Energy Systems and

Human Fitness
Fitness and training principles
 Fitness
The World Health Organisation defines fitness as:

The ability to carry out daily tasks (work and play) with
vigour and alertness, without undue fatigue and with
ample reserve energy, to enjoy leisure time pursuits and
to meet unforseen emergencies. (Williams, P (et al),
page 76, 1999)

Health refers to the absence of disease or illness

whereas physical fitness is an individual matter related
to the specific needs of each individual and the
requirements of their sport.
Components of Fitness
1. Health related (physiological) components

• Cardiorespiratory endurance/aerobic
power
• Muscular strength
• Local muscular endurance
• Anaerobic power
• Flexibility
• Body composition

2. Sport (motor skill) related components

• Speed
• Muscular power
• Agility
• Coordination
• Balance
• Reaction time
 Energy

Anaerobic
Aerobic

ATP-PC System Lactic Acid System Oxygen System

Anaerobic power and speed

Local muscular endurance cardio-

Muscular strength respiratory
Muscular power endurance
Agility
Balance
Reaction time
Components of fitness
Cardiorespiratory Endurance / Aerobic Power

 This is the ability of the heart, lungs and blood vessels

(circulatory and respiratory systems) to deliver oxygen and
nutrients to the tissues of the body and to remove waste products
such as carbon dioxide. It is also known as aerobic endurance,
cardiovascular fitness or aerobic capacity.
 Allows an individual to perform tasks involving the whole body for
extended periods of time at a sub maximal intensity
 Fitness Test – 20-metre shuttle-run

Muscular Strength

 This is the ability of your muscles to exert a force in a single

maximal contraction. It is important in sports where a position
needs to be acquired and maintained against an opponent or
where an object has to be forcefully moved.
 Combines with speed to produce Muscular Power
 Fitness test – Grip strength
Components of fitness
Local Muscular Endurance

 This is the ability of a muscle or group of muscles to

sustain an activity for a period of time at less than
maximal effort. Local fatigue (rather than general
exhaustion) is the limiting factor. It includes
activities such as push-ups, sit-ups and chin-ups. A
major limiting factor of local muscular endurance is
an athlete’s ability to tolerate lactic acid.
 Fitness test: Sit-ups, push-ups and pull-ups.

Anaerobic Power

 This is the ability to produce energy quickly (without

using oxygen). The efficiency of ATP-PC and lactic
acid energy systems plays an important role within
this fitness component. Covers two types of effort:
 maximal efforts <10secs
 near maximal effort for up to 2 mins
Components of fitness
Flexibility

 This refers to the range of possible movement about a joint or

sequence of joints. Muscles, tendons, ligaments and joint
structure affect it. It is important for injury prevention. Flexibility
can be either static or dynamic. Dynamic or active flexibility is
concerned with how easily a limb can be moved through its range
of motions when executing a skill such as the arm action in
backstroke. Static flexibility is concerned with determining the
ability to move a joint to its maximum range of motions such as
doing the splits.
 The structure of a joint affects flexibility. The more stable a joint,
the greater the strength but the less flexibility it allows. For
example, the ball and socket joint of the hip is more stable than
the shoulder joint, but allows less movement.
 Fitness tests: sit and reach test

Body composition

 The relative percentage of muscle, fat, bone and other tissue of

which a body is composed
 Fitness test – skin folds
Components of fitness
Speed

 Speed is the ability to move the whole body or a body part

from one point to another in the shortest possible time
such as sprinting, speed skating and the run up in long
jump. Can be present as whole body speed or body part
speed. Speed relates to other fitness components for
example speed is dependant upon strength and muscular
power is dependent upon strength and speed. During
speed events however, an athlete has the ability to reach
maximum energy capacity.
 Fitness test – Running 40 metre sprints

Muscular Power

 This is the ability to use strength rapidly to produce an

explosive maximal effort. It is dependent upon the
interaction of strength and speed. Relies on anaerobic
energy production and white twitch muscle fibres.
Examples include shot put, discus, hammer throw and
jumping events as well as the rebound in basketball.
 Fitness test: standing long jump and vertical jump
Components of fitness
Agility

 The ability to rapidly and accurately change the direction

of the body in space. It is related to power, speed,
flexibility, balance and coordination. Activities that
exemplify agility include dodging; weaving and turning that
are commonly seen in football, netball, tennis, squash and
basketball.
 Fitness test: Illinois agility test

Coordination

 This can be described as the smooth and accurate flow of

movement in the execution of a physical task. It involves
the nervous system and the musculoskeletal system
working together. Examples include hand-eye and foot-
eye coordination in activities such as the lay up in
basketball, the spike in volleyball, the racquet swing in
tennis and ball control in soccer.
 Fitness test: Half flip stick test
Components of fitness
Balance

 This is the ability to maintain the equilibrium of the body.

For example static balance involves maintaining the
equilibrium in one fixed position such as a gymnast
holding on the parallel bars. Dynamic balance involves
maintaining the equilibrium while moving including a
gymnast swinging on the parallel bars.
 Fitness test: Standing static balance

Reaction Time

 This refers to the athlete’s ability to process information

via the nervous system and react. Time elapsed between
stimulus and initiation of a response to the stimulus (It
involves the time it takes for the brain to receive
information from the senses, process the information,
formulate a response and transmit this response to
nerves and finally for the muscles to contract). Examples
include the delay between the starter’s gun and the
athlete blasting out of the blocks.
 Fitness test: Latham Reaction Time test
Principles of training
When applied to a program, training
principles can positively affect an
athlete’s performance. Some
training principles include:
 Specificity
 Progressive overload
 FITT:
 Frequency
 Intensity
 Time
 Type
 Variety
 Reversibility
Specificity
The athlete must train the specific:
 Energy systems used
 Fitness components used
 Muscle groups used
 Skills used

This training principle also allows the athlete to

choose the most suitable training methods for
improving performance.

Example – an endurance athlete would include a

large amount of continuous running into their
training program to develop aerobic capacity and
increase cardiorespiratory efficiency. On the other
hand, a weightlifter would incorporate a significant
amount of weights into their training program to
develop muscular strength.

Training should be specific to the physiological

adaptations required at the time.
Progressive Overload
Improvements in performance occur as a result of
adaptation to stress. An increase in the training
workload will bring about physiological changes that
make the body more capable of coping with
stresses that may be placed upon it. To gain
maximum benefits from training, workloads must be
gradually adjusted upwards as adaptation to stress
occurs which is also known as progressive
overload.

Increases in workload can lead to possible

excessive stress, injury or illness. ‘No pain, no gain’
is a popular misconception. There is no need for
pain during physiological adaptations to training.
Pain is an indicator that something is wrong and
that training should be modified.
FITT principles
One way of monitoring the application of the specific
overload principle is the inclusion of the FITT principles
into a training program.
 Frequency: refers to how often you train, specifically how
many days per week. Individuals seeking to improve their
aerobic fitness must train at least 3-4 times per week.

 Intensity: refers to how hard you train. To apply the

overload principle in terms of intensity, the heart rate must
be increased to a target heart rate. Heart rate should
remain within the target zone for at least 20 minutes
fitness is to improve. It is vital that a critical threshold
exists and that unless that point is reached and
maintained, then improvements cannot be made.
Exercise levels that allow the heart rate to remain within
the target zone will result in the training effect and the
body will make the appropriate adaptations.

 Critical Threshold (CT) = Resting HR (RHR) + 60% of

Working HR (WHR)
 WHR = MHR – RHR (MHR = 220 - your age)
FITT principles
Time: refers to how long the training
session will last. To be effective, training
sessions must last longer than 20 minutes
and the heart rate must stay in the target
zone for that period of time. The best
results occur when training lasts from
between 30-60 minutes.

Type: Activities need to be specific for the

type of improvement desired. To improve
cardio-respiratory endurance, activities
should be aerobic, being continuous and
sustained throughout the exercise. This is
so the oxygen system is the predominant
system for energy requirements. Such
activities include jogging, cycling and
swimming.
FITT principles

Summary of FITT principles:

 F – times per week = 3 or >

 I – 75% of MHR = 220 - age x 0.75

= Target Zone
 T = 20-30 minutes with HR in target
zone
 T = continuous aerobic activity with
HR in target zone to develop cardio
respiratory fitness.
Variety and Reversibility
Variety

 Provided that the major principle of specificity is not

ignored, variety in training activities can be
beneficial. It can assist in maintaining interest and
motivation although it doesn’t specifically aid
performance.

Reversibility

 The effects of training programs are reversible. In

the same way that the body responds to training by
improving the level of fitness, lack of training causes
the opposite to occur. The reversibility process
applies equally to aerobic, anaerobic and strength
training programs.
 Duration of training has an effect on reversibility. A
fast build up will cause a rapid loss if training
ceases, whereas a slow build up will result in a slow
loss.
Training Methods
These are the different types of training undertaken to
achieve the desired improvements in fitness.

Continuous Training
This type of training involves performing an activity for an
extended period of time, (usually longer than 20 minutes)
at a required intensity, without a rest period. It is sub
maximal and requires an intensity of 65 – 85% of HR
max. This is called the Target Training Zone.
Continuous training works the aerobic energy system and
examples include swimming, jogging, rowing, cross-
country skiing and cycling.

Overloading continuous Training:

To incur physiological adaptations progressive overload is
necessary and can be implemented by manipulating the
following variables:
 Increase the duration of work (length)
 Increase the intensity of work by:
 Increasing the distance
 Decreasing the time taken to complete the same distance.
 Frequency
Interval training
This is a type of training in which periods of work are
alternated with periods of rest or recovery. Each energy
system can be developed, depending on the length of the
work and rest periods. The design of this training allows
for periods of activity where the energy fuels ATP and PC
are depleted. By following the work period with a rest
period there is time for the replenishment of these fuels.
This provides the athlete with enough energy to perform
at a high intensity during the work period and recover
during the rest period. The length and time of the work
interval determines which energy system and fitness
components are predominately trained.

Interval training produces very specific training effects

including efficiency in the desired energy system. The
depletion-replenishment pattern allows the capacity of the
ATP-PC and lactic acid system to be increased. When
developing interval training, the following factors can be
altered to meet the specific needs of each sport:
 Planning Interval training

Variable Description Example

Work interval distance The distance of the work 60 metres
Work interval time Time in which work must be completed 8 seconds
Rest interval time Time between work intervals 40 secs
Rest interval type The nature of rest between work intervals Walk
Work intensity How hard work is to be done (% of HR) 95%
Repetitions Number of work periods in a sequence 8
Sets Number of repetition sequences 3
Frequency Number of training sessions per week 3
 Examples of Interval training
for running
Energy Interv Interv Work Reps Sets Rest Work Traini Suitable
system al al time intensi interva to rest ng sports
distanc ty l ratio frequ
e ency
ATP- 60m 8 secs 95% 8 3 40 sec 1:5 3 100m
PC HR Team
max Sports
Lactic 400m 75 85% 4 2 150 1:2 3 400m
Acid secs HR sec Team
max Sports
Aerobi 1000m 180 75 - 3 2 180 1:1 4-5 1500m
c secs 85% sec 10 km
HR Team
max Sports
Work to rest ratio
Is established by breaking an activity into work and rest
components. It indicates how much work is completed in
an activity in proportion to how much rest is available.

1:5 Phosphate energy system (ATP-PC)

1:2 Lactic Acid Energy system
1:1 Aerobic Energy system

Formula for developing an Interval Training Program:

1. Divide the personal best time by the percentage of HR
max to calculate the work interval time (7.5 sec / 95% =
7.8 seconds)
2. Multiply the work interval time by the appropriate energy
system ratio to establish rest interval time
3. Use a higher number of repetitions and sets for shorter
work intervals
Overloading Interval Training

To incur physiological adaptations

progressive overload is necessary
and can be implemented by
manipulating the following variables:
 Increase the duration of work
 Increase the intensity of work by:
 Decreasing the duration of rest
 Increasing the number of sets per
session
 Increasing the number of repetitions per
set.
Fartlek training
Fartlek training is a variation of continuous training.
It involves continuous activity with short bursts of
intense work at regular stages throughout the
activity (changes in the intensity or adjustments to
the training environment). Fartlek is a Swedish
term meaning ‘speed play’. The changes in
intensity use all three energy systems, which can
resemble specific activities and simulates the nature
of team sports. An example is an athlete, while
running, performs 5-10 seconds of intense work
every 3-4 minutes.

Overloading Fartlek training:

 Increasing the frequency of the intense bursts
 Increasing the duration of the intense bursts
 Increasing the distance covered
 Covering the same distance in a reduced time
 Running against the wind
 Running in sand
Circuit training
Circuit training involves working at a number of
activity stations in a sequence. There are generally
5 – 15 stations that focus on specific components of
fitness. Circuits are able to develop a number of
fitness components, including aerobic power,
strength, power, local muscular endurance and
agility.
 There are three types of circuit:
 Fixed load – each station has a set number of reps to
be completed
 Fixed time – completion of as many reps as possible
in the allotted time.
 Individual load – individually designed where the
person performs the maximum reps at each station
for one minute. These are then halved and the
person completes the circuit 3 times to determine an
initial time. Target time is then set at two thirds of the
initial time.
Circuit Training
Stations 1 min score Half score Date Date
Skipping 50 25

Sit-ups 60 30

Push-ups 50 25

Agility run 6 3

Basketball throw 20 10

Step-ups 50 25

Medicine ball throw 20 10

Ladder climb 6 3

Shuttle run 10 5

Initial time 21 min

Target time 14 min

Overloading Circuit Training
 Increasing the resistance
 Increasing the repetitions
 Increasing the repetitions but decreasing
the time it takes to complete them
 Increasing the number of laps of the circuit.
 Changing the length or type of recovery.

The variety of this type of training is

particularly beneficial plus not a lot of
equipment is required.
Strength/Weight/Resistance Training
Builds strength, power, or local muscular endurance by exercising muscle
groups against a resistance. It is important to identify the muscle groups
involved and the actions performed that reflect the needs of your sport.
Strength training needs to be performed a minimum of 3 times a week for at
least 30 minutes for a minimum of 6 weeks, for adaptation to occur.
Generally it is high weights and low reps for strength and low weights – high
reps for endurance.
There are 3 types of resistance training:

1. ISOTONIC (free weights)

 Dynamic and involves lifting a set weight through the range of motion of a
joint.
 There are two distinct phases, the concentric phase (where the muscle
contracts against the force of gravity) and the eccentric phase (where the
muscle lengthens under tension with the force of gravity)
 The muscle is not being trained maximally at the strongest point of
contraction.

2. ISOMETRIC (fixed resistance)

 Holding a muscle in one position while it contracts against a resistance.
 Tension in the muscle increases but the muscle stays the same length
 Effective in improving strength but only in the static position
 Examples include pushing against a stationary resistance (handstand, crucifix
on the roman rings, martial arts and wrestling).

3. ISOKINETIC (resistance by machines)

 Undertaken on Nautiliaus, Cybex, Biodex, or Hydrogym equipment.
 Machines create resistance so that the muacles are worked maximally
through the full range not just the weakest points.
 Machines control momentum, velocity and direction of movement so complete
Overloading Resistance
Training

 Increase the resistance

 Increase the repetitions
 Increasing the number of sets
 Increasing the frequency
 Changing the length or type of
recovery.
Plyometrics
Aims to increase muscular power by firstly stretching a
muscle, then contracting it in the shortest possible time. It
is known as a stretch reflex or stretch shortening cycle.
Plyometrics trains this reflex to make it faster and more
forceful.
There is a general concern about the safety and
appropriateness of plyometrics. The following table
outlines the different stress levels and recovery time:

Rating Recovery time Example

1 Very low stress Very rapid Jump rope, ankle
bounces
2 Low stress 1 day Tuck jumps
3 Moderate stress 1 – 2 days Stair jumps, short jumps
4 High stress 2 days Hops, bounds, long jumps
5 Very high stress 3 days Depth jumps
Flexibility Training
Flexibility training improves the range of motion (ROM) at desired joints. It
is important for maximum performance. The requirements of flexibility vary
for each sport. In some sports, large range of joint motion is required in
order to perform certain skills. For improvements to occur training
frequency needs to be 3 – 4 times per week for a minimum of 4 weeks.
There are 4 types of stretching techniques, which can be used:

 Static/ Passive stretching – taking the joint to its full range of motion and
holding it for 20-30 seconds. This is the safest method and is most
effective in warm-down after exercise.
 Active stretching – stretching as far as possible ten slowly contracting the
agonist while relaxing the antagonist.
 Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF) – involves fully
lengthening the muscle. A partner moves your muscle through the full
ROM until the first hint of discomfort, then provides resistance as your
muscle is contracted isometrically this is held for 6 seconds.
 Ballistic stretching – involves moving through ROM using the momentum
created rather than muscle contractions (rhythmically bouncing to
gradually increase the range of motion). This is potentially dangerous and
only specifically conditioned athletes such as dancers and gymnasts
should use this type of stretching.
Training Programs
Training programs are designed to improve the
physiological capacity of an athlete that results in a
personal best performance. Undertaking an activity
analysis identifies the demands of the sport, and
training must be designed to develop physiological
capacity to meet these demands.

When designing a training program for an athlete or

team, it is vital to identify the following:

 Predominant energy systems

 Major muscle groups
 Required fitness components

Once these factors have been identified,

appropriate training methods can be decided.
Individual training sessions and the entire training
year must be also developed and are detailed in the
following sections.
Training Sessions
Each training session should include a warm up which includes
flexibility exercises, followed by conditioning which includes skill
development and tactics and finally a cool down to enable
recovery.

 Warm Up and Stretching

 A warm up stimulates the central nervous system and prepares the
body physiologically and psychologically including activating the
required energy systems, major joints and muscles. The athlete
should experience increased blood flow, raised muscle temperature
and sweating in response to a warm up.
 Stretching is necessary so that the range of motion around a joint
can be increased. It also reduces the risk of injury and is more
beneficial after a warm up when the body is warm.
 Conditioning
 This period incorporates most of the training session. It includes skill
development, game tactics, demonstrations, technique analysis and
discussion. It is designed on the specific requirements of the sport
being played.
 Cool Down/Recovery
 This period follows conditioning and is the reverse of the warm up.
This is achieved through gradually reducing the intensity of the
activity and incorporating flexibility work. Cool down assists in
recovery by dissipating lactic acid reducing muscle soreness and stiff
joints.
Framework for developing an
aerobic floor class.
Activity Components Time (minutes)
No. of music tracks
Light aerobic activity using those 5 minutes
1. Warm-up parts of the body required in 2 tracks
later vigorous movements ie
legs, trunk, shoulders, arms
Slow, controlled stretching of body 5 minutes
1. Stretching parts to be used: may use PNF 2 tracks
or static stretches
Exercise routines, jogging, running, 15 – 20 minutes
1. Aerobic dance exercises using large 6 tracks
muscle groups: non stop exercise
Using gravity, weights, sandbags or 10 minutes
1. Strength / partners for resistance: 3 tracks
tone exercises designed to improve
strength/tone of muscles
Recovery exercises to assist in 5 – 10 minutes
1. Cool-down cardiovascular adjustments; 2 tracks
includes stretching to prevent
muscle soreness and maintain
flexibility
The training year and
periodisation
The training year can be divided into three main
periods including pre-season, competition and post
season.

Pre-season (the Preparatory phase)

 This period aims at providing a solid fitness
foundation for the competition phase.
 Subphase 1 generally lasts 4 – 10 weeks and places
emphasis on the aerobic energy system. The volume
of training is high, but the intensity begins low and
increases very slowly. Specialised programs to
remedy any specific weaknesses should be continued
in this phase.
 Subphase 2 lasts from 2 – 6 weeks and is a more
specific preparatory phase. There is a shift towards
more specific game related fitness and skill work.
There is an increase in intensity with a slow decrease
in volume.
 Fitness testing is also carried out during this phase so
that weaknesses can be amended.
The training year and
periodisation
Competition (the in-season phase)
 This stage generally lasts 4 – 6 months with an emphasis on skill
and strategy, whilst maintaining pre-season fitness. Because of
the demands of competition, not every session should be long
and intense. Sessions later in the week should be lighter and
less intense so that players are not still recovering from fatigue
on competition day. Intensity of activity and drills performed
should be aimed to have the same intensity as the competition.

Post Season (the transition or off-season phase)

 The off-season phase generally lasts 6 – 12 weeks and should
be both a psychological and physical break from your sport.
 Athletes need to gradually reduce the level of activity but also
avoid detraining. Maintenance of a suitable level of fitness and
‘playing weight’ is required.
 The off-season period should also include specialised weight
training and skill development to remedy any diagnosed
weaknesses. This may include low intensity weight training and
running twice a week, supplemented by active recreational
games for enjoyment.
The training year
Pre-season: Develop energy
systems
Practice
individual skills
Develop team
play patterns
(3 months)
In-season:
Practice
individual skills and
team play
Maintain energy
systems
(5 months)
Off-season: Remain
physically active
Remedy
diagnosed
weaknesses in
Pre-season In-season Off-season physical profile
(4 months)
Physiological Responses and
Adaptations to Exercise
Responses Adaptations
HEART
Heart rate increases. Resting HR decreases.
Cardiac output increases. SV increases during rest & work.
SV increases from resting level. Blood supply to heart muscle
Coronary circulation increases. increases during rest & work.
Max HR may be achieved. Volume of left ventricle increases
after aerobic training.
Hypertrophy of the left ventricle
after anaerobic training.
Max HR remains the same.
HR at sub-max workloads falls.
Cardiac output at max workloads
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
increases.
Systolic blood pressure increases. Maintained elasticity of artery
Speed of blood flow increases. walls.
Body temperature increases. Diminished fatty deposits.
Arterio-venous O2 diff increases. Low risk of high blood pressure
Vasodilation occurs. and cardiovascular disease.
Redistribution of blood flow. Capillary supply to heart and
skeletal muscles increases.
Blood volume increases.
Hemoglobin count increases.
Oxygen-carrying capacity of blood
Responses Adaptations
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
 Breathing rate increases.  Efficiency of intercostals muscles
 TV rises from 0.5L to a max of 5L per increases.
breath.  Elasticity of lungs improves.
 Pulmonary diffusion increases.  Lung volumes increase.
 Lung ventilation increases from 7.5L/min  Pulmonary diffusion increases.
to a max of 150L/min.
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
 Motor unit recruitment increases, leading Aerobic Training Effects
to greater strength of contraction.  Capillarisation to muscles increase.
 Temp increases due to increased blood  Mitochondria increase in size and number.
flow.  Myoglobin concentration increases.
 ATP production increases.  Triglyceride stores increase.
 Phosphates in muscle cell increase.  Glycogen stores increase.
 O2 supply to muscles increase.  Oxidative enzymes increase.
 Enzyme activity increases.  Lactic acid tolerance increases.
 Glycogen, triglycerides and PC all deplete  Red muscle fibres hypertrophy to a small
to produce ATP. degree.
 Production of LA, CO2 and other by-  Glycogen sparing as fats are used in
products increases. preference during sub-max efforts.
Anaerobic Training Effects
 Hypertrophy of muscles occur (size
increase of fast twitch).
 Glycogen stores increase.
 Capillarisation increases.
 PC stores increase.
 Muscle stores of ATP increase.
 Production of LA at sub-max workload
falls.
 Speed and force of contraction
 OTHER
Perspiration rate increases. Arterio-venous oxygen difference
Oxygen consumption increases. increases slightly at maximal
efforts.
VO2 max increases by up to 30%.
Recovery HR returns to resting
levels faster.
Lactate thresholds increases.
Evaluating Training Programs
To evaluate a training program efficiently, it is critical that
accurate and valid pre-tests and post-tests fitness are
conducted. Results of before the training program and
after completing the training program should give a good
guide as to whether or not the program is successful.

Key factors in evaluating a training program include:

 Has there been improvement in:
 Test results?
 Performance?
 Did I achieve my training program goals?
 Have any factors enhanced participation in the training
program?
 Was the training schedule adhered to?
 How can the training program be improved?
 Choose a different or more suitable method of training or modify
the current method?
 Apply the principles of training (specificity, overload, frequency
etc) more effectively? How?
 Add more interest or variety?
Bibliography
Information has been taken from the following resources
for an educational purpose only.

Bradford, M., (1998), Queensland Health and Physical

Education, Macmillan Education Australia, South Yarra.
Fitzgibbon, L. (et al), (1992), Outcomes: Studies in Personal
Development, Health and Physical Education, The
Jacaranda Press, Milton.
Griffin, R., (1981), The Biology Colouring Book, Barnes and
Noble Books, New York.
Parker, R., (et al), (2000), Health Moves 2, Heinemann,
Melbourne.
Williams, P., (et al), (1999), Physical Education for Years 11
and 12, Nelson Thomas Learning, South Melbourne.
Wright, P., (et al), (2000), Inside and Out 3rd Edition, John
Wiley and Sons, Milton.