASONAL USE
39. SODDING
40. STALL-FEED
41. SYNECOLOGY
Special Thx to:

Mujeeb Sardar
B. Sc (2006-2008)
M.Sc (2008-2010)
&
Waseem Nasir
B.Sc (2007-2009)
For providing me indispensable material
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M. Sc (2007-09)
What is a Range Land? Define Range Management. Write the importance of Range Lands
with special reference to Pakistan.
General Considerations:
- 1/10th of the total area of the world is arable
- Range lands occupy 1/5th of the total land area of the world
- Rangelands thus occupy about 40–50 percent of the land area of the Earth.
- In Pakistan 60% area of land is range land.
Range Lands:
The areas of the world which due to:
- Low precipitation
- Roughly topography and Extreme temperature
are not arable and able to sustain cultivation
Definition:
“Range land is any extensive area of land that is occupied by native herbaceous or
shrubby vegetation which is grazed by domestic or wild herbivores.” OR;
“Range lands are those areas of the world which by reason of Physical limitations (low
and erratic precipitation, rough topography, poor drainage, extreme temperature) are unsuited to
cultivation and which are a source of forage for free ranging natives and domestic animals as
well as a source of wood products, water and wildlife.”
Range Management:
“It is science and arts of optimizing the returns from range lands in those combinations as
desired by and suited to society through the manipulation of range ecosystem.”
Importance of Range Lands:

About 60% of the total area of Pakistan is range land as Pakistan has arid and semiarid
conditions with low rainfall, rough topography, and extreme temperature. However, a number of
benefits adding to the GDP of country are directly or indirectly dependent upon range lands.
Therefore, it is advisable to outline these benefits associated with range lands:
1. Range lands have an area of 47% of the world; while crop lands occupy 18%, forest lands
28% and ice covered areas are 15%.
2. In Pakistan range lands range form 60 – 70% extending form Alpine region to deserts and to
South Arabian Sea. The range lands of alpine, sub-alpine and temperate areas are very
productive but those of southern regions are less productive. However, their distribution is
give as follows:
Province/ State Total land Rangel land area % of total land area
Million/ ha
1. Balochistan 34.72 32.43 93
2. NWFP 10.17 5.68 5.6
3. Punjab 20.63 9.70 4.7
4. Sind 14.09 9.28 60
5. Northern Areas 7.04 3.5 30
6. A.K. 1.33 0.64 41
Total 87.98 61.23 70%
About 6 million hectares are under the control of forest department.
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3. Erosion Control in an uncompensatable benefit associated with range lands:
1.1. 40% of Terbella and Mangla catchment area are range land.
1.2. Sedimentation, much heavy, loss of expenditure and less storage of water for regular
supply for agriculture.
1.3. Low generation of electricity affecting domestic, commercial and industrial uses.
4. Livestock sharing 9% of GDP
Table showing no of livestock in Pakistan: (year 2004 - 05)

S/No Kind Heads/ Nos. (millions)
1. Buffalos 26.3
2. Cattle 24.2
3. Goats 56.7
4. Sheep 24.9
5. Camels 0.7
6. Asses 0.3
7. Mules 0.3
Total --- 133.4
Source: Livestock Division & notes of Naeem Javid Hassani
- 60% of sheep and goats feed from range lands
- 40% of camels, asses, horses feed from ranges
- 5% of cattle feed from range lands.
5. Animal dung compensating 18% of fuel wood consumption.

6. Meat, Milk production and Food:
 Meat = 2, 94, 72000 tons
 Milk = 22, 7100 tons
 Food = 40, 000 tons
7. Habitat of Wild life, and source of tourism and eco-tourism.
GOALS OF RANGE MANAGEMENT:

1. Protection, conservation, improvement and continued welfare of resources of land, water,
plants and animals.
2. Increased well being of the range land people and society as a whole.
Range management is associated with several sciences as shown:
We are concerned with several sciences at a time. In Cholistan, deer are found but they or
their children world perish in cold winter if some cover for ‘birth’ is not provided. Similarly,
wale’s food, etc are needed; net carrying capacity is calculated as well.
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In range mgt there are site limitations; and we can compare the good soil with steep
topographic site.
Here the ecology is studied because there are preferences of the kind of animals to the
land species.
IMPORTANCE OF RANGE LANDS:

We will realize the importance with the observance of following data and points:
Livestock Population over time: (thousand heads)
Animals 1976 Census 1986 Census
Cattle 15255 18016
Buffaloes 10911 15958
Sheep 19037 23645
Goats 22393 30662
Camels 789 958
Horses 439 393
Mules 61 70
Asses 2157 3079
Total 71042 92764
About 2/3 of the range area has been classified and 92-93 million livestock obtains food
from range area (and else) of the above listed animals, it has been calculated that about 60% of
the plant feed is usurped by goats and sheep. Akinly, 50% by camels and horses white cattle and
buffaloes eat out 5%.
Since the range lands of the country are supporting such a large no of population of live
stock are meting (giving) out sufficient meat for such populations, they are worth caring and
managing on their respective.
Live stock sector contributes 9% to GDP (1983 data). If we assume that 1.2 to the
livestock is diminished the product goes 4.5% of the range lands. The range areas of the
Pakistan are always ill-targeted, we consider it as half.
Moreover, the people rear the animals for different purposes such as transportation and
plowing. They are also a source of milk, meat, hides (and hence economic). They are still
providing fuel wood and indirectly the water of costly dams.
It has been estimated that this loss can be compensated and even doubles if manages
properly.
The situation of our dams is quite critical as the multipurpose dams, such as Mangla and
Tarbela are being silted up as:
Mangla = 48000 acres/ ft
Tarbela = 100,000 acres/ft
Recommended optimum level of proteins in human diet is 68.5 gm/day/individual,
(human consumption). In Pakistan, it is 45.8 gm/day/person. At least half of the proteins
should be from animals resources and protein consumption form animals (including
poultry) in 1989, was about 32 gm. Thus the population faces a protein deficiency which
can be made up by management of our range lands.
Animal dung contribute about 18% of the fuel requirement of country 34% of the house
hold in Sialkot, Kohat, Rawalpindi and Khoshab districts. Animals use the range lands
and fulfill their requirements. _ (1989, Economic Survey of Pakistan)
Range lands share their potential about half of Social Economic Development of the rural
population. Despite the absence on management, they fulfill 50% needs.
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PRINCIPLES OF RANGE MANAGEMENT:
There are four major principles of range management:
1. Correct kind of Animals (live stock)
2. Correct number of Animals
3. Correct season of range use, or grazing
4. Proper (uniform) distribution of live stock on range areas
1. Correct kind of Animals (live stock):

There are following determinant factors for the correct kind of animals:
a) Preference
b) Water requirement
c) Topography
d) Palatability of forage species
a) Preference: Existing vegetation play a major role in the determination of animal spp to be
grazed eg camel prefer trees and shrubs while cattle preger tall grasses. Sheep first prefer
short grasses and in case of non-availability of later they eat on shrubs and even if still
shrubs are not available, they prefer to browse.
b) Water requirement: Goats and sheep require less water than cattle and the camels can
sustain without water upto several days. In case of scarcity of water the area may be
grazed by camels. So water obviously determines the kind of animals
c) Topography: The cattle prefer plain and moderate terrains. If it is steep topographic area,
the sheep and goat may tread easily and if desert, it is best for camels.
d) Palatability of forage species: It is again related with preference as example Olea
ferrugenia and Acacia modesta, etc are palatable for animals; Cenchrus ciliarius and
Chrysopogon aucheri are preferred by cattle. Similarly Bothriocloa pertusa and Aristida
depressa may be preferred by other animals.
` Besides this palatability of spp leads to the formation of different covers and
anop9ies of vegetation eg If camels are allowed in an area to graze the trees and shrubs,
the density of trees and shrubs will be reduced and the lower vegetation ie grasses, etc will
rise up. If the situation in reverse the lower cover will be destroyed due to the
unavailability of light. Still if the mixed animals graze, the unwanted spp as Dodonaea
viscosa (not grazed) etc will show vigorous growth.
So need is to have optimum benefits from land the exact spp of animal (and exact
number as well) hence animals are adopted differently to different range areas because of
their bodyweight, water requirements, forage preferences, etc. however, the characteristics
of range area considered are:
i) Species composition or relative proportion of grasses, forbs, herbs, trees and
shrubs.
ii) Palatability of each forage spp to different kind of animals
iii) Nutritive value of range plants to diff kind of animals
iv) Range suitability of different kinds of animals.
v) Distribution of forage on range area..
As Range lands have mixed vegetation therefore, mixed number of animals should
be grazed. These calculations are made from “Range Suitability Classification”.
Moreover, the optimum utilization of range land is expressed and visible in terms
of weight, health, and income from these animals.
2. Correct number of Animals:
This is essential for the following reasons:
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i) Vegetation should be in good condition.
ii) Gain in the weight of animals: (No body will invest if not sure of benefit; and success
can not be expected if the minimum needs of animals are not taken into reckoning).
iii) Resource: Continued removal of photosynthesis portions of vegetation is the
consequence of over-grazing. If the individual plant spp is grazed continuously, it will
go on utilizing its reserved food material, the food reserve will decrease and re-growth
is hampered. The vigor is lost. Need is to maintain and least the stability and
productivity of range area.
On the other hand continuous trampling of soil reduces aeration as well as
infiltration. Thus the root penetration will be less more will be runoff accompanied by
eroded material (top fertile layer of soil.)
So, how to calculate the correct number for precise utilization of area? This is done
by computing carrying capacity, forage production data and most essentially the
proper use of each kind of animal.
A plant can tolerate about 60% grazing of its foliage; however, the exact data is
not known. But if remove 50% and retain 50%, it will improve the health 50%.
Consequently, correct numbers of animals ensure sustained production of animal
products (skins, hides, wools, etc) and maintain range area in good condition. This is
important for the well being of owner, livestock and range land as a whole.
Following are determined periodically to adjust the number of animals according
to available forage.
a) Initial Stocking Rate: These are calculated on the basis of carrying capacity.
Carrying capacity is calculated by collecting the forage production data (cut,
harvest and clip) using a quadrat and clipping the vegetation with a quadrat. (A
50% proper use factor is applied to calculate the carrying capacity).
b) Range Condition: Range Condition and trend are determined or estimated
periodically to correct the stocking rates.
c) Range Utilization: Range utilization at different intervals of time is calculated to
avoid over-grazing. Over grazing will result in range deterioration and will change
the spp composition.
3. Correct season of range use, or grazing:
After grazing the plants utilize the stored food material (in roots). If vegetation is clipped
and grazed, the photosynthetic machinery will reduce and the material is exhausted. Then the
elongation of roots is retarded as well. The grasses are more nutritious at younger ages. Then old
days and the grazing at younger stage is more harmful. Thus correct season is related with the
morphology and physiology of plant. It takes about 15- days for a plant to recover the loss of
grazing.
Grazing at flowering stage is also harmful because most of the carbohydrates are utilized
for flowering and in case of non-availability of these hydrocarbons the seed production is much
lesser (due to the drought).
In early growing season (eg February), the soil is wet, therefore more compaction of soil.
Since dry periods start after flowering of plants due to less seed, fewer seedlings are established.
Grazing after seed maturity is not harmful to the plants; it rather helps in seed sowing by
trampling effects of animals. However the livestock will feed on low nutritious food. Grazing,
when plants have made up about 6-8 leaves (it varies from spp to spp) in providing periodic rest
to the plants from grazing or when plats have attained height of 15 cm, is normally considered
good.
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4. Proper (uniform) distribution of live stock on range areas:
It is tendency of the people. If they are given the choice, they graze their animals near
water area and don’t move to steep area. It shows the uneven utilization of the range resource.
Animals tend to concentrate of flat areas or near watering points. These areas will be
overgrazed. Moderately steep areas will be under grazed because animals will avoid going to that
area. Next year less re-growth occur from the old plants.
To obtain the uniform utilization of all the range plants in range areas, following means
and ways are used:
Range improvement practices:
Development and distribution of watering facilities on the range areas.
Salting – providing plenty of salt at proper places uniformly on the range areas.
Herding of live-stock to areas not preferred by animals, by herdsman.
Fencing – fencing the large area into small area and also the seeded areas (because we
need to save it in early one month.)
Constricting paths and trails to connecting different range areas for live-stock
movement.
Range burning – dense patches of shrubs by vegetation are burned to facilitate live-
stock movement.
Range reseeding
Range fertilization
Using specified grazing systems.
Range Suitability:
It is the adaptability of range area ot grazing by live-stock or wildlife. Market demand
for certain live-stock products will be determined by the kind of livestock to be reared
or raised.
o Factors to be considered for it:
 Kind of vegetation
 Topography
 Availability of drinking water
PROBLEMS AND CONSTRAINTS OF RANGE MANAGEMENT IN PAKISTAN:

The major problems in Pakistan are technical, socio-economical and administrative.
1. Technical:
1.1. Lack of trained personnel for range mgt activates.
1.2. Lack of range research.
The forest area of Pakistan is abut 5.4% for which 1300-1400 personnel or more are
working but pity is that range lands occupy about 70% of the total area and there is no
separate department for it. More over, there are 20 less than 100 persons in the
country which have done PhD. Consequently the country is deficit of technical man
power.
In 1954, the range research was started in Quetta (Balochistan); in PFI Peshawar as
well, a branch is research division, but still no institution could have been set upto
meet range mgt problems.
2. Socio-Economical:
The socio-economics stands for the following cases:
2.1. Number/ quantity versus quality of problems
2.1.1. Livestock:
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The people rear the cattle in villages and towns while the hospitals for their cure of
diseases are provided in cities mostly; and in case of disease, the herdsmen and shepherds
suffer a lot.
In 1962, the government, though an ordinance, maintained that all the goats from
hilly areas should be removed. The people violated and rather disobeyed. Similarly in
cohistan several years ago the area was fenced to keep the animal away from lands which
was also defied. Consequently the needs of people should also be reckoned otherwise the
masses sack the planner’s wills which fails the plan.
2.2. Land Tenure System:
The ownership of range lands is invested the Revenue Department as most of Govt
lands are under revenue department. Moreover there are people who have tends around
the villages – shamilat or called no man’s property. They do not have any interest to
recover and improve these lands. In Balochistan most lands belong to chiefs of tribes. In
kaghan most area belongs to Sayyad family. So it is meant that no one bothers about these
properties.
2.3. Migratory herds:
The people need food for livestock which they know where it is available and
when. In May and June (dry months) they move to alpine and sub-alpine areas to enjoy
the severity of the season and to feed the livestock and pay for it to Sayyad or else owner.
At the end of season somewhere in September, they tread back.
3. Administrative:
3.1. Lack of incentives to the staff working in range lands:
A range mgt conference held at Pakistan Forest Institute, Peshawar in 1966. It was
held that staff faces hardships in the range lands. So a resolution was recommended to the
Govt that working staff should be meted out 20% additional pay and one grade higher
promotion to encourage the people to take part in range mgt of Pakistan.
It was also recommended in a policy directive that people should be allocated for range
mgt activities. It is however easy to setup offices.
EFFECT OF GRAZING ON RANGE AREA:

Light or moderate grazing has minimum adverse effects. Heavy continuous grazing has
drastic effects on rang areas (plants).
- Removal of apical bud will help initiate, growth from axillary buds but (photosynthetic)
process will be disturbed. What happens to that whole system for plant! The whole system
is changed; at least 2-3 weeks are required or needed to start the photosynthetic activity at
the same stage.
- During active growth season when range areas are heavily grazed, the physiological
activities are adversely affected; fewer carbohydrates are provided for root-growth; root
elongation will be affected.
- Leaf area is necessary for photosynthesis and it will be reduced by grazing. Reduction in
leaf area will result in less photosynthetic availability to different parts of the plant in the
long run. By continuous heavy grazing, plant will lose vigor and will be unable to
compete with ungrazed plant. However, the end result of heavy grazing are these:
Plant vigor will be reduced
Reduction in seed production
Less seedling establishment
Deterioration in range condition
Increase of unpalatable spp of area during the course of time.
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By trampling, soil erosion will increase due to low infiltration. But sometime this does
help in natural reseeding by hoof action.
Change of spp composition form preferred to the least preferred spp.
Animals will be feeding on less nutritious spp and their performance is un-efficient.
HOW PLANTS TOLERATE GRAZING:

Following factors contribute to the tolerance or resistance of plants to grazing:
1. Position of Apical Bud:
If it is located at the soil surface, the plant is more grazing resistance while less grazing
tolerant when the apical bud is situated at the height which can be easily grazed.
2. High portion of flowering to vegetative stems:
When flowering shoot are more, the resistance is greater and vice versa.
3. Delay elevation of apical bud:
Eg Chrysopogon spp keep apical buds on the ground and elevate them at the time of
flowering. So the plants which put the elevation of this bud is dilatory, are more grazing
resistant.
4. Sprout freely from axillary bud:
Those spp where leaves quickly sprout out of axillary buds are more grazing resistant
5. Internodes:
Those with longer internodes are less grazing resistant because they are easily and quickly
elevated and compared to those which have smaller internodes and are more grazing
resistance.
6. Produces special structures:
Those which produce stolons, rhizomes, bulbs, or long awns, etc are more grazing
tolerant. While those which do not do so are much more vulnerable.
7. Grazing season:
It means growth stage. It grazed at early stage, they are less tolerant and at later stages of
growth they can withstand.
8. Current growing condition:
Same spp when grazed in drought season it is less resistant while more tolerant in rainy
season. Eg Cenchrus ciliarus – more resistant when plenty of rainfall.
9. Duration of grazing:
Longer the duration eg Cenchrus ciliarus for one month, lesser the resistance and vice
versa eg Cenchrus ciliarus for ten days.
10. Soil condition:
Grasses, on deep fertile soil are more resistant as compared to those on shallow poor soil.
11. Leaf -stem ratio:
More leaf stem-ratio means leaves are more stems are less and less leaf-stem ration means
vice versa. In case of more ratios the plants are less grazing resistant.
RANGE ECOREGION OR RANGE ECOLOGICAL REGIONS:

I. Tropical Maritime:
Very thickly populated area. Avicenia officinalis and Acacia nilotica are the climax
species of marine and reverain forests. Most of the range land is converted into
agricultural field. It is located at southern part of Pakistan always the coastal land and
river bank.
Trees / Shrubs:
i) Avicenia officinalis
ii) Acacia nilotica
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iii) Prosopis cineraria
iv) Salvadora persica
v) Campiphora mukal
vi) Euphorbia caudicifolia
vii) Ziziphys mauritiana
viii) Z. numuralis
Grasses:
i) Cenchrus ciliarus
ii) Cenchrus satigerus
iii) Panicum targidum
iv) Cymbopogon jawarniusa
v) Eleusine falgellifera
vi) Dectolyctinium scindieus
Range lands are grazed throughout the area due to continue grazing, the range production
is reduced upto 50%.
Carrying Capacity:
30 ha/ AU/ year
Grazing Season:
Whole year (due to hot climate)
Grazing System:
Rotational and deferred rotational grazing system can be applied.
Livestock:
Sheep, goats, camel, cattle
Rainfall:
Less than 400 mm
Improvement:
Range improvement practice is applied for the conservation of moisture by contour
trenching, micro catchment, modified contour trenches, water spreading can be done in
these areas.
J. Topical Plains (non sandy):

This region has been formed by the deposition of river Sind, alluvium silt clay soil
formed. It is located in Sind and Punjab. The region has been converted into agricultural
field due to canal irrigation system.
Trees / Shrubs:
i) Prosopis cineraria
ii) Salvadora persica
iii) S. oliodies
iv) Ziziphys mauritiana
v) Z. numuralis
vi) Tamarix spp
Grasses:
iii) Cymbopogon jawarniusa
iv) Eleusine falgellifera
v) Dectolyctinium scindieus
vi) Aristida depressa
vii) Pennisetum spp
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Carrying Capacity:
25 ha/ AU/ year
Grazing Season:
Whole year
Grazing System:
Livestock:
Sheep, goats, camel, cattle
Rainfall:
Less than 400 mm
Improvement:
Range improvement practice is applied for the conservation of moisture by contour
trenching, micro catchment, modified contour trenches, water spreading can be done in
these areas.
K. Tropical Plains (Sandy)

Deserts of Pakistan (Thal, Tharparker, Cholistan, Dera Gazi Khan) included in this range.
Sand dunes are the common features due to wind erosion. The region is located in summer
monsoon region. Most of the ppt occurs in summer.
Trees / Shrubs:
i) Prosopis cineraria
ii) Salvadora persica
iii) S. oliodies
iv) Ziziphys mauritiana
v) Z. numuralis
vi) Acacia jacquementii
vii) Acer tomentosa
viii) Calligonum polygoneides
ix) Haloxylon salicarinium
x) Kochia indica
Grasses:
iv) Eleusine falgellifera
v) Aristida depressa
vi) Panicum trugidium
vii) Pennisetum divistima
Carrying Capacity:
4-12 ha/ AU/ year (Thal)
40 ha/ AU/ yr (Cholistan)
30 ha/ AU/ yr (Tharpakar)
Grazing Season:
Whole year
Grazing System:
Livestock:
Mixed (Sheep, goats, camel, cattle)
Rainfall:
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Less than 400 mm
Temperature:
High about 45 Celsius
Improvement:
Regeneration by water conserving techniques and water spreading (trenches, micro
catchment)
L. Subtropical Sub-humid Ecological Region:

This region covers Potohar track, Salt Range, Foot hills on NWFP and Balochistan. This
region has diversity of vegetation due to diversity of climate, parent material. Patent
material varies from gravelly, loamy to pediment alluvium. Most of the region is situated
in summer monsoon belt. Parts of Balochistan are in winter ppt belt. The climax
vegetation of this region is scrub forest. The desired range lands are very productive.
Productive potential is high. Arid parts of Balochistan have poor potential for grazing
while other range lands have well.
Deserts of Pakistan (Thal, Tharparker, Cholistan, Dera Gazi Khan) included in this range.
Sand dunes are the common features due to wind erosion. The region is located in summer
monsoon region. Most of the ppt occurs in summer.
Trees / Shrubs:
i) Ziziphys mauritiana
ii) Z. numuralis
iii) Kochia indica
iv) Acacia modesta
v) Olea feruginia
vi) Tamarix aphylla
vii) Dodonea vescosa
viii) Adhatoda vesica
ix) Otostigia limbeeta
x) Ryza stricta
xi) Heloxiuon spp
xii) Merium spp
Grasses:
i) Bothridocola pestusa
ii) Chrysopogon aucheri
iii) Cenchrus ciliarus
iv) Cenchrus satigerus
v) Cymbopogon jawarniusa
vi) Eleusine falgellifera
vii) Aristida depressa
viii) A. cylindrica
ix) Panicum trugidium
x) P. antidetale
xi) P. maximum
xii) Heteropogon contartus
xiii) Pennisetum divistima
xiv) Digitaria spp
xv) Anneapogon persieus
xvi) Tetropogan millosum
xvii) Hypershenia minor
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M. Sc (2007-09)
xviii) Cynidon detylon
xix) Pennisetum orientale
xx) Themeda anathera
Carrying Capacity:
3-8 ha/ AU/ year
Grazing Season:
Whole year
Grazing System:
Rotational and deferred
Livestock:
Mixed (Sheep, goats, cattle)
Rainfall:
130 – 1000 mm
Temperature:
High about 40 Celsius
Improvement:
By planting, water conservation techniques (contour trenches, water spreading, etc.)
M. Mediterranean Eco-region:
These are top lands of Balochistan. This region is located in Quetta and Kalat regions of
Balochistan. Rainfall mostly received during winter and spring seasons, high hills receive
snow.
Trees / Shrubs:
i) Juniperus macropoda
ii) Pinus gerardiana
iii) P. wallichiana
iv) Fruxinus xanthoxyloides
v) Artemesia maritina
vi) Ephedra spp
vii) Carogana spp
viii) Casurina spp
ix) Acanthdinon spp
x) Lectuca spp
xi) Helaxilon spp
Grasses:
i) Chrysopogon aucheri
ii) Cymbopogon jawarniusa
iii) Poa bulbosa
iv) Stifa pinnata
v) Barumum spp
vi) Pennisetum antidotale
vii) Agropyron spp
viii) Oxyzopsis spp
Carrying Capacity:
15 ha/ AU/ year
Grazing Season:
May to October
Grazing System:
Rotational or deferred rotational system
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M. Sc (2007-09)
Livestock:
Sheep, goats
Rainfall:
130 mm
Improvement:
By planting, water conservation techniques (contour trenches, water spreading, etc.)
Xerophytic spp can be grown. Planting should be done during autumn before snowfall.
N. Himalayan Eco-region:
This region is located to the south of great Himalayan range in general it is mountainous.
Both summer and winter ppt are common at higher altitudes. Snowfall is common. Its
depth varies form 2m-5m depending upon elevation.
The vegetation varies from forest to alpine. The derived as well as natural range lands
provide nutritious forage to fo livestock during summer season. Sub-tropical humid,
temperate humid, Sub-alpine and Alpine ecological zones are included in this area.
Generally the growing season is short at higher altitude. The entire region constitutes an
important watershed area of Mangla and Tarbela dams.
Trees / Shrubs:
i) Pinus roxbrughii
ii) Berberis lycium
iii) Indegofera gerardiana
iv) Rosa spp
v) Zizyphus oxylophylla
vi) Myreina africana
vii) Rubus spp
Grasses:
i) Bothriocula intermedia
ii) Chrysopogon aucheri
iii) Cymbopogon montanus
iv) C. martinii
v) Aristida cylindrica
vi) Heteropogon contartus
vii) Digitaria spp
viii) Themeda anathera
ix) Cynedon decylon
x) Brachiaria spp
xi) Seteria spp
xii) Heteropogon spp
Carrying Capacity:
2-4 ha/ Au/ year
Grazing Season:
April to January
Grazing System:
Livestock:
Sheep, goats
Rainfall:
130 mm
Temperature:
17
M. Sc (2007-09)
30 Celsius
Improvement:
By planting broad leaved spp. Constructing check dams. Pit planting. Spp like Robinia
should be preferred.
O. Temperate Humid Eco-zone:

This ecological region is situated above the sub-tropical humid eco-region and below sub-
alpine, alpine ecologies zone. The climax vegetation of this zone is Pinus wallichiana
forest. Due to increase in population steep slopes have been broken for agriculture by
making terraces.
The derived ranges are productive and contain temperate grasses and shrubs.
Trees / Shrubs:
i) Pinus wallichinana
ii) Cedrus deodara
iii) Picea smithiana
iv) Quercus spp
v) Taxus buccata
vi) Juglans regia
vii) Acer pictum
viii) Aesculus indica
ix) Populus indica
x) P. ciliate
xi) P. alba
xii) Vibernum nerbosum
xiii) Salix spp
xiv) Fraxinus spp
xv) Rododendron arboreum
Grasses:
i) Chrysopogon aucheri
ii) Themeda anathera
iv) Poa bulbosa
v) Stifa pinnata
vi) Pennisetum antidotale
vii) Agropyron dentatum
viii) Oxyzopsis spp
ix) Stipa siberica
Carrying Capacity:
2-4 ha/ Au/ year
Grazing Season:
May to November (depends upon elevation)
Grazing System:
Livestock:
Sheep, goats, cattle
Improvement:
By planting of fodder trees and shrubs. Pit planting
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M. Sc (2007-09)
P. Sub-alpine Alpine Eco-zone:
This zone is situated above temperate humid below perpetual snow line. Sub-alpine eco-
zone consists of the spp of both temperate humid and alpine zone. Sub-alpine is a
transitional or eco-tone. The range lands of sub alpine eco-zone are converted into
agriculture fields for potato production. Alpine eco-zone grasses of temperate zone are
absent. At higher altitudes topography becomes steep and grazing is not possible but goats
can graze in this area. This zone is grazed by migratory livestock during summer.
Trees / Shrubs:
i) Pinus wallichinana
ii) P. gerardiana
iii) Betula utilis
iv) Cedrus deodara
v) Berberis lyceum
vi) Rosa spp
vii) Salix spp
viii) Juniperus communis
ix) Rododendron arboreum
Grasses:
i) Agropyron dentatum
ii) A. canium
iii) Agrostis gigantean
iv) Trisetum spp
v) Poa bulbosa
vi) P. annua
vii) P. pratensis
viii) Agropyron canium
ix) Corex spp
Carrying Capacity:
1.5-3 ha/ Au/ year
Grazing Season:
June to September
Grazing System:
Rotational grazing system or continuous
Livestock:
Sheep, goats, cattle, horses and mules
Improvement:
Can be improved by proper management also by control grazing
GRAZING SYSTEMS:
It is a way by which animals are grazed in large area. It is systematic in periodic periods
of grazing and deferment of two or more pastures or grazing units.
Grazing Seasons:
It is that portion of year when grazing is feasible on the range area.
Grazing Periods:
It is that portion of grazing season within which grazing actually occurs over range land.
Considerations for design of Grazing Systems:
Time of growth of root and shoot ie active growth period.
Time of flowering
Time of seed maturity
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M. Sc (2007-09)
Germination
Seedling establishment
When growth rate is high it is necessary that we should protect plants for vigor so that
seed maturity and establishment should be received.
Objects of Grazing System:
The main objectives are germination, seed establishment, and vigorous growth.
Other objectives are:
Distribute utilization
Restore vegetation on sacrifice area.
Maintain forage
Avoid stress on animals
Reducing supplemented feeding
Minimize labor cost
Characteristics of Good Grazing System:

1. A good grazing system should be based on morphology and physiology of plant.
2. It should be suitable to kind of plant on particular range area.
3. It should be adoptable to soil conditions
4. It should move ie plant successions towards high productivity by favoring the
desired and preferred plants.
5. It should not be harmful to animal gain.
6. Its implementation should be practical in range operations
7. It should improve range productivity.
IMPORTANT GRAZING SYSTEMS:

In Pakistan:
5. Continuous/ Year long/ Season long Grazing System
6. Rotational Grazing System
7. Deferred Grazing System
8. Deferred Rotational Grazing system
Not in Pakistan:
7. Rest Rotational Grazing System
8. Merril four pastures, three herd grazing system
9. Switch back grazing systems
10. How henhein grazing system
11. Short duration/ Savary/ Holistic resource grazing system
12. High intensity and low frequency grazing system
1. Continuous/ Year long/ Season long Grazing System:

- In this system, an area is kept open to graze throughout the year or season
- Animals are taken to range area by a family member or communal herder daily
- Animals are allowed to graze freely on whole range area and the herder only protects them
from the hazardous animals.
- Animals are not guided to best available area
- Under favorable conditions (climate) such ranges remain in fair conditions inspite of
heavy grazing.
- Under adverse climatic conditions serious damage may be caused to range under this
system
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M. Sc (2007-09)
Advantages:
Less labor is required
There is no stress on animals
Animal selectivity is high because animal is grazing in whole area
Nutritious food is available
Animal gain is greater as animals feed on regrowth
Less expensive
Less cost on fencing, water ponds, and labor
Efficient use of all food.
In adverse conditions when animal feed on favorable spp the animal gain will be high
Over use of palatable spp and preferred spp
Disadvantages:
More erosion occur
More trampling effect
Less infiltration; more runoff
Less seed production takes place
Less seedling establishment occur
Productivity decline
Over utilization of preferred spp through out the grazing season
Spp composition is changed
If some range improvement practices are carried out then this system is not recommended.
2. Rotational Grazing System:

- In this system whole range area is divided into units and each unit is grazed periodically
or rotation wise (As for every type of system there should be at least two units)
- Animals are rotated b/w grazing units periodically and systematically
- Minimum of two grazing units are needed for implementation of this system
- Generally the no of grazing units depend upon the available resources ie funds and
objectives of owner
- Carrying capacity is calculated for whole range area, and then range is divided into
grazing units.
If we divide range into 4 units and season of grazing is also 4 months then each unit will be grazed rotation
wise.
- If in one range area heterogeneous vegetation is present, then mixed type of livestock can be used
to obtain uniform utilization of all spp.
- Modification: A modification of this grazing system is through rotation kind of animals
instead of time of grazing.
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M. Sc (2007-09)
- 1st graze with cattle in first unit, then move the cattle to the next unit and put goats in that
unit.
- Similarly sheep replace goats; and camels replace sheep and the cycle repeats
- See figure
Advantages of Rotational Grazing System:

- Plant vigor is obtained
- Uniform utilization occur
- Animal gain weight
- It is easy to operate
Disadvantages of Rotational Grazing System:

- It is expensive
3. Deferred Grazing System:

- In this system some portion from the whole range land is deferred (postponed) from
grazing.
3.1 Objectives:
- To get vigor of vegetation
- Seed production occur
- Establishment of seedling also occur
The range area is deferred for some time in order to gain these objectives
If our range land has an area of 100 acres then we will divide it into two units. 1st unit will
be deferred from grazing and 2nd unit will be allowed to graze. As illustrated:
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M. Sc (2007-09)
3.2 Difference b/w Rotational and Deferred System:

- In rotational system, grazing in units occurs systematically ie in consecutive units.
- In deferred system, only those areas are deferred which require improvement
3.3. Advantages and Disadvantages:
(For Rotational, Defer, Deferred-Rotational and Rest Rotational Systems)
3.3.1. Advantages:
- Better live stock distribution is obtained by dividing the area into smaller units
- Complete use of all forage spp is obtained
- Help in obtaining natural reseeding
- Trampling effects are reduces b/c animals are restricted in smaller areas.
- Handling of animal is easy on smaller areas.
- Range improvement occurs
- Effects of drought are minimized as mature forage is available on deferred or resting units.
3.3.2. Disadvantages:
- Fencing and water development are needed on each allotment, therefore costly
- More watering points are needed during the grazing season to get uniform utilization of all
parts of grazing allotments or units
- Low quality feed is available to animal at late growth stage of production
- Management flexibility is limited with deferred rotational and rotation grazing system
- Stocking density is increased on the grazed subunits or allotments therefore grazing
intensity is increased.
4. Deferred Rotational Grazing system:

- This system is a combination of deferred and rotational grazing system.
Objectives:
- To get vigor plants
- Seed production
- Seed establishment
This system is based on the concept of providing seasonal deferment which is rotated among the
grazing units
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M. Sc (2007-09)
Procedure:
- In this system, range area is divided into 4 units
- 1st unit is deferred for two years and grazing is done in rest of three units according to
rotation.
- Carrying capacity is calculated on the total range area in this system

- Deferment period vary from 2 years or 3-6 months depending upon situation
- Generally grazing units are based on the principle that number of allotment may be equal
to number of grazing periods
- Punjab forestry department at Kharian and Jehlum range lands applying this system
GRAZING PATTERNS AND PRACTICES IN PAKISTAN:

In Pakistan different areas have different grazing patterns. These are classified as:
4. Grazing Patterns in Northern Uplands (Northern Mountains)
5. Grazing patterns in Desert range lands
6. Grazing patterns in Balochistan
1. GRAZING PATTERNS IN NORTHERN UPLAND:

Here two types of grazing patterns are adopted:
1.1. Nomadic Grazing System:
 In this system, people spend their summer in alpine areas and shift to scrub zones in
winter.
 Gojan and Bakarwals are following this system in northern areas. They do not have proper
settlement.
 At the end of May they start moving upward to temperate zone.
 The walk 20 km daily and rest at night near watering places.
 They have trained dogs with them for guarding.
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M. Sc (2007-09)
1.1.1. Problems:
 Only one route for journey
 They carry their luggage and food on donkeys.
 They also know the place where they have to buy eatables.
 In beginning of January most of them reached to their destination where they have
prepared their houses.
1.2. Semi-Nomadic Grazing System:

 Practiced in Mithawan area of Loralai (D.G. Khan).
 People have settlement on uplands ie Mountains. Here they harvest maize and wheat in
June and July. They spend the whole summer here.
 In October-November they return to their permanent houses. On reaching they repair
canal systems which had been disturbed by rain to some extent. They also cultivate wheat
crops. The whole system of the agriculture is irrigation based.
1..1. Problems:
 The food supply is very limited.
2. GRAZING PATTERNS IN DESERT RANGE LANDS:

 Grazing is continuous throughout the year.
 Cholistan, Tharparkar, Thal, Kohistan Deserts can be grazed throughout the year.
 Main factor which checks the grazing is the scarcity of water.
 Range lands are under the control of forest department.
 Permits of grazing are given by the forest department on year basis.
 Adequate water for livestock is limited which affects the grazing ultimately especially in
Cholistan and Tharparkar.
 Wind energy is also used to haul the ground water.
 People are migratory.
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M. Sc (2007-09)
 People shift the animals to desert ranges after the occurrence of summer monsoon rainfall.
The rainwater is stored din water ponds locally called “Tobbas”
 Animals are shifter to irrigated area when the drinking water in tobbas is dried.
 Forest department are digging the tobbas at shorter distance to irrigate the area.
3. GRAZING PATTERNS IN BALOCHISTAN:

 People in Balochistan move from higher elevation ranges to low lands during winter season to
places like Sibbi, Jaccobabad, and different parts of Sind.
 These areas are grazed until the occurrence of spring rain in high lands where the vegetation
is vigorous after rainfall.
In low laying areas Sorghum (a drought-resistant cereal plant, widely cultivated in tropical and warm areas. Use: food grain, animal
feed, hay and fodder) are grazed in agricultural fields along with natural rangelands.
4. SPECIALIZED GRAZING SYSTEMS:

 In this system, the grazing must be prohibited for 1 year.
.1. Advantages:
.1.1. Proper regeneration
.1.2. More seedling are established
.1.3. Better livestock distribution
.1.4. Plants vary greatly in their season of palatability.
.1.5. Rest Rotational System is especially helpful in minimizing of drought.
.1.6. Increased forage production.
.1.7. Better livestock production.
RANGE SAMPLING:
Range Sampling means to select that portion from range area which is the representative of whole
area. This can be done by two method of Sampling:
1. Systematic Sampling
2. Random Sampling
Sample Size Calculation:

Sample size is the no of observations ie plots made on measured characteristics like frequency,
density, cover, abundance.
Then,
Where;
N = Number of observations or plots
t2 = Test Statistic like ANOVA or Chi-square /Tabulated value of t
S2 = Variance of sample size
K = Precision that is required
= Mean sample.
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M. Sc (2007-09)
RANGE ANALYSIS:
The range analysis is made from:
1. By determining the Carrying Capacity
2. By determining the Range Conditions
3. By determining the Spp Composition and Cover Percentage.
4. By determining the Range Trend
5. By determining the Range Utilization
NORMAL RANGE:
A range may be regarded as normal when:
1. It has become capable of maximum production
2. Soil erosion has nearly stopped
3. Inferior woody spp have largely disappeared.
4. Desirable forage spp make up most of the cover.
5. Grazing capacity has improved.
Characteristic of the Normal Range:
1. Perennial palatable forage species
2. High range condition
3. Free form soil erosion
4. Have grazing capacity according to site potential
5. Free from poisons and anoxious species
6. Have even distribution of watering ponds
7. Suitable for grazing from all aspects.
STOCKING RATE:
1. Actual number of animals exists on the specific range area for a period of time for a
grazing period.
2. In Alpine and Sub-alpine areas the season is limited to 4 months while in Thal it is whole
year.
3. Stocking rate is calculated by carrying capacity of area. When this number is put to
grazing it is called Initial Stocking Rate.
4. The number of animals show us:
a. Range Trend
b. Range Conditions
c. Range Utilization
5. If range condition is poor due to poor range trend than reduce the number of livestock
which is ultimately the reduction in range utilization.
Estimation of Stocking Rates:

There are several ways for the estimation of stocking rates:
1. Compare the range with similar range that has been grazed for long time at a known rate.
2. Based on forage production with the help of Circular Quadrat/ Frame.
GOLDEN RULE FOR (RANGE MGT) GRAZING SYSTEM:

1. The number of animals that can be allowed to graze on 1 mile 2 of area is the maximum
number that a land will support during poor season.
2. Effect of planned grazing is always completed by the adoption of some other factors eg Range
mgt improvement operations.
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M. Sc (2007-09)
RANGE CONDITION:
According to St. Smith and Box (1975):
1. “The current condition of the range to the potential of which the particular area is capable.”
2. Range conditions are described by range condition classes.
3. Range condition is the comparison of past with present.
Experts have categorized the various possible condition of range, each being called as Class.
Following are the Range Condition Classes:
1. Excellent
2. Good
3. Fair
4. Poor
5. Very poor
Condition Score of 4-Classes Score for 5-Classes

Classification Classification
Excellent 76 – 100 (forage yield) 81 – 100
Good 51 – 75 61 – 80
Fair 25 – 50 41 – 60
Poor < 25 21 – 40
Very poor < 20
1. Excellent:
 76 – 100% of forage yield
 Litter on ground
 No soil erosion
2. Good:
 51 – 75%
 Well covered ground
 Vigorous plants
 Slightly erosion
3. Fair:
 25 – 50%
 Perennial shrubs have increased greatly
 Some invasion of annual grasses and weeds
 Less ground cover
 Low production
 More runoff
 Water enter into the soil in little amount
 Eroding soil
4. Poor:
 0 – 25%
 Less amount of annual grasses
 Shrubs more abundant
 Soil is poorly protected
 Climax plant weak
 More soil erosion
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M. Sc (2007-09)
 Less soil fertility
CARRYING CAPACITY:
“The maximum stocking rate possible without inducing damage to the vegetation or related
resources”._ SRM – 1974
OR; “The maximum animal number which can graze each year on given area of range for
specific number of days without influencing the downward trend in forage production, forage
quality or soil”. _ (Stoddort, Smith, Box)
Methods of Evaluating the Carrying Capacity:

Procedure:
1. Sampling methods to be used:
1.1. Systematic
1.2. Random
2. Size, shape, and number of quadrats to be required.
3. Arrangement of equipments to be used.
3.1. Quadrat or frame [1m2]
3.2. Paper or plastic bag
3.3. Spring balance or other weighing machine
3.4. Field data form, pencil, eraser, papers, etc
3.5. Metallic tape
3.6. Clip board
3.7. Scissors
4. Selection of homogenous or representative sites
5. Layout of the transect line – stretching metallic tape over it
6. Placing the quadrat on sample point along the line
7. Clipping the vegetation within each quadrat by species or by life form (Forbs, Herbs, Shrubs,
etc)
8. Grasses are cut about 2 cm above ground level
9. keep the cut material in separate bags for separate quadrats
10. Record the green weight of each sample by the spring balance and write on the form
11. Label the plastic bag or paper bag of each quadrat by date, spp sample, site, etc.
12. Plastic or paper bags should be punched to allow the air circulation
13. All the material is brought to the headquarter
14. Air dry the sample unit until when there in no change in dry weight.
15. Average dry weight is calculated.
Average air dry weight = Total air dry w.t in gm / Total number of quadrats studied
16. Air dry weight in kg/ha is calculated by multiplying with 10 to the average dry w.t. gm/ m2
i.e. if air dry weight 20 gm / m2
Then, in kg/ha, we have
ie. 20 * 10,000 / 1 * 1000
0r, 20 * 10 kg/ha (just multiply with 10)
17. Calculate the allowable air dry biomass on range by using the proper use of the factor of 0.5
or 50%
18. Calculate the requirement of air dried biomass for one animal unit for one month grass. Eg
taking 9 kg air dry biomass for one animal unit for one day. (Then, 9 * 30 days = 270 kg)
19. Two methods of calculating Carrying Capacity:
19.1. First Method:
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M. Sc (2007-09)
19.2. Second Method (Forage Factor Method):

 In this method, common sense is used.
 No complicated data is used
 Reconnaissance is done at first
 Mention different range types which are mapped on survey with important activities
 Recognize subtypes
 Estimate the spp composition and cover percentage by visualizing
 Proper Use Factor for all species should be known
 To calculate carrying capacity, area should be known.
SPECIES COMPOSITION:
- The proportion of various plant species in relation to total on given range.
- Expressed in term of cover, weight, and density.
- Range condition are estimated on the basis of spp composition of area compared to its
potential
- This is followed by Climax Approach Method.
- Species composition can be calculated from cover forage production data, frequency,
density can also be used.
- The cover is estimated by:
1. Steptoe Method.
2. Point interception
3. Parker’s loop
4. Line interception
5. From or Quadrat
- Cover Percentage can be calculated as:
- While using line intercept method, use the average length of a species covered instead of
average hits.
- And to get Species composition from above cover, we have
- Similarly species composition can be calculated from forage production as:
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M. Sc (2007-09)
RANGE TREND:
- It is the change in the direction of range conditions.
- If the range conditions are improving than range trend will be upward and when the range
conditions are declining then the range trend will be downward. And when the range
conditions remain same then the range trend will be static.
- Excellent or good range conditions with static trend are preferred.
- Our management should be manipulated in such a way that range trend is upward.
o Excellent Range conditions:
Range trend touches the highest pinnacle (highest peak).
Maximum species composition of decreaser with traces of increaser and invaders.
This condition is only possible if the stocking rates are low, grazing intensity is
lesser.
o The Good Range Conditions:
Stocking rate has increased.
Grazing intensity is increased
Decreaser 50% or less
Increaser start increasing and invader are less than 25%
o Fair Range Condition:
Increasers are dominant
o Poor Range Conditions:
Maximum grazing intensity
Stocking rater higher
Animal are feeding on less nutritious feed
Range trend downward
Excellent Conditions are based on Climax Theory:

It is influenced by three major things:
1. Animal reduces the leaf area
2. Site affects the range condition
3. When range condition is poor primary succession may start.
- Range trend is estimated by comparing the current range condition with previous
condition.
- Apparent trend is judged by four factors; two from vegetation and two from soil surface
conditions.
Vegetation Factors:
1. Species Composition: Composition of increaser and decreaser if they contribute more
invaders, then certain no can be given _ let be 4; if the invader are much more than decreaser,
the no 0 can be given so range is (0-4). After visualizing the area the range trend is
manipulated. It needs complete ecological study.
2. Reproduction:
1.1. It means what is the condition of newly germinated seeds/ seedlings. If they are
established, what is their position.
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M. Sc (2007-09)
1.2. If the seedling (decreaser) are healthy and vigor given them no 4, otherwise 0 if the
situation is reverse. The vigor can be judged from height and number of stems.
Range Soil Factors:

1. Erosion:
1.1. if soil condition are unhealthy and erosion occur then allot 0 number
1.2. if the erosion is less, general appearance is good then allot 4 number
1.3. The intermediate trend can be found from these two members.
2. Litters:
1.4. If the soil is sufficiently covered with litter layer, it is protected, erosion is 0. If all the
scores become more than 12, we can say that trend is upward.
1.5. When no change occurs in the range conditions over time, range trend is static.
RANGE UTILIZATION:
- It is “the proportion of Current year’s production that is consumed of destroyed by grazing
animals.” _ SRM 1974
- “The degree to which animals have consumed the usable forage production expressed in
percentage.” _ Stoddort et al 1975
- The concept may be applied to:
1. Single plant
2. Single Forage spp
3. Group Forage spp
4. Range Forage as a whole
Methods of Calculation of Range Utilization:
A. Clipping before and after grazing:
B. Cage comparison method
C. Stem count method
D. Height-weight method
E. Length of twig or twig length method
A. Clipping before and after grazing:

Two (paired) plots are selected uniformly distributed on the range area that is to be
grazed. Of the each paired plots, one is clipped before grazing and the other clipped after
grazing. Average wt of plots before and after the grazing is calculated; then
Eg weight before grazing = 98 gm/m2

After four months grazing, wt 1= 38 gm/m2
% Utilization = 98-38/ 98 * 100
% Utilization = 61.22%
B. Cage comparison method

This is the most common methods of estimation of leaves determining rang utilization,
especially during the grazing season. The paired plats are located/ selected randomly and
are uniformly disturbed over the range area. One plot is caged and the other is left open to
graze. The animals are allocated to graze. At the end of grazing season, the forage wt from
1
wt = Weight
32
M. Sc (2007-09)
protected/ fenced as well as from unprotected plot is obtained by clipping each of them
separately. The average weight of clipped material from unfenced plots = 17 gm/ m2
% Utilization = 52 – 17/ 52 * 100  3400/ 53 = 67.31%
C. Stem count method

This method involves simple enumeration ie count the no of shoots grazed or un-grazed
for individual spp. Eg 30 plants were counted. The average is worked individually.
The range utilization can be calculated by counting through Steptoe method.
D. Height-weight method
In the past, it was assumed that a direct relationship exist b/w the amount of height
removed and the amount of wt removed. If the height of forage spp removed was 50%,
then the utilization was considered as 50%.
E. Length of twig or twig length method

This method is generally applied for the calculation of utilization of browse spp. The
length of several twigs on many branches within the reach of grazing animals of different
shrubs/ trees is measured. The measured twigs are tagged and the same twigs are re-
measured at the end of razing period. The reduction in the twig length is the length grazed
by animals.
RANGE IMPROVEMENT:
These are the special treatments, developments and structures used to improve the range
forage resources or to facilitate their use by grazing animals.
Benefits:
Increases the quality and quantity of forage and carrying capacity
Prolong grazing season
Increases the animal production and keep the livestock in healthy condition
Facilitate the handling of range animals
Keep away the animals from poisonous plants
Reduces the fire hazards by prescribed burning
Increases the water yield in w-shed area
Control the erosion
33
M. Sc (2007-09)
Reduces the conflicts b/w multiple use of range resources
Guidelines for selecting the Range improvement:
Only use proven methods except on small scale trail bases
Range improvement must be compatible with objectives
Availability of labor, equipment, technical assistance
Expected cost benefit-ration
Use the range improvements at appropriate stages of range degradation
Locate the improvement of the area of greatest potential for increasing the range
productivity
Plant the livestock handling facilities that are practical and beneficial for both range
land and range animals.
Range improvement practices:

Development and distribution of watering facilities on the range areas.
Salting – providing plenty of salt at proper places uniformly on the range areas.
Herding of live-stock to areas not preferred by animals, by herdsman.
Fencing – fencing the large area into small area and also the seeded areas (because we
need to save it in early one month.)
Constricting paths and trails to connecting different range areas for live-stock
movement.
Range burning – dense patches of shrubs by vegetation are burned to facilitate live-
stock movement.
Range reseeding
Range fertilization
Using specified grazing systems.
Sources of Improvement:
1. Herding:
2. Introduction of indigenous and exotic forage species
3. Range reseeding
4. Fertilization
5. Introduction of winter forage species
6. Planting of fodder trees and shrubs
7. Water development
8. Water spreading
9. Fencing
10. Development of communication and storage facilities
11. Soil Conservation
12. Sand dunes stabilization
13. Salting point development
14. Range fertilization
RANGE NUTRITION:
Animals spend energy for daily works ie walking, respiration, reproduction, milk
production, etc. they need constant supply of energy which is obtained from range plants during
grazing and browsing. In other words, range forage is the only source of vitamins, proteins, fats
and carbohydrates to them or their maintenance. Vitamin D is obtained from sunlight with no
effort; Vitamin A is essential for cell formation and blindness, etc; Vitamin C, p,c etc
34
M. Sc (2007-09)
(phosphorus, and calcium) re important for bone building or cellulose formation, pH and enzyme
regulation in body fluids.
Proteins are required to build up and repair animal tissues; browse shrubs and forbs are
good source of protein for animals.
Phosphorus and Calcium deficiency leads to poor reproduction. In animals, the ratio of
phosphorus and calcium should be 1:1. Chlorine, potassium and sodium are required for the
maintenance of body wt, milk production and appetite. Their loss or deficiency will in reduction
in wt, appetite and milk production
Vitamin A has multiple roles in body process. It is necessary fro growth of young one,
healthy membranes, prevention of night blindness, keep vigor and reproduction. It is obtained
from carotene, present in chlorophyll.
Nutritional Value of Range Lands:
Following factors are the measuring gauge for this nutritional value of Range plants:
1. Phenology – growth stage or growth season
2. Life form – shrub, forbs or grasses
3. Digestibility
4. Range Condition
1. Growth season:
At the early stage of growth, the nutrients are more. The plants are rich in protein
etc. While at later stages of growth nutritious feed is reduced. Here the fiber
content, cellulose and lignin are more.
Consequently at early stage, plants are much more able to improve the health of
animals, hence valuable
2. Life form:
35
M. Sc (2007-09)
The share of shrubs, forbs, and grasses is clearly visible from the graphs. Shrubs
contain max amount of protein and phosphorus as compared to forbs and grasses. But in
the left graph grasses are providing more and more energy than forbs and shrubs. This is
mainly due to the digestibility and palatability
.
3. Digestibility and Palatability:
Of the spp, grasses are more digestible while shrubs are least digestible. Similarly
grasses are more preferable. The forbs are intermediately palatable.
Of the life forms, if 15% brows spp are present during winter season, there is no
problem of nutrient deficiency. Digestibility is higher at early stage and lower at
the later growth stage. However, the deficiency can be made by soa-been, trifolim
(shuftal), khall, binaola, etc.
4. Range Condition:
Nutrient content varies with leaf-stem ratio. In excellent condition, this ratio is
max leaves comprise larger amount of nutrients than stems. The animals, by
grazing, reduce this ratio. Thus the range goes down ward. In excellent condition,
the average air dry wt is more a great deal eg 4000 lbs while in fair condition it is
low eg 2000 lbs.
PLANT MORPHOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY:

Plants capture solar energy and convert it into food substances for their own use and for
the use of animal through photosynthesis. The physiological process by which plants grow and
morphological changes that take place during growth are pre-requisite for range mgt. the survival
of plant depends upon:
i- Its ability to manufacture and store food for plant’s functioning
ii- From vegetative structure for the renewal of top growth.
iii- Maintain healthy root system
iv- Produce reproductive organs
Food synthesis take place in green parts where chlorophyll bearing cells in the presence of
sunlight, combine the carbon from air obtained through stomata with water mineral nutrients
obtained from the soil to form carbohydrates.
Light
6 CO2 + 6 H2O (Energy) C6H12O6 + 6 O2
Atmosphere Soil Carbon from CO2 From H2O
Important factors for photosynthesis:
Photosynthesis is a process in which light energy is converted to chemical energy to
produce organic compounds.
In plants, photosynthesis occurs within the chloroplasts, consists of two stages, the light
reactions and the dark reactions which are utilized in carbon fixation. The light reactions convert
light into energy (ATP and NADHP) and the dark reactions use the energy and carbon dioxide to
produce sugar which is utilized for the proper functioning of the plant processes.
The formation of photosynthesis is cited by the following seven factors:
1. Physiological efficiency of the plant
2. Amount of CO2 in the air and freedom with which it enters the leaves through stomata.
3. Leaf surface area.
4. Intensity and quantity of light
36
M. Sc (2007-09)
5. Water supply (Soil moisture)
6. Temperature
7. Soil nutrients
Most important of these are leaf area and water, as water is necessary chemical
constituent for the reaction. It keeps the plant turgid and stomata, opened and functioned
thus to ensure carbon dioxide entry in the leaves. It carries mineral nutrients taken by the
roots from the soil. Leaf area exposed determines the rate of food manufacture eg the
average rate of photosynthesis is b/w 0.8 – 1.8 gm of sugar for each square meter of leaves
per hour depending upon the spp.
Food storage takes place in the roots and stem bases of perennial herbaceous pants;
in the stem, branches and roots of woody plants and in the seed on annual plants. The food
reserves are used for respiration during dormancy, re-growth following winter or drought
dormancy and reproduction. It is essential that range plants be allowed to manufacture and
store sufficient food during the period of active growth to fulfill these needs.
Stages of Photosynthesis:
POISONOUS PLANTS:
37
M. Sc (2007-09)
- These are the components of range ecosystem
- Many poisonous plant kill the animals if eaten in large quantity
- These plants are not poisonous at all season of year
- A plant may be poisonous to one kind of animal and may not be poisonous to other kind
of animals
- There are many plants which are mechanically injurious to certain time of years. They are
armed with spine and cause sores.
Minimized by:
- Recognizing the poisonous plant
- Knowing the stage of growth at which they are most dangerous
- Maintaining good cover of palatable or desirable forage plants
Control Measures:
- General Management rules:
o Avoid overuse of range lands
o Avoid the area where poisonous plats are available
o Do not move the animals quickly
o Do not force the animals to remain on range area after the desirable spp have been
destroyed
o After dry fed animals should no be put on range land where poisonous plant are
available
o Avoid use of range land in late spring
o Provide sufficient water to animals to dilute the poisonous plant use pallets of salts
o Pure stands may be sprayed with herbicides
- Mechanical Method:
o Undesirable grasses are automatically removed during the operations.
 Grubbing: Digging out of the plant and its roots to prevent sprouting and
re-growth.
 For uprooting of plants:
 Tractor with dozer blade
 Tractor with modified blades
 Disk uprooting and cutting
 Chaining and cabling for pulling trees
 Rolling cutter
- Chemical Method:
o Herbicides contain the chemical to control the weed and undesirable plants. Eg
Adhatoda vasica, Dodonea viscosa; the chemical used to destroy these:
 Brand:
 2, 4 – D
 2, 4 – S – T
 Trade:
 Silver
 Diclorum
 MCDA
Environmentalists are against these chemicals.
- Manual Approach:
Physical Eradication of these undesirable plants by man:
o Weeding
38
M. Sc (2007-09)
o Brush wood cutting
o Burning fen (control burning)
o Selective uprooting
o Grubbing
o Trimming of green leaves
o Girdling
o Mesquite removal
This is environmental friendly approach.
RANGE LANDS OF PAKISTAN:
Range lands of Pakistan = 15

Balochistan = 5
Sind = 3
NWFP = 3
Punjab = 4
1. PUNJAB:
a. Pothowar plateau R.L = 2.5 million hectare
b. Thal desert R.L = 2.5 million ha
c. Cholistan desert R.L = 3.5 million ha
d. D.G Khan R.L = 1.2 million ha
2. NWFP:
a. Alpine and Moist Temperate= 2.3 million ha
b. Dry Temperate (Southern western hills) = 2.3 million ha
c. Sub tropical Forest Humid zones (South eastern hills) = 1.1 million ha
3. SIND:
a. Rajistan; Nara = 3.8 million ha
b. Therparkar (Thar) = 4.5 million ha
c. Kohistan = 1.2 million ha
4. BALOCHISTAN:
a. Northern Mountain R.L = 8 million ha
b. Pat Plains of North East = 1.6 million ha
c. Chaghi-Kharan deserts = 8.4 million ha
d. Central plateau = 11.4 million ha
e. Lasbella – Mekran R.L = 3.3 million ha
f. Kalat area = 11.4 million ha
39
M. Sc (2007-09)
SHORT QUESTIONS FROM EXAMINATION:
42. ANIMAL EQUIVALENT:

Food requirements of different kind of animals expressed in terms of Animal Unit are
termed as Animal Equivalent. Animal Equivalents are as follows:
Cow 1.0AU Mule 1.0AU
Yearing 1.6AU Donkey 0.6AU
Bull 1.3AU Goat 0.3AU
Buffalo 1.5AU Sheep 0.2AU
Horse 1.3AU Camel 1.7AU
43. ANIMAL UNIT:

A cow weight 1000 lb or 450 kg along with a calf of about 6 months constitute one animal
unit.
Buffalo 1.5 animal units
Sheep 0.2 A.U
Goat 0.3 A.U
Camel 1.7 A.U
Horse 1.25 – 1.5 A.U
Requirement of (1 AU) air dry becomes or forage of 1 AU is taken in Pakistan as 9 kg or 20 lbs/
day.
44. AUM:
“The amount of forage required by an animal unit for one month of grazing is AUM”.
Eg as mentioned earlier 1 AU in 9kg / day, so for a whole month of 30 days AUM will be:
9 kg * 30 = 270 kg
45. AUT-ECOLOGY:
That branch of Ecology that deals with the response of an organism as an individual to its
environment
46. C3 AND C4 GRASSES:

All plants are classified as C3 (plants that use only the Calvin-Benson cycle), C 4 (plants that
use an additional CO2-fixation mechanism and the Calvin-Benson cycle), C3-C4 (plants
intermediate between C3 and C4), and CAM (plants that have a variant of the C4 pathway).
47. CARRYING CAPACITY/ GRAZING CAPACITY:

“Maximum number of animal units that can be grazed in one hectare in one year.” OR; “It
is the minimum number of hectares that are required to feed one animal unit for one year.” Or;
“The maximum stocking rate possible without inducing damage to vegetation or related
resources.” _ Stodart, Smith and Baz (1975)
According to Stodart, Smith and Baz (1975). The maximum animal number which can
graze each year over a given area of range for specific no of days without producing a downward
trend in forage production and forage quality and soil.
48. CLIMAX:
The end point of the successional process in which a final community is obtained which is
much more stable and not susceptible to any change is called climax. The climax community has
40
M. Sc (2007-09)
adopted itself according the environmental factors and only human interference or any natural
catastrophe can change the climax spp
49. CRASSULACEAN ACID METABOLISM

Photosynthesis in arid-region plants: photosynthesis occurring in cacti and other plants of dry
regions whereby carbon dioxide is taken in at night and chemically converted for storage until it
is used during daylight.
This process enables the plant to close its leaf pores during the daytime, thereby conserving
water.
50. DRIP/ TRICKLE IRRIGATION SYSTEM:

Special type of irrigation system applied for artificial regeneration water deficient areas. A
network of pipes is spread which drip water to each plant. The system is applied with a pumping
source. The interval of drip can be regulated.
51. ECOSYSTEM:
“Ecosystem is a localized group of interdependent organisms together with the environment
that they inhabit and depend on, such as a forest or a coral reef, and the physical parts of the
environment that affect them”. The term ecosystem was coined in 1935 by the British ecologist
Sir Arthur George Tansley, who described natural systems in “constant interchange” among their
living and nonliving parts.
52. FREQUENCY OF USE:

“It is the number of times of an area which is grazed by animals”.
53. GRAZING SYSTEM:

It is the realization of principles of vegetation management largely through utilization of
vegetation by the livestock for the benefit of both vegetation and livestock.
Grazing Systems in Pakistan:
a. Continuous G.S
b. Rotational G.S
c. Deferred G.S
d. Deferred Rotational G.S
e. Best block G.S
54. GRAZING FREQUENCY:

“Time interval b/w defoliation or successive grazing and number of these occurrences are
Grazing Frequency”.
55. GRAZING INTENSITY:

Proportion of current year growth that is consumed or destroyed by grazing animals. OR;
“The degree to which the forage has been removed is Grazing Intensity.”
Heavy: 50% or greater
Moderate: 31-50%
Light: 5-30%
56. HERDING:
Tending of range animals by herdsman to guide them to un-graze parts of the range area is
known as Herding. Duties of herder are:
41
M. Sc (2007-09)
1. Repair fencing
2. Maintain adequate water and salt on range area
3. Care for sick animals and preventing death losses
4. Assuming proper forage utilization
5. Avoid theft loses
6. Take animals at night time back to bedding places.
57. INDICATOR SPECIES:

“Species that indicates the presence of certain environmental conditions, seral stages or
previous treatments are called as Indicator Species.”
A few examples of following range species:
Salvadora fruiticosa Indicates Saline Soil
Stipa tortilus Dominant in Scrub zone showing retrogression
Aristida species Dominant in Scrub zone showing retrogression
Iris hoaleriana Indicates overgrazing
Cymbopogon spp Indicates overgrazing
58. INTENSITY OF USE:

“The degree to which the forage of range land has been grazed by grazing animal is called
intensity of used of defoliation”.
The intensity of use or grazing may be light, moderate, or heavy. The forage production of
a particular area will be increased with increase in intensity of grazing for short period of time. In
long run, increased intensity of grazing will decline the range productivity.
Effects of Intensity of grazing on Range Land:
a. Light grazing will affect slightly
b. Heavy grazing will effect adversely
c. Decrease in forage capacity
d. Arrival of invaders
e. Increase in soil erosion
f. Decrease in range condition, etc.
59. KEY AREA:

It is the portion of the range which because of its location, grazing or browsing value
serves as an indicative sample of range condition, trend, or degree of use. Or; the area upon which
success of range management operation is depended.
These areas should not be close to watering point or far away ie not more than 2 km. It
should not be on steep topography.
60. KEY SPECIES:

Forage spp whose use serve as an indicator to degree of use of associated species. Or;
those forage spp which are highly preferred. Such spp must be considered in the management
Programme.
61. LIGHT GRAZING:
When less than half of the standing biomass is consumed and the other half is left as
unused portion, such types of grazing is Light Grazing.
62. MULCHING:
Any material used at the surface of soil to assist in soil productivity designated as Mulch.
Mulches comprises of plant residue, litter, manure, soil and stone, paper, polythenes, and other
artificial covers.
42
M. Sc (2007-09)
Importance of Mulching:
a. Suppression of weeds
b. Conservation of moisture by decreasing runoff and evaporation and increasing
infiltration.
c. Conservation of soil by preventing erosion
d. Maintenance and improvement of soil structure
e. Thermal insulation
f. Organic mulches increase fertility
g. Enhanced humification and microbial activities leading to higher nutrients
availability
h. Improvement of soil structure by incorporation of plant residue and by
encouraging soil fertility
63. NICHE OR ECOLOGICAL NICHE:

The role of an organism within its natural environment that determines its relations with
other organisms and ensures its survival is the Ecological niche of that organism.
64. NOMDIC GRAZING:

Unmanaged grazing by the livestock of un-settled (migratory) tribes; generally harmful to
vegetation is termed as nomadic grazing.
65. PALATABILITY:
Palatability refers to the attractiveness of a plant to animal as forage. It is a plant attribute.
Different kinds of animals are differentially attracted by a particular spp. Eg grasses are more
palatable for cattle than goats.
Factors affecting palatability:
i. Growth stage:
Palatability is more in vegetative stage as compared to seed maturity stage.
ii. Nutritive content:
Greater nutrient contents increase palatability.
iii. Season of growth:
Palatability is more in early season.
iv. Kind of Animals:
Choice of different animals differs due to different palatability.
v. Species composition:
More preferred spp present more palatability.
vi. Part of a plant species:
Leaves are more palatable as compared to any other part.
vii. Animal preference for different species
viii. Hunger:
Palatability will be more if animal are hungrier.
ix. Age, fragrance of the animal:
Young animals like fleshy vegetation.
x. Familiarity of plants to animals:
66. PALATABILITY INDEX:

It is the ratio of the Field intake to the field offered to the animals.
Palatability index = field intake/ field offered * 100
43
M. Sc (2007-09)
67. PASTURES:
The grazing lands usu fenced and planted to primarily introduce native forage spp that
receive periodic renovation (ie restoration) and /or cultural treatments, fertilization, mowing (ie
cutting down or shearing), weed control and irrigation.
68. PLANT SUCCESSION:

A unidirectional process in which a plant community replaces another in a predictable
manner until a final community is established which is stable and not susceptible to any
change called climax; and this whole process is called Succession.
69. PREFERENCE:
It refers to the selection of plant by animals. In response to certain characteristics animals
prefers some spp over other. Preference may vary from season to season. It is an animal attribute.
Factors affecting Preference:
i. Kind of animals:
Cattle prefer grasses; goats, camels prefer browse species.
ii. Nutritive value of the Species:
Species with more protein contents are preferred more.
iii. Moisture contents of the Species:
Species with more moisture contents are always preferred.
iv. Taste of the Species:
If animals have not taken salt for long period they will prefer saltish species
otherwise they prefer sweat taste.
v. Season of the growth:
The preference of spp may be different as different seasons of growth.
vi. Essential oil present in Plant:
Animals able to digest oil contents prefer oily species.
vii. Mode of the growing animal:
The spp may have different preference based on different mode of preferences
70. PREFERENCE INDEX:

It is the ratio of percentage of plant in diet (utilization) to percentage in range composition
and expressed in percentage.
71. PREFERENCE VALUES:

It is the selection of certain plants over the others by grazing animal. It is an animal
attribute.
Factors on which preference value depends:
Nutrient Content
Essential soils
Taste
Mode of animals (pre-requisites)
Moisture content
Kind of animals
Mineral content
Season of growth
44
M. Sc (2007-09)
72. PRODUCTIVITY (FORAGE PRODUCTION):
It is the weight of forage produced within a designated period of time on a given range
land. For weight it is essential to mention that whether the weight is dry or green.
73. QUADRAT:
A metallic or wooden frame of varying shapes and sizes, used for sampling range
vegetation is a Quadrat.
74. RANCH:
“An establishment with specific boundaries together with its lands and improvements
used for the grazing and production of live sock and/ or wildlife”. _ SRM
Ranches are smaller in area; they are fenced (it is a law in USA to fence land, range land,
etc). Moreover, ranches are restricted to use of wildlife only just unlike the range lands which are
used in different ways eg they are source of waters, recreation, fuel wood, minerals, etc.
75. RANGE LAND:

“It is a land which is under natural vegetation and used for the pasturing livestock.”
“Those areas of the world which by reason of physical limitation, low and erratic rainfall,
rough topography, poor drainage and cold temperature are unsuitable for cultivation and are the
source of forage for livestock and source of wood, water and life stock.”
76. RANGE MANAGEMENT:

It is the science and art of optimizing the returns from range land in most desired
combination and suitable for society through the manipulation of range ecosystem.
77. RANGE READINESS:

It is that point in plant growth cycle at which grazing may begin without permanent
damage to vegetation and soil.
Range readiness varies because of variation in rainfall especially. In wet year the same
range will be ready for grazing earlier and later in dry year.
Calculating Range Readiness:
Generally it is before flowing stage or when the plant attains 6 - 8 leaves or a
height of 15 cm.
When one half or 3/4th of the twigs on shrubs has been made up the range will
be ready for grazing.
When certain spring plants are just fading.
Problems with Range Readiness:
1. If range is composed of annual forage spp, then we cannot wait for range
readiness especially in continuous grazing system. It should be grazed during
active growing period under continuous grazing system.
78. RANGE SUITABILITY:

The adaptation of grazing by livestock or wildlife is Range suitability.
79. RETROGRESSION:
It is the reverse process of succession. Deterioration of vegetation and soil due to any
outside agency such as over grazing and fire, etc
45
M. Sc (2007-09)
80. SACRIFICE AREA:
“A portion of range area which irrespective of sight is intentionally overgrazed to obtain
efficient overall use of the range is Sacrifice area.”
81. SALTING:
Provision of salt required by the livestock for growing season is Salting. Salting is
necessary for proper distribution of animals over the area. By proper salting present capacity may
increase by 19%. Amount of salt required by animals vary from season to season. In early
growing seasons more salt is required than the late growing season because protein content is
greater in early stage.
Location of Salting places:
1. On accessible ridges, benches, openings of the forested area, on flat areas near shade.
2. It should be at least 1 km away from water point to achieve proper distribution.
3. On flat areas less salting points are required as compare to steep area.
4. Salting points should be changed from one grazing season to next.
5. One salt ground should be established for each 30-40 animal units on flat area; while for 25
animal units on rough terrain.
82. SEASONAL USE:

“It is the season of grazing. It is that portion of the year when grazing is feasible on range
area. Arid and semi-arid areas can be grazed throughout the year; therefore, whole year there is
season of use of range lands”. On the other hand, alpine and sub alpine range lands can be grazed
after snow melt during summer therefore grazing season is in summer ie from June to September.
83. SODDING:
Patch of grass with soil planted from one place to another.
84. STALL-FEED:
1. To keep an animal in a stall while fattening it for slaughter. 2. Feeding emergency/
supplementary feeds to the livestock at one place in the manager.
85. SYNECOLOGY:
That branch of Ecology that deals with the response of plant and animals as a group to
their environment.
“Man has been endowed with reason, with

the power to create, so that he can add to
what he's been given. But up to now he
hasn't been a creator, only a destroyer.
Forests keep disappearing, rivers dry up,
wild life's become extinct, the climate's
46
M. Sc (2007-09)
ruined and the land grows poorer and uglier

every day”.
Anton Chekhov (1860 - 1904)
47

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RANGE MANAGEMENT Naeem Javid M.

PAKISTAN FOREST INSTITUTE

Topic Page Number

Special Thx to:

Importance of Range Lands:

Table showing no of livestock in Pakistan: (year 2004 - 05)

5. Animal dung compensating 18% of fuel wood consumption.

7. Habitat of Wild life, and source of tourism and eco-tourism.

GOALS OF RANGE MANAGEMENT:

IMPORTANCE OF RANGE LANDS:

1. Correct kind of Animals (live stock):

PROBLEMS AND CONSTRAINTS OF RANGE MANAGEMENT IN PAKISTAN:

EFFECT OF GRAZING ON RANGE AREA:

HOW PLANTS TOLERATE GRAZING:

RANGE ECOREGION OR RANGE ECOLOGICAL REGIONS:

J. Topical Plains (non sandy):

K. Tropical Plains (Sandy)

L. Subtropical Sub-humid Ecological Region:

O. Temperate Humid Eco-zone:

Characteristics of Good Grazing System:

IMPORTANT GRAZING SYSTEMS:

1. Continuous/ Year long/ Season long Grazing System:

2. Rotational Grazing System:

Advantages of Rotational Grazing System:

Disadvantages of Rotational Grazing System:

3. Deferred Grazing System:

3.2 Difference b/w Rotational and Deferred System:

4. Deferred Rotational Grazing system:

- Carrying capacity is calculated on the total range area in this system

GRAZING PATTERNS AND PRACTICES IN PAKISTAN:

1. GRAZING PATTERNS IN NORTHERN UPLAND:

1.2. Semi-Nomadic Grazing System:

2. GRAZING PATTERNS IN DESERT RANGE LANDS:

3. GRAZING PATTERNS IN BALOCHISTAN:

4. SPECIALIZED GRAZING SYSTEMS:

Sample Size Calculation:

Estimation of Stocking Rates:

GOLDEN RULE FOR (RANGE MGT) GRAZING SYSTEM:

Condition Score of 4-Classes Score for 5-Classes

Methods of Evaluating the Carrying Capacity:

19.2. Second Method (Forage Factor Method):

- Similarly species composition can be calculated from forage production as:

Excellent Conditions are based on Climax Theory:

Range Soil Factors:

A. Clipping before and after grazing:

Eg weight before grazing = 98 gm/m2

B. Cage comparison method

C. Stem count method

The range utilization can be calculated by counting through Steptoe method.

E. Length of twig or twig length method

Range improvement practices:

PLANT MORPHOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY:

RANGE LANDS OF PAKISTAN:

Range lands of Pakistan = 15

42. ANIMAL EQUIVALENT:

43. ANIMAL UNIT:

46. C3 AND C4 GRASSES:

47. CARRYING CAPACITY/ GRAZING CAPACITY: