VIJAY E-ACADEMY – FSO EXAM NOTES

FOOD ANALYSIS BASICS

Investigations in food science and technology, whether by the food industry, governmental agencies, or
universities, often require determination of food composition and characteristics. Trends and demands of
consumers, the food industry, and national and international regulations challenge food scientists as they work to
monitor food composition and to ensure the quality and safety of the food supply.

All food products require analysis as part of a quality management program throughout the development process
(including raw ingredients), through production, and after a product is in the market. In addition, analysis is done
of problem samples and competitor products.

The characteristics of foods (i.e., chemical composition, physical properties, and sensory properties) are used to
answer specific questions for regulatory purposes and typical quality control. The nature of the sample and the
specific reason for the analysis commonly dictate the choice of analytical methods. Speed, precision, accuracy, and
ruggedness often are key factors in this choice.

Validation of the method for the specific food matrix being analyzed is necessary to ensure usefulness of the
method.

The choice of method for a specific characteristic or component of a food sample is often made easier by the
availability of official methods. Several nonprofit scientific organizations have compiled and published these
methods of analysis for food products, which have been carefully developed and standardized. They allow for
comparability of results between different laboratories that follow the same procedure and for evaluating results
obtained using new or more rapid procedures.

AOAC International is an organization begun in 1884 to serve the analytical methods needs of government
regulatory and research agencies. The goal of AOAC International is to provide methods that will be fit for their
intended purpose (i.e., will perform with the necessary accuracy and precision under usual laboratory conditions).
 VIJAY E-ACADEMY – FSO EXAM NOTES
Quality attributes in food products, raw materials, or ingredients are measurable characteristics that need
monitoring to ensure that specifications are met. Some quality attributes can be measured online by using specially
designed sensors and results obtained in real time (e.g., color of vegetable oil in an oil extraction plant). However,
in most cases quality attributes are measured on small portions of material that are taken periodically from
continuous processes or on a certain number of small portions taken from a lot. The small portions taken for
analysis are referred to as samples, and the entire lot or the entire production for a certain period of time, in the
case of continuous processes, is called a population. The process of taking samples from a population is called
sampling. If the procedure is done correctly, the measurable characteristics obtained for the samples become a
very accurate estimation of the population

In attribute sampling, sampling is performed to decide on the acceptability of a population based on whether the
sample possesses a certain characteristic or not. The result has a binary outcome of either conforming or
nonconforming. Sampling plans by attributes are based on the hypergeometric, binomial, or Poisson statistical
distributions. In the event of a binomial distribution (e.g., presence of Clostridium botulinum), the probability of a
single occurrence of the event is directly proportional to the size of the sample, which should be at least ten times
smaller than the population size. Computing binomial probabilities will allow the investigator to make inferences
on the whole lot

In variable sampling, sampling is performed to estimate quantitatively the amount of a substance (e.g., protein
content, moisture content, etc.) or a characteristic (e.g., color) on a continuous scale. The estimate obtained from
the sample is compared with an acceptable value (normally specified by the label,agencies, or the customer) and
the deviation measured. This type of sampling usually produces data that have a normal distribution such as in the
percent fill of a container and total solids of a food sample. In general, variable sampling requires smaller sample
size than attribute sampling

Acceptance sampling is a procedure that serves a very specific role: to determine if a shipment of products or
ingredients has enough quality to be accepted. Acceptance sampling can be performed by the food processor
before receiving a lot of materials from a supplier, or by a buyer who is evaluating the processor’s output (6).
Acceptance sampling is a very broad topic that can be applied to any field; more specific literature can be
consulted if needed.

The ultimate extension of multiple sampling is sequential sampling. Under this plan, a sample is taken, and after
analysis a decision of accepting, rejecting, or taking another sample is made. Therefore, the number of total
samples to be taken depends exclusively on the sampling process

Continuous sampling is performed mechanically. Figure 5-3 shows an automatic sampling device that is used to
take liquid samples from a continuous production line. Continuous sampling should be less prone to human bias
than manual sampling.

Simple random sampling requires that the number of units in the population be known and each unit is assigned an
identification number. Then using a random selection process, a certain number of identification numbers are
selected according to the sample size. The sample size is determined according to the lot size and the potential
impact of a consumer or vendor error. The random selection of the individuals units is done by using random
number tables or computer-generated random numbers. Units selected randomly (sample) are analyzed, and the
results can be considered an unbiased estimate of the population.
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Systematic sampling is used when a complete list of sample units is not available, but when samples are
distributed evenly over time or space, such as on a production line. The first unit is selected at random (random
start) and then units are taken every nth unit (sampling interval) after that.

Stratified sampling involves dividing the population (size N) into a certain number of mutually exclusive
homogeneous subgroups (size N1, N2, N3, etc.) and then applying random or another sampling technique to each
subgroup. Stratified sampling is used when subpopulations of similar characteristics can be observed within the
whole population. An example of stratified sampling would be a company that produces tomato juice in different
plants. If we need to study the residual activity of polygalacturonase in tomato juice we can stratify on production
plants and take samples on each plant.

Cluster sampling entails dividing the population into subgroups, or clusters, and then selecting randomly only a
certain number of clusters for analysis. The main difference between cluster sampling and stratified sampling is
that in the latter samples are taken from every single subgroup, while in cluster sampling only some randomly
selected clusters are sampled. The clusters selected for sampling may be either totally inspected or subsampled for
analysis. This sampling method is more efficient and less expensive than simple random sampling, if populations
can be divided into clusters. Going back to the tomato juice example, when using cluster sampling we would
consider all processing plants, but we would select randomly just a few for the purpose of the study.

Composite sampling is used to obtain samples from bagged products such as flour, seeds, and larger items in bulk.
Small aliquots are taken from different bags, or containers, and combined in a simple sample (the composite
sample) that is used for analysis. Composite sampling also can be used when a representative sample of a whole
production day in a continuous process is needed

Non probability sampling can be done in many ways, but in each case the probability of including any specific
portion of the population is not equal because the investigator selects the samples deliberately. Without the use of
a methodology that gives every element of the population the same chance to be selected, it is not possible to
estimate the sampling variability and possible bias.

Judgment sampling is solely at the discretion of the sampler and therefore is highly dependent on the person
taking the sample. This method is used when it is the only practical way of obtaining the sample. It may result in a
better estimate of the population than random sampling if sampling is done by an experienced individual and the
limitations of extrapolation from the results are understood (1).

Convenience sampling is performed when ease of sampling is the key factor. The first pallet in a lot or the sample
that is most accessible is selected. This is also called “chunk sampling” or “grab sampling.” Although this sampling
requires little effort, the sample obtained will not be representative of the population, and therefore is not
recommended.

Restricted sampling may be unavoidable when the entire population is not accessible. This is the case if sampling
from a loaded boxcar, but the sample will not be representative of the population. Quota sampling is the division
of a lot into groups representing various categories, and samples are then taken from each group. This sampling
method is less expensive than random sampling but also is less reliable.

When the sampling plan is a mixture of two or more basic sampling methods that can be random or nonrandom,
then the sampling plan is called mixed sampling.
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Gas Chromatography (GC)

Gas chromatography (GC) is a technique which is used on volatile compounds. In a GC instrument, a sample is
heated so that it turns into a gas, and the gaseous elements are then analyzed by the detector. It is a method that
can be used to separate elements and molecules, as well for identifying what is present in a sample and the purity
of a substance. The time it takes for the molecule (the elution time) to get to the detector is used to determine
what molecules are present in the sample. In the food and beverage industry, it is widely used for determining the
purity and proof (i.e. concentration) of various alcoholic beverages, as the ethanol molecules are one of the few
molecules used in the industry that are easily vaporized.

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Spectroscopy

Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy is a technique that has gained a lot of use for detecting
fraudulent honey. Honey can come from fraudulent origins (to avoid paying extra taxes) and/or they can be diluted
with synthetic sugar syrups to lower the quality of the product while increasing the volume that can be sold. Both
are common in the honey market.

There are not many techniques which can be used to detect the characteristic ‘origin fingerprints’ in honey once
they have been diluted. NMR is a technique which detects molecules under an applied magnetic field and detects
how the protons (i.e. hydrogen ions) in the molecule are perturbed in this field. The detection of the protons
enables the molecular structure to be built up by how many are coupled to the nearest carbon (or another element
in different types of NMR). NMR is also one of a select few techniques that can be used to determine the hard-to-
find fingerprints that depict a honey’s origin, as well as for determining whether a honey product has been diluted
by cheaper sugar syrups.

Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS)

Atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) is a technique which is used across the food industry to detect the presence
of metals in a food or beverage sample. AAS itself is a technique that is widely used in analytical labs to determine
the concentration of various chemical elements in a sample by how they absorb light (which are then compared
against known standards).

In terms of where it is used, AAS is used in another classic area of food forgery, meats—where it can be used to
detect if cheaper types of meat (such as dog or horse meat) are being passed off as beef, lamb, or some other
expensive meat found in the supermarket. Other examples of its use in food and drink analysis protocols include
the determination of iron concentration in wines (as high concentrations affect the quality), the presence of copper
in tea (which arises from the agricultural and fermentation stages), as well the metallic concentrations in beer and
fruit juices.

High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC)

High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) is a technique that uses a carrier liquid to carry various molecules
through a chromatographic column to a detector. It is a method that is used to separate, identify and determine
the concentration of various molecules within a sample. It is a type of liquid chromatography (LC) that is known to
be more effective and quicker than other LC techniques. It is essentially the liquid version of GC as both methods
 VIJAY E-ACADEMY – FSO EXAM NOTES
use similar principles, but by using liquid and gaseous carrier mediums to carry the molecules of interest,
respectively.

In the food industry, HPLC is used to determine the different constituents within a food sample and to see if they
are all in the correct ratios—this is again similarly done by elution time to GC. It is a method that is also specifically
used to detect different sugars in various food and beverage samples—such as wine and fruit juice—as the elution
times of each of the sugars will be different, so HPLC provides an easy way to distinguish between the different
sugars and how much of each are in a sample.

BASIC METHODS

Moisture assays can be one of the most important analyses performed on a food product and yet one of the most
difficult from which to obtain accurate and precise data. This chapter describes various methods for moisture
analysis – their principles, procedures, applications, cautions, advantages, and disadvantages. Water activity
measurement also is described, since it parallels the measurement of total moisture as an important stability and
quality factor. With an understanding of techniques described, one can apply appropriate moisture analyses to a
wide variety of food products.

One of the most fundamental and important analytical procedures that can be performed on a food product is an
assay for the amount of moisture. The dry matter that remains after moisture removal is commonly referred to as
total solids. This analytical value is of great economic importance to a food manufacturer because water is an
inexpensive filler.

The ease of water removal from foods depends on how it exists in the food product. The three states of water in
food products are:

1. Free water: This water retains its physical properties and thus acts as the dispersing agent for colloids and the
solvent for salts.

2. Adsorbed water: This water is held tightly or is occluded in cell walls or protoplasm and is held tightly to
proteins.

3. Water of hydration: This water is bound chemically, for example, lactose monohydrate; also some salts such as
Na2SO4 · 10H2O.

Removal of Moisture

Any oven method used to evaporate moisture has as its foundation the fact that the boiling point of water is
100◦C; however, this considers only pure water at sea level. Free water is the easiest of the three forms of water to
remove. However, if 1 molecular weight (1 mol) of a solute is dissolved in 1.0 L of water, the boiling point would be
raised by 0.512°C. This boiling point elevation continues throughout the moisture removal process as more and
more concentration occurs.

Moisture removal is sometimes best achieved in a two-stage process. Liquid products (e.g., juices, milk) are
commonly predried over a steam bath before drying in an oven. Products such as bread and field-dried grain are
often air dried, then ground and oven dried, with the moisture content calculated from moisture loss at both air
 VIJAY E-ACADEMY – FSO EXAM NOTES
and oven drying steps. Particle size, particle size distribution, sample sizes, and surface area during drying influence
the rate and efficiency of moisture removal

Microwave Analyzer

Determination of moisture in food products has traditionally been done using a standard oven, which,

though accurate, can take many hours to dry a sample. Other methods have been developed over the

years including infrared and various types of instruments that utilize halogen lamps or ceramic heating elements.
They were often used for “spot checking” because of their speed, but they lacked the accuracy of the standard
oven method. The introduction of microwave moisture/solids analyzers in the late 1970s gave laboratories the
accuracy they needed and the speed they wanted. Microwave moisture analysis, often called microwave drying,
was the first precise and rapid technique that allowed some segments of the food industry to make in-process
adjustment of the moisture content in food products before final packaging. For example, processed cheese could
be analyzed and the composition adjusted before the blend was dumped from the cooker. The ability to adjust the
composition of a product in-process helps food manufacturers reduce production costs, meet regulatory
requirements, and ensure product consistency. Such control could effectively pay for the microwave analyzer
within a few months.

Infrared Drying

Infrared drying involves penetration of heat into the sample being dried, as compared with heat conductivity and
convection with conventional ovens. Such heat penetration to evaporate moisture from the sample can
significantly shorten the required drying time to 10–25 min. The infrared lamp used to supply heat to the sample
results in a filament temperature of 2000–2500 K (degrees Kelvin). Factors that must be controlled include distance
of the infrared source from the dried material and thickness of the sample. The analyst must be careful that the
sample does not burn or case harden while drying. Infrared drying ovens may be equipped with forced ventilation
to remove moisture air and an analytical balance to read moisture content directly.

Rapid Moisture Analyzer Technology

Many rapid moisture/solids analyzers are available to the food industry. In addition to those based on infrared and
microwave drying as described previously, compact instruments that depend on high heat are available, such as
analyzers that detect moisture levels from 50ppm to 100% using sample weights of 150mg to 40 g (e.g., Computrac
R , Arizona Instrument LLC, Chandler, AZ). Using a digital balance, the test sample is placed on an aluminum pan or
filter paper and the heat control program (with a heating range of 25–275◦C) elevates the test sample to a constant
temperature. As the moisture is driven from the sample, the instrument automatically weighs and calculates the
percentage moisture or solids. This technology is utilized to cover a wide range of applications within the food
industry and offers quick and accurate results within minutes. These analyzers are utilized for both production and
laboratory use with results comparable to reference methods.

Dielectric Method

The electrical properties of water are used in the dielectric method to determine the moisture content

of certain foods, by measuring the change in capacitance or resistance to an electric current passed
 VIJAY E-ACADEMY – FSO EXAM NOTES
through a sample. These instruments require calibration against samples of known moisture content as

determined by standard methods. Sample density or weight/volume relationships and sample temperature are
important factors to control in making reliable and repeatable measurements by dielectric methods. These
techniques can be very useful for process control measurement applications, where continuous measurement is
required. These methods are limited to food systems that contain no more than 30–35% moisture.

The moisture determination in dielectric-type meters is based on the fact that the dielectric constant of water
(80.37 at 20◦C) is higher than that of most solvents. The dielectric constant is measured as an index of capacitance.

Refractometry
Moisture in liquid sugar products and condensed milks can be determined using a Baumé hydrometer (solids), a
Brix hydrometer (sugar content), gravimetric means, or a refractometer. If it is performed correctly and no
crystalline solids are evident, the refractometer procedure is rapid and surprisingly accurate The refractometer has
been valuable in determining the soluble solids in fruits and fruit products

ASH ANALYSIS

Ash refers to the inorganic residue remaining after either ignition or complete oxidation of organic matter in a
foodstuff. A basic knowledge of the characteristics of various ashing procedures and types of equipment is
essential to ensure reliable results. Two major types of ashing are used: dry ashing, primarily for proximate
composition and for some types of specific mineral analyses; wet ashing (oxidation), as a preparation for the
analysis of certain minerals. Microwave systems now are available for both dry and wet ashing, to speed the
processes. Most dry samples (i.e., whole grain, cereals, dried vegetables) need no preparation, while fresh
vegetables need to be dried prior to ashing. High-fat products such as meats may need to be dried and fat
extracted before ashing. The ash content of foods can be expressed on either a wet weight (as is) or on a dry
weight basis.

Dry ashing refers to the use of a muffle furnace capable of maintaining temperatures of 500–600◦C. Water and
volatiles are vaporized, and organic substances are burned in the presence of oxygen in air to CO2 and oxides of
N2. Most minerals are converted to oxides, sulfates, phosphates, chlorides, and silicates. Elements such as Fe, Se,
Pb, and Hg may partially volatilize with this procedure, so other methods must be used if ashing is a preliminary
step for specific elemental analysis.

Wet ashing is a procedure for oxidizing organic substances by using acids and oxidizing agents or their
combinations. Minerals are solubilized without volatilization. Wet ashing often is preferable to dry ashing as a
preparation for specific elemental analysis. Wet ashing often uses a combination of acids and requires a special
perchloric acid hood if that acid is used.
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Microwave Wet Ashing

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Microwave wet ashing (acid digestion) may be performed safely in either an open- or closed-vessel microwave
system. Choice of the system depends on the amount of sample and the temperatures required for digesting.
Because of the ability of the closed vessels to contain higher pressures (some vessels can handle up to 1500 psi),
acids may be heated past their boiling points. This ensures a more complete dissolution of hard-to-digest
substances. It also allows the chemist to use nitric acid with samples that might normally require a harsher acid,
such as sulfuric or perchloric. In closed vessels specifically designed for hightemperatures/high-pressure reactions,
nitric acid can reach a temperature of 240◦C. Thus, nitric acid is often the acid of choice, though hydrochloric,
hydrofluoric, and sulfuric acids also are used, depending on the sample and the subsequent analysis being
performed

Microwave Dry Ashing

Compared with conventional dry ashing in a muffle furnace that often takes many hours, microwave muffle
furnaces (Fig. 7-3) can ash samples in minutes, decreasing analysis time by as much as 97%. Microwave muffle
furnaces can reach temperatures of up to 1200◦C. These systems may be programmed with various methods and
to automatically warm up and cool down. In addition, they are equipped with exhaust systems that circulate the air
in the cavity to help decrease ashing times. Some also have scrubber systems to neutralize any fumes. Any crucible
that may be used in a conventional muffle furnace may be used in a microwave furnace, including those made of
porcelain, platinum, quartz, and quartz fiber. Quartz fiber crucibles cool in seconds and are not breakable. Some
systems can process up to 15 (25 ml) crucibles at a time

Other Ash Measurements

The following are several special ash measurements and their applications: 1. Soluble and insoluble ash (e.g.,
AOAC Method 900.02) – Applied to fruits. 2. Ash insoluble in acid – A measure of the surface contamination of
fruits and vegetables and wheat and rice coatings; contaminants are generally silicates and remain insoluble in
acid, except HBr. 3. Alkalinity of ash (e.g., AOAC Method 900.02, 940.26) – Ash of fruits and vegetable is alkaline;
ash of meats and some cereals is acid. 4. Sulfated ash (AOAC Method 900.02, 950.77) – Applied to sugars, syrups,
and color additives.

Protein analysis is required when you want to know:

1. Total protein content
2. Content of a particular protein in a mixture
3. Protein content during isolation and purification of a protein
4. Nonprotein nitrogen
5. Amino acid composition
6. Nutritive value of a protein

The Kjeldahl, Dumas (N combustion), and infrared spectroscopy methods cited are from the Official Methods of
Analysis of AOAC International (3) and are used commonly in nutrition labeling and quality control.

In the Kjeldahl procedure, proteins and other organic food components in a sample are digested with sulfuric acid
in the presence of catalysts. The total organic nitrogen is converted to ammonium sulfate
The digest is neutralized with alkali and distilled into a boric acid solution. The borate anions formed are titrated
with standardized acid, which is converted to nitrogen in the sample. The result of the analysis represents the
crude protein content of the food since nitrogen also comes from nonprotein components (note that the Kjeldahl
method also measures nitrogen in any ammonia and ammonium sulfate).
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Original Method In 1883, Johann Kjeldahl developed the basic process of today’s Kjeldahl method to analyze
organic nitrogen. General steps in the original method include the following: 1. Digestion with sulfuric acid, with
the addition of powdered potassium permanganate to complete oxidation and conversion of nitrogen to
ammonium sulfate. 2. Neutralization of the diluted digest, followed by distillation into a known volume of standard
acid, which contains potassium iodide and iodate. 3. Titration of the liberated iodine with standard sodium
thiosulfate.

Dumas (Nitrogen Combustion) Method

Principle The combustion method was introduced in 1831 by Jean-Baptiste Dumas. It has been modified and
automated to improve accuracy since that time. Samples are combusted at high temperatures (700–1000◦C) with a
flow of pure oxygen. All carbon in the sample is converted to carbon dioxide during the flash combustion. Nitrogen-
containing components produced include N2 and nitrogen oxides. The nitrogen oxides are reduced to nitrogen in a
copper reduction column at a high temperature (600◦C). The total nitrogen (including inorganic fraction, i.e.,
including nitrate and nitrite) released is carried by pure helium and quantitated by gas chromatography using a
thermal conductivity detector (TCD) (9). Ultra-high purity acetanilide and EDTA (ethylenediamine tetraacetate) may
be used as the standards for the calibration of the nitrogen analyzer. The nitrogen determined is converted to
protein content in the sample using a protein conversion factor.

Infrared Spectroscopy

Principle Infrared spectroscopy measures the absorption of radiation (near- or mid-infrared regions) by molecules
in food or other substances. Different functional groups in a food absorb different frequencies of radiation. For
proteins and peptides, various mid-infrared bands (6.47 μm) and near-infrared (NIR) bands (e.g., 3300–3500 nm;
2080–2220 nm; 1560–1670 nm) characteristic of the peptide bond can be used to estimate the protein content of
a food. By irradiating a sample with a wavelength of infrared light specific for the constituent to be measured, it is
possible to predict the concentration of that constituent by measuring the energy that is reflected or transmitted
by the sample (which is inversely proportional to the energy absorbed)

Biuret Method

Principle A violet-purplish color is produced when cupric ions are complexed with peptide bonds (substances
containing at least two peptide bonds, i.e., biuret, large peptides, and all proteins) under alkaline conditions (Fig. 9-
2). The absorbance of the color produced is read at 540 nm. The color intensity (absorbance) is proportional to the
protein content of the sample

Lowry Method

Principle The Lowry method (20, 21) combines the biuret reaction with the reduction of the Folin–Ciocalteau
phenol reagent (phosphomolybdic-phosphotungstic acid) by tyrosine and tryptophan residues in the proteins (Fig.
9-3). The bluish color developed is read at 750 nm (high sensitivity for low protein concentration) or 500 nm (low
sensitivity for high protein concentration). The original procedure has been modified by Miller (22) and Hartree
(23) to improve the linearity of the color response to protein concentration

Bradford Dye-Binding Method

Principle When Coomassie Brilliant Blue G-250 binds to protein, the dye changes color from reddish to bluish, and
the absorption maximum of the dye is shifted from 465 to 595 nm. The change in the absorbance at 595 nm is
proportional to the protein concentration of the sample (30). Like other dye-binding methods, the Bradford relies
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on the amphoteric nature of proteins. When the proteincontaining solution is acidified to a pH less than the
isoelectric point of the protein(s) of interest, the dye added binds electrostatically. Binding efficiency is enhanced
by hydrophobic interaction of the dye molecule with the polypeptide backbone adjoining positively charged
residues in the protein (4). In the case of the Bradford method, the dye bound to protein has a change in
absorbance spectrum relative to the unbound dye.

Ultraviolet 280 nm Absorption Method

Principle Proteins show strong absorption in the region at ultraviolet (UV) 280 nm, primarily due to tryptophan
and tyrosine residues in the proteins. Because the content of tryptophan and tyrosine in proteins from each food
source is fairly constant, the absorbance at 280 nm could be used to estimate the concentration of proteins, using
Beer’s law. Since each protein has a unique aromatic amino acid composition, the extinction coefficient (E280) or
molar absorptivity (Em) must be determined for individual proteins for protein content estimation

Total Carbohydrate: Phenol-Sulfuric Acid Method

Principle and Characteristics Carbohydrates are destroyed by strong acids and/or high temperatures. Under these
conditions, a series of complex reactions takes place, beginning with a simple dehydration reaction

Total Reducing Sugar

Somogyi–Nelson Method

Principle Oxidation is a loss of electrons; reduction is a gain of electrons. Reducing sugars are those sugars that
have an aldehydo group (aldoses) that can give up electrons (i.e., act as a reducing agent)

The dinitrosalicylic acid method (15) will measure reducing sugars naturally occurring in foods or released by
enzymes, but is not much used. In this reaction, 3,5-dinitrosalicylate is reduced to the reddish monoamine
derivative. There are other methods that, like the Somogyi– Nelson method, are based on the reduction of Cu(II)
ions in alkaline solution to Cu(I) ions that precipitate as the brick-red oxide Cu2O. Tartrate or citrate ions are added
to keep the Cu(II) ions in solution under the alkaline conditions. The Munson–Walker method (AOAC Method
906.03) has various forms. The precipitate of cuprous oxide can be determined gravimetrically (AOAC Method
31.039), by titration with sodium thiosulfate (AOAC Method 31.040), by titration with potassium permanganate
(AOAC Method 31.042), by titration in the presence of methylene blue (the Lane–Eynon method;
Specific Analysis of Mono- and Oligosaccharides

High-performance Liquid Chromatography HPLC (Chap. 28) is the method of choice for analysis of mono- and
oligosaccharides and can be used for analysis of polysaccharides after hydrolysis

HPLC gives both qualitative analysis (identification of the carbohydrate) and, with peak integration, quantitative
analysis. HPLC analysis is rapid, can tolerate a wide range of sample concentrations, and provides a high degree of
precision and accuracy. HPLC requires no prior derivatization of carbohydrates, unlike GC of sugars but does
require micronfilter filtration prior to injection. Complex mixtures of mono- and oligosaccharides can be analyzed.

Gas Chromatography GC (gas-liquid chromatography, GLC), like HPLC, provides both qualitative and quantitative
analysis of carbohydrates. For GC, sugars must be converted into volatile derivatives. The most commonly used
derivatives are the alditol peracetates (and aldonic acid pertrimethylsilyl ethers from uronic acids)
 VIJAY E-ACADEMY – FSO EXAM NOTES
Thin-layer Chromatography

Thin-layer chromatography has been used for identification and quantitation of the sugars present in the molasses
from sugar beet and cane processing (45). It is particularly useful for rapid screening of several samples
simultaneous

Vitamin assays can be classified as follows:

1. Bioassays involving humans and animals. 2. Microbiological assays making use of protozoan organisms, bacteria,
and yeast. 3. Physicochemical assays that include spectrophotometric, fluorometric, chromatographic, enzymatic,
immunological, and radiometric methods

Microbiological Assays

Applications Microbiological assays are limited to the analysis of water-soluble vitamins. The methods are very
sensitive and specific for each vitamin. The methods are somewhat time consuming, and strict adherence to the
analytical protocol is critical for accurate results. All microbiological assays can use microtiter plates (96-well) in
place of test tubes. Microplate usage results in significant savings in media and glassware, as well as labor.

Chemical Methods

Vitamin A Vitamin A is sensitive to ultraviolet (UV) light, air (and any prooxidants, for that matter), high
temperatures, and moisture. Therefore, steps must be taken to avoid any adverse changes in this vitamin due to
such effects. Steps include using low actinic glassware, nitrogen, and/or vacuum, as well as avoiding excessively
high temperatures. The addition of an antioxidant at the onset of the procedure is highly recommended. High-
performance liquid chromatographic (HPLC) methods are considered the only acceptable methods to provide
accurate food measurements of vitamin A activity

Vitamin C The vitamin (L-ascorbic acid and L-dehydroascorbic acid) is very susceptible to oxidative deterioration,
which is enhanced by high pH and the presence of ferric and cupric ions. For these reasons, the entire analytical
procedure needs to be performed at low pH and, if necessary, in the presence of a chelating agent. Mild oxidation
of ascorbic acid results in the formation of dehydroascorbic acid, which is also biologically active and is
reconvertible to ascorbic acid by treatment with reducing agents such as β-mercaptoethanol and dithiothreitol.

WATER BORNE DISEASES

(a) Viral : Viral hepatitis A Hepatitis E Poliomyelitis Rotavirus diarrhea in infants

(b) Bacterial : Typhoid fever Paratyphoid fever Bacillary dysentery, E. Coli. Diarrhea Cholera
(c) Protozoal : Amoebiasis, Giardiasis
(d) Helminthic : Roundworm Threadworm Hydatid disease.
(e) Leptospiral : Weil’s disease

ACUTE DIARRHOEAL DISEASES IN YOUNG CHILDREN

Diarrhoea is the passage of loose or watery stools more than three times a day. However, it is the recent change in
the consistency and character of stools that is more important than the number. Passage of frequent formed
stools, passage of pasty stools in a breast-fed in fact during or immediately after feeding should not be considered
as diarrhoea.
 VIJAY E-ACADEMY – FSO EXAM NOTES
Diarrhoea is classified by clinical syndromes as acute watery diarrhoea (majority of the cases), dysentery (blood in
the stools) and persistent diarrhoea. Such classification is important for the management of cases. Although
cholera is a form of acute watery diarrhoea, it is discussed separately.

CLASSIFICATION OF DIARRHOEA
(by clinical syndrome)

diarrhea

Acute diarrhoea starts suddenly and is characterized by the passage of loose watery motions. Patients of diarrhoea
recover within three to seven days. If diarrhea persists for more than 14 days and is associated with weight loss it is
classified as persistent diarrhoea. Persistent diarrhoea, which is recurrent or long lasting, due to noninfectious
causes such as sensitivity to gluten or inherited metabolic disorders.

More than three-fourths of all diarrhoeal episodes are acute watery diarrhoea. Diarrhoeal diseases are common in
children under five years of age and are among the major causes of deaths in children in this age group. It is
presumed that one in four (or five) deaths in children under five years of age are due to diarrhoea. In districts
where appropriate case management of diarrhoea is not widely practices, up to a third of pediatric hospital
admissions and 20% of the deaths of inpatients are diarrhoea related. Estimates based on the current child
mortality rates indicate that more than 6,00,000 children die annually due to these diseases in India.

CHOLERA
Cholera is a form of acute watery diarrhoea. More than 90% of sporadic cases in endemic areas are mild and
difficult to distinguish clinically from other types of acute diarrhoea. In epidemic situations, however, there is rapid
onset of severe watery diarrhoea and vomiting, resulting in loss of large amounts of fluids and electrolytes from
the body. The condition of the patient can deteriorate rapidly in the absence of medical care. If treatment is
delayed or inadequate, death may occur rapidly from dehydration and circulatory collapse. Cholera should be
suspected if patients older than 5 years of
age develop severe dehydration from acute watery diarrhoea (usually accompanied with vomiting).

Cholera is endemic in India and several outbreaks of the disease have been reported. Because cholera has the
potential of rapid spread leading to an acute public health problem, special attention is required to be given to the
surveillance and prompt follow up action on reported cases of cholera. If appropriate measures are taken, cholera
remains restricted to a limited habitation. Therefore, reporting of village, taluka and district helps in identifying the
affected area. The first suspect case of cholera in a
non-endemic area must be notified immediately to the local health officer. Laboratory confirmation should be
obtained at the earliest opportunity and the results intimated to local health office as soon as these become
available.

There are many serogroups of Vibrio cholerae, but only serogroup O1 and 0139- cause cholera. V.cholerae O1
occurs as two biotypes – classical and E1 Tor. Each biotype also occurs as two serotypes- Ogawa and inaba. Almost
all the recent cholera outbreak has been caused by the E1 Tor biotype. Cases caused by the classical biotype have
not been reported in India since 1980. The E1 Tor biotype also causes a higher proportion of symptomatic
infections than the classical biotype and survives
longer in the environment. In late 1992, large-scale epidemics occurred in India and Bangladesh caused by a new
serogroup-V.cholerae
 VIJAY E-ACADEMY – FSO EXAM NOTES
Man is the only host. Patients remain infectious usually for a few days after recovery from clinical symptoms.
Occasionally, the carrier stage may persist for several months. The chronic carriers however do not play important
role in the spread of disease. Anti biotics, to which the strain is susceptible, shorten the period of communicability.
V.Cholerae can survive for long periods in the environment and can live in association with certain aquatic plants
and animals, making water an important
reservoir for infection. Incubation period varies from a few hours to 5 days, usually 2-3 days.

BACILLARY DYSENTERY/SHIGELLOSIS

Dysentery is diarrhoea with visible blood in the stools. The patients may complain of abdominal cramps, fever, and
anorexia and weight loss. 10 to 15% of all episodes of acute diarrhoea in young children are due to dysentery.
Shigella is the most common cause of dysentery.

Entamoeba histolytica presents with similar clinical symptoms but is relatively rare in young children. Outbreaks of
dysentery have the potential of causing a large number of deaths, especially in young children, unless specific
antimicrobial treatment is started in manner.

It is important that the community and the peripheral health personnel are aware of the danger sign of blood in
the stools (bloody diarrhoea) so that medical help is sought immediately.

The incubation period is usually 1-3 days. The severity of the illness and the cause fatality rate is the functions of
the host (age and pre-existing nutritional status) and the sero-type. Shigella dysenteriae 1 is often associated with
severe disease and complications.

Infections with S.Sonnei and S.Flexneri result in short clinical course and negligible mortality. The patients may
transmit the infection in the acute stage and up to one month after illness. Since only a few bacilli are sufficient to
transmit the infection, shigella is usually transmitted through person to person. Asymptomatic carriers may
transmit infection. The carrier state rarely persists for long periods. Treatment with appropriate antibiotics cuts
short the duration of transmission.

TYPHOID FEVER/ENTERIC FEVER/SALMONELLOSIS

Gradual on set of fever, malaise, lethargy, myalgia and loss of appetite usually characterize typhoid fever.

Fever increases in stepwise fashion to 39 to 41 C over a 5 to 7 day period.

A highly characteristic feature is the pulse, which is relatively slow (bradycardia).

Mental apathy and dullness is common and delirium may develop. At this stage the patient may present to a health
facility as fever with altered sensorium.

Since typhoid fever is very common in our country, it should be excluded by careful medical history, physical
examination and blood culture for Salmonella typhi. The incubation period is 2 weeks with a range of 7 to 21 days.
The bacilli are excreted in the urine and faeces in the acute stage of the disease and some patients may continue to
excrete S.Typhi in the convalescent stage as well.
 VIJAY E-ACADEMY – FSO EXAM NOTES
A small percentage of the patients may become chronic carriers and excrete the bacilli for years. The carrier is a
danger to the community, the degree depending on personal hygiene and also the sanitary conditions in the
locality

VIRAL HEPATITIS

Viral hepatitis A and E are water borne; Hepatitis viruses B, C, D and possibly G are transmitted by the parental
route and are not transmitted through contaminated water. While sporadic cases of hepatitis E are reported
throughout the year, epidemics occur as a result of contamination of piped water supply. Almost all outbreak of
viral hepatitis in India are due to hepatitis E virus. Occasional outbreaks of hepatitis A, which is also water borne,
may also occur. However, these are relatively rare, as by age five most individuals develop immunity through
natural infection. Infection in young children is generally mild. The incubation period of hepatitis E is usually one to
two months (not less than 15 days). Outbreaks of hepatitis E may therefore be preceded by other water borne
disease with shorter incubation periods such as acute diarrhoeal diseases (few days) and typhoid fever (one to
three weeks). During outbreaks of hepatitis E, young adults are usually affected. Mortality rate in pregnant women
is very high.

Guinea worm (GW) disease

It is caused by the parasite Dracunculus medinensis and is transmitted through drinking the water from unsafe
sources like step well, ponds etc., containing water fleas (Cyclops). The adult worm measuring 60 to 100 cm in
length emerges through the skin, usually lower limbs, causing severe swelling, ulceration and 12 discomfort to the
patient.

The disease causes incapacitation to the patient who is unable to perform his regular work, resulting in economic
loss to the patient.

The disease occurs in rural areas with inadequate safe drinking water supply and peaks during the summer season
when there is a scarcity of water. The Government of India launched the National Guineaworm Eradication
Programme in 1983-84.

The National Institute of Communicable Diseases is the nodal agency for coordinating the programme, which is
implemented by the state health authorities. The ministry of Rural Affairs and Employment, Government of India
and the State Public Health Engineering Department (Rural Water Supply) has actively participated in the
programme.

Prior to 1984 nearly 40,000 cases were reported annually from 12,840 villages in 89 districts in 7 states. In 1996
only 9 cases were reported from 3 villages in Jodhpur district. The last case was notified in July 1996. All the states
except Rajasthan have been free of Guineaworm disease since the beginning of 1995.

No case has been reported in the country since August 1996. Presently cases are reported only from countries in
Africa.

The state health authorities including non-endemic states have been alerted to initiate measures for active
surveillance of Guineaworm disease and to maintain appropriate records so that the certification for Guineaworm
eradication could be achieved after maintaining a 3-year period of zero case.
 VIJAY E-ACADEMY – FSO EXAM NOTES
NON DESTRICTIVE METHODS

INTRODUCTION
The increased awareness and sophistication of consumers have created the expectation for improved quality
of food products. This in turnhas increased the need for enhanced quality monitoring. Quality itself is defined as
the sum of all those attributes which can lead to the production of products acceptable to the consumer when
they are combined. Quality has been the subject of a large number of studies. One of them is the studies on
various quality evaluation techniques or methods of foods. However, methods for quality evaluation depends
on quality orientation of food products, could be broadly divided into two categories as analytical or objective
and subjective or sensory methods. Traditionally, quality inspection is performed by trained human inspectors, who
approach the problem of quality assessment in two ways: seeing and feeling (subjective methods). In addition to
human perception could be easily fooled, this method is costly, highly variable and decisions are not always
consistent between inspectors or from day to day. This is, however, changing with the advent of electronic
imaging systems and with the rapid decline in cost of computers, peripherals,and other digital devices. Moreover,
the inspectionof foodstuffs for various quality factors is a very repetitive task which is also very subjective in nature.
So, to achieve the ultimate goal of production, handling and distribution of food products, to satisfyconsumers in all
respect, the knowledge of objectivemeasurements systems is a prime importance.
The objective methods too are of two types as destructive and non-destructive. Most destructive methods use
small samples and utilize them duringinvestigation. The used sample is not reusable by the consumers. Generally
it is chemical analysis and used at laboratory level. It is not necessary that whatever attributes have been
measured in sample is closely related with the bulk from wheresamples had been drawn. There must be substantial
variations. In contrast, in nod-destructive methods, samples or bulk of materials even remain untouched and
samples are not destroyed. It remains intact for consumer use even after testing. Recently, various automatic
inspection systems, for internal and external quality evaluation, have been investigated.These systems have
proven to be successful for objective measurement of various agricultural and food products. This article presents
an introduction, principle and future prospects of some popular and most valuable non-destructive quality
evaluation offood products.

Nondestructive Techniques
With the global supply of foods on the marketplace, different non-destructive testing methodologies have been
emerged for evaluation of quality rapidly, economically, consistently and even more accurately and for objective
inspection. Some of them are computer vision, X-ray and computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging,
near infrared, ultrasound and electronic nose. Some of these are used on different food items while others are
specific to a particular fare.
Computer Vision System (CVS): In making physical assessments of agricultural materials and foodstuffs, images
are undoubtedly the preferred method in representing concepts to the human brain. Many of the quality
factors affecting foodstuffscan be determined by visual inspection and image analysis. Such inspections determine
market price and, to some extent, the “best-used-before” date. Since, computer vision systems are ideally suited
for routine inspection and quality assurance tasks backed by powerful artificial intelligence systems and state-
of-the-art electronic technologies. This provides a mechanism in which the human thinking process is
simulated artificially. To date, computer vision has extensively been applied to solve various food engineering
problems, ranging from simple quality evaluation of food products to complicated robot guidance applications
A computer vision system generally consists of five basic components: illumination, a camera, an image capture
board (frame grabber or digitizer), computer hardware and software (Fig. 1). With the human eye, vision systems are
also affected by the level and quality of illumination. By adjustment the lighting, theappearance of an object can be
radically changedwith the feature of interest clarified or blurred. So, theperformance of the illumination system can
 VIJAY E-ACADEMY – FSO EXAM NOTES
greatly influence the quality of image and play an important role in the overall efficiency and accuracy of the
system. In computer vision system, camera sensors are usually based on solid state charged coupled device (CCD)
technology with some applications of using thermionic tube devices. Digitization, process of converting pictorial
images into numerical form, is another important step using a vision processor board called as digitizer or frame
grabber. In this process, an image is divided into a two dimensional grid of small regions containing picture
elements defined as pixels. There are numerous types of analogue to digital converters (ADC) but for real time
analyses a special type is required, this is known as a flash ADC. Such flash devices require only nanoseconds to
produce a result with 50–200 mega samples processed per second. Image processing and image analysis are
recognized as being the core of computer vision system (Krutz et al., 2000) involves a series of operations that
enhance the

Fig. 1: Components of a computer vision system to analyze food products

quality of image in order to remove defects such as geometric distortion, improper focus, repetitive noise, non-
uniform lighting and camera motion. Image analysis is the process of distinguishing the objects (regions of
interest) from the background and producing quantitative information, which is used in the subsequent control
systems for decisionmaking.
Despite the general utility of CV images as a first- line inspection tool, their capabilities regarding more in-depth
investigation are fundamentally limited. This is due to the fact that images produced by vision cameras are
formed using a narrow band of radiation, extending from 10−4 m to 10−7 m in wavelength. For this reason,
scientists and engineers have invented camera systems that allow patterns of energy from virtually any part of the
electromagnetic spectrum to be visualized. Camera systems such as computed tomography (CT), magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), single photon emission computed tomography
(SPECT) and positron emission tomography (PET) operate at shorter wavelengths ranging from 10−8m to 10−13 m.
Towards the opposite end of the electromagnetic spectrum there are infrared and radio cameras, which enable
visualization to be performed at wavelengths greater than 10−6 m and10−4 m, respectively.
X-ray and Computed Tomography: X-rays have not yet been used to their fullest potential in a range of
application areas, especially the agricultural and food industries. However, X-ray techniques are gaining
momentum and becoming an alternative to other imaging techniques because of low penetration power and
ability to reveal the internal density changes that makes soft X-rays suitable to be used for agricultural products.
The soft X-ray, electromagnetic waves with wavelengthsranging from 1 to 100 nm, method is rapid and takes only a
few seconds (3–5 s) to produce an X-ray image. When an X-ray beam passes through the matter (sample), it
undergoes attenuation. Due to attenuation, the intensity of the X-ray energy decreases gradually by absorption
and scattering. Absorption refers to the case in which an incident X-ray photon gives up all of its energy.
Scattering refers to those X-ray photons that have undergonea change in direction after interaction with atoms of
 VIJAY E-ACADEMY – FSO EXAM NOTES
matter. Other photons which are neither absorbed nor scattered, simply pass through the matter and can be
detected. This process is known as transmission X-ray imaging. So, X-ray imaging is a transmission based
technique in which X-rays from a source pass through the food products and are detected either by film or an
ionization chamber onthe opposite side of the product.
Similarly, computed tomography or CT imaging/scan is an x-ray procedure that combines many x-ray images with
the aid of a computer to generate cross-sectional views and, if needed, three-dimensional images of the internal
organs and structures of the product’s body. CT is the imaging method that can produce the highest resolution
angiographic images. So, the X-ray computed tomography (CT)is a technique that uses X-ray images to reconstruct
the internal microstructure of objects and to monitor the internal quality changes in foods. For instance, the
physiological constituents have been monitored in peaches by CT methods in which x-ray absorbed by the peaches
is expressed in CT number and used as an index for measuring the changes in internal quality of the fruit.
Relationships between the CT number and the physiological contents were determined and it was concluded that
X-ray CT imaging could be an effective tool in the evaluationof peach internal quality.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) previously known as nuclear resonance
imaging (NMR), gives the density of protons or hydrogen nuclei of the body at resonant frequency. Unlike CT,
MRI provides excellent renditions of soft and delicate materials. This unique characteristic makes MRI suitable
for visualization of most food objects, and applications range from non-invasive to real-time monitoring of
dynamic changes as foods are processed, stored,packaged, and distributed.
The principle of MRI is based on the association of each spatial region in a sample with a characteristic nuclear
magnetic resonance frequency when imposed by an external magnetic field. The purposeof external magnetic field
is to get net magnetization. In the presence of a large magnetic field, the hydrogen nuclei will preferentially align
their spin inthe direction of the magnetic field which is known as the Lamor effect, and the frequency at which
the nucleus proceeds around the axis is termed the Lamor frequency. This effect implies a transfer of energy
from the spin system to another system or lattice. The transfer of energy is characterized by an exponential
relaxation law with time constants T1 and T2, which are also known as the spin– lattice excitation and spin–spin
relaxation times, respectively.
MRI system comprises a scanner, a static magnetic field and RF coils which are used to transmit radio- frequency
excitation into the material to be imaged.This excites a component of magnetization in the transverse plane which
can be detected by a RF reception coil. Thus, by applying a radio-frequency (RF) field at the resonant frequency,
the magnetic moments of the spinning nuclei lose equilibrium and hence radiate a signal which is a function of the
line integral of the magnetic resonance signature in the object. This radiation reflects the distribution of
frequencies, and a Fourier transform of these signals provides an image of the spatial distribution of the
magnetization.
MRI provides rapid, direct, and most importantly, noninvasive, non-destructive means for the
determination of not only the quantity of water present but also the structure of the dynamic characteristics of
water. Since, water is the basic building block of many food materials, MRI is also used in numerous quality
assessment applications. The determination of moisture and oil content are among them. In addition, the ice
formation during food freezing can also be examined using MRI methods as the formation of ice has been
seento reduce the specially located NMR signal. The characteristics of a food can be better controlled as MRI can
serve to assess freezing times and the food structure during the freezing process. Other interesting applications
include real-time monitoring of ice gradients in a doughstick during the freezing and thawing processes, mapping
the temperature distribution patterns in food sauce during microwave- induced heating, and predicting sensory
attributesrelated to the texture of cooked potatoes.
Infrared: The technique responsible for generating images with infrared (range 600-1000 nm) light is
 VIJAY E-ACADEMY – FSO EXAM NOTES
thermographic photography also called as thermographic imaging. Its principle is based on the fact that all
objects emit a certain amount of thermal radiation as a function of their temperature and the object with higher
temperature emits the more IR radiation. This radiation is detected by a specially built camera known as an IR
camera that is very similar to the ordinary camera for visible light. There are several applications of the IR imaging in
the food industry – such as identification of foreign bodies in food products and many major physiological
properties of foodstuffs (firmness, soluble-solid content, and acidity) appear to be highly correlatedwith IR signals,
implying that image analysis of IR thermography is suitable for quality evaluation andshelf-life determination of a
number of fruit and vegetable products. Thus, thermal imaging offers a potential alternative technology for non-
destructive and non-contact image-sensing applications. Good thermographic images can be obtained by
leaving the object at rest below the IR camera, applying a heat pulse produced by a flashlight,and monitoring
the decreasing temperature as a function of time. Because of different thermal capacities or heat
conductivities, the objects will cool down at different speeds; therefore, the thermal conductivity of an object can
be measured by the decreasing temperature calculated from a sequence of IR images. NIR chemical imaging shares
most of the tremendous attributes of conventional NIR spectroscopy, and is therefore an ideal industrial tool.

Near-infrared spectroscopy method is no longer new; as it started in early 1970 in Japan. In Japan, NIR as a
nondestructive method was started for thedetermination of sugar content in intact peaches, Satsuma orange and
similar other soluble solids. To determine the solid content of cantaloupe NIR light at 884 nm and 913nm
were used. Initially the correlation of their findings was poor mainly due to light losses. Later, it was modified
and applied to honey dew melons; the improved methods showed better correlation. Similarly, a
nondestructive optical method for determining the internal quality of intact peaches and nectarines was
investigated. A schematic diagram of the experimental setup for NIR testing of peach fruit is given in Fig. 2. Based
upon visible and near-infraredspectrophotometer techniques, the method was

Fig. 2: Schematic diagram of the experimental setup for NIR testing of peach fruit
 VIJAY E-ACADEMY – FSO EXAM NOTES
capable of simultaneously predicting the soluble solid content, sucrose content, sorbitol content etc of
intact peaches and nectarines and that too without much sample preparation. Some modifications in
spectrophotometers, especially for holding the intact sample such as liquid food, are reported. Also,
recently a low cost NIR spectrometer has been used to estimate the soluble and dry matter content of
kiwifruit, acid-brix ratio of tomato juice
Ultrasound: Changes in acoustic properties that can be related to density changes in food product is
the main reason of growing interest to use ultra sound for food quality evaluation). In addition to this,
ultrasound has the ability to differentiate between the propagation velocity within various media
and the differences in acoustic impedance between different regions within a given volume. The
information, ultrasoundprovides, generally originates from the reflection ortransmission of sound waves
emitted by an external source. Refraction, absorption, and scattering also play a role, but mainly as
factors that degrade the ultrasonic measurements. A typical source is based on a piezoelectric crystal
resonating between 1 MHz and 10 MHz. Initially, it was used for measuring the moisture content of
food products to predict intramuscular fat content of bovine products and to study and evaluate
the turgidity and hydration of orange peel. One of the most widespread and promising application
was for composition measurement. However, some recent studies have shown that ultrasonic velocity
measurements can accurately be used to predict the fat, water, protein, and other chemical
compositions of meat-based products. In spite of several advantages, there are three common
drawback of this technique: (1) low image spatial resolution; (2) low signal-to-noise ratio and (3) many
artefacts. Despite these drawbacks,the technique is safe and relatively inexpensive.
Electronic Nose (EN): The principle of EN system is completely based on arrays of solid state gas
sensors mainly chemoresistive metal oxide gas sensors (MOX) or quartz microbalance gas sensors.
The gas sensor arrays, exposed to the complex “chemical pattern” of a foodstuff, analyzeit as a whole,
without decomposing it as occur for chromatographic techniques, create a unique smellprint and give a
simple pattern of sensor responses as read-output. These patterns are signature of particular set of
aromatic compounds. For each process or application of interest, a database of such digitized patterns
is created, called the training set. When an unknown sample is exposed to EN sensors, the EN first
digitizes the samples volatilesand then compares it with the existing trainingset. Electronic noses can
find applications in food industry for quality control, process monitoring, freshness evaluation, shelf-
life investigation and authenticity assessment. Commercially available EN use an array of sensors
combined with pattern recognition software, for nondestructive food quality evaluation, has great
potential especially for fruits.

CONCLUSIONS
In this article, introduction, principle and reason of gaining popularity and necessity of nondestructive
quality evaluation techniques have been discussed. Some recent applications of these techniques were
also provided. These novel techniques, especially computer vision system (CVS), MRI and NIR, if
properly apply, can be a comparative and complementary, not totally alternative device to
conventional techniques in specific applications for food industry. Similarly, in the future, the other
techniques (X-rays, CT and ultrasound) shall also be very use full and as advantageous as CVS, MRI and
NIR for food industries.
 VIJAY E-ACADEMY – FSO EXAM NOTES

LIFE STYLE DISEASES

NCDs are caused, to a massive extent, by four behavioural risk factors: tobacco use, unhealthy
diet, insufficient physical activity and harmful use of alcohol3. According to WHO, low- and middle-
income countries and the poorer people in all countries are the worst affected by deaths due to
NCDs. It is a vicious cycle of risk where the poor are increasingly exposed to behavioural risk
factors for NCDs and, in turn, such diseases may play a significant role in driving people and their
families towards poverty. It starts from an individual and eventually affects entire countries. A
country like India, for example, was slated for an economic loss of more than $236 million in 2015,
on account of unhealthy lifestyles and faulty diet4. That is why in order to tackle the global impact of
NCDs, it has to be aggressively confronted in the most affected areas and communities.
Characteristics of NCDs
Complex etiology (causes): Non communicable diseases are driven by seemingly unrelated causes
such as rapid unplanned urbanization, globalization of unhealthy lifestyles and population ageing.
Apparent causes such as raised blood pressure, increased blood glucose, elevated blood lipids
and obesity may be representations of deep lying lifestyle habits5.
Multiple risk factors: There are a number of risk factors that lead to the onset and
development of NCDs. The various types of risks can be divided into three primary risk sets:
modifiable behavioural risk factors, non-modifiable risk factors and metabolic risk factors, many
of which are common for a number of diseases.
Long latency period: The latency period of NCDs is generally long, often stretching from many years to
several decades

Non-contagious origin (noncommunicable): NCDs are not communicated from one person to
another, so it is a given that these diseases develop in a person from non-contagious origins.

Prolonged course of illness: NCDs are chronic in nature and thus the course of illness if often
prolonged and takes years before a patient may be forced to opt for medical care or intervention.
Functional impairment or disability: NCDs usually give rise to circumstances that make it difficult
for the patients to lead a normal life. Patients with chronic NCDs may not be able to take part in
regular physical activity, go to the office or eat normally.
Causes
The causes of NCDs can be divided into three broad categories: modifiable behavioural risk
factors, non-modifiable risk factors and metabolic risk factors.
Modifiable behavioural risk factors: Behavioural risk factors such as excessive use of alcohol, bad
food habits, eating and smoking tobacco, physical inactivity, wrong body posture and disturbed
biological clock increase the likelihood of NCDs. The modern occupational setting (desk jobs) and the
stress related to work is also being seen as a potent risk factor for NCDs.6
According to the WHO, more than 7 million people die each year due to the use of tobacco and the
fatality rate is projected to increase markedly in the years to come. Excessive use of sodium in the diet
causes 4.1 million deaths per year while alcohol intake leads to around 1.65 million deaths due to
NCDs. A simple lack of physical activity has been claiming 1.6 million lives annually.1
 VIJAY E-ACADEMY – FSO EXAM NOTES
Non-modifiable risk factors: Risk factors that cannot be controlled or modified by the application
of an intervention can be called non-modifiable risk factors and include:
a. Age
b. Race
c. Gender
d. Genetics
Metabolic risk factors: Metabolic risk factors lead to four major changes in the metabolic systems
that increase the possibility of NCDs:
i. Increased blood pressure
ii. Obesity
iii. Increased blood glucose levels or hyperglycemia
iv. Increased levels of fat in the blood or hyperlipidemia
Increased blood pressure is the leading metabolic risk factor globally with 19% of the global deaths
attributed to it, followed by obesity and hyperglycermia.

Four Major Lifestyle Diseases

CVD
Cardiovascular diseases are a group of disorders of the heart and blood vessels and may include:

A. Ischaemic heart disease

B. Stroke
C. Peripheral arterial disease
D. Congenital heart disease
CVDs are the number 1 cause of death globally and account for more than 17 million deaths per
year. The number is estimated to rise by 2030 to more than 23 million a year.7

Major Non- Other Risk

Modifiable Modifiable Factors
Risk Factors Risk Factors
High blood Excess
pressure homocysteine in
Abnormal Age blood -
blood lipids Heredity Inflammatory
Tobacco use or family markers
Physical history (Creactive
Gender protein)
inactivity
Obesity Ethnicity or Abnormal blood
race coagulation
Unhealthy diet
(elevated blood
 VIJAY E-ACADEMY – FSO EXAM NOTES
(salt) Diabetes levels of
Heavy alcohol fibrinogen)
use
Lipoprotein(a)

Diabetes
Diabetes is a metabolism disorder that affects the way the body used food for energy and physical
growth. There are 4 types of diabetes: Type 1, Type 2, Gestational, and Pre-Diabetes (Impaired
Glucose Tolerance). Type 2 is the most common diabetes in the world and is caused by modifiable
behavioural risk factors.

Non-
Major Modifiable Modifiabl Other
Risk e Risk Risk
Factors Factors Factors

Unhealthy diets
Physical
Inactivity Advacnced Presence
Obesity or age Family of
Overweight High history/ autoantibo
Blood Pressure genetics dies Low
High Cholesterol Race socioecono
Heavy alcohol Distributio mic status
use n of fat in
Psychological the body
stress
High consumption of
sugar
Low consumption
of fiber

Cancer
Cancer affects different parts of the body and is characterised by a rapid creation of abnormal
cells in that part and can invade other parts of the body as well. More than 7 million people die of
cancer each year and 30% of those diseases are attributed to lifestyle choices.8

Type
Of Modifiable Risk Other Risk
Cance Factors Factors
r
 VIJAY E-ACADEMY – FSO EXAM NOTES

Smoki
Cervic ng Immune
al Povert deficiencies
cance y Family history
r Human papilloma
virus infection
(hpv)

Smoking
Second hand
smoke
Radiation
Lun therapy
g Being exposed
canc to asbestos,
er radon,
chromium,
nickel, arsenic,
soot, or tar
Living in air-
polluted place
Race
Brea Hormone Genetics
st therapies BRCA1 and
canc Weight and BRCA2 genes
er physical Age
activity

Prostat Obesit Ag
e y e
cancer Bad food habits Rac
Low intake of e
fiber

Ag
Unhealthy diet
Colorec e
Insufficient
tal Rac
physical
cancer e
activity
Family history
Diabetes

Chronic respiratory diseases

Some of the most under-diagnosed conditions, chronic respiratory diseases (CRD) are a potent
cause of death globally with 90% of the deaths taking place in low-income countries. Chronic
obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and asthma are the two main types of CRDs.
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Modifiable
Risk Non-Modifiable Risk
Factors Factors

Cigarette
smoke Dust
and chemicals Genet
Environmental ics
tobacco Age
smoke
Air pollution
Infections

CVD – A global epidemic

As stated earlier, CVD is the number one cause for deaths globally and the number of people dying
from it each year is constantly rising. It is estimated that by 2030, CVD will be responsible for more
deaths in low income countries than infectious diseases, maternal and perinatal conditions, and
nutritional disorders combined9. Figure 2 highlights the prominence of CVD in global mortality trends
in comparison to other causes.
CVDs are the face of lifestyle diseases and manifest in a number of ways, such as:
Coronary heart disease (CHD): Also known as coronary heart disease and ischaemic heart disease,
CHD is one of the most common types of heart problems faced today and is characterised

by a reduction or blockage in the flow of oxygen-rich blood to the heart muscle. This puts
exaggerated strain on the heart, which can lead to:
a) Angina – chest pain caused by lack of flow of blood to the
heart
b) Heart attacks – caused when the blood flow to the heart is
suddenly but completely blocked
c) Heart failure – the failure of the heart to pump blood properly to the rest of the body

Cerebrovascular disease (strokes and TIAs): Cerebrovascular disease is the disease of blood vessels
supplying blood to the brain. When the blood supply to the brain is cut off, a person suffers a
stroke, which can be lethal. A transient ischaemic attack, popularly known as a mini-stroke, occurs
when the blood supply to the brain is temporarily blocked.
The acronym FAST is used to signify the symptoms of a stroke or TIA10. It stands for:
a. Face: Face drooping on one side is the most common visible symptom, followed by dropping of
mouth or eye.
b. Arms: Weakness of numbness in one or both arms doesn’t allow a person to raise both of his or
her hands up and hold them there.
 VIJAY E-ACADEMY – FSO EXAM NOTES
c. Speech: Slurred or garbled speech in some cases, and in other cases: no speech.

d. Time: It is time to call the emergency services if you see any of these symptoms.
Other symptoms include:
i. Blurred or complete loss of vision in one or both eyes
ii. One-sided weakness or numbness of the body
iii. Sudden memory loss or confusion
iv. Sudden dizziness combined with any of the above mentioned
symptoms can be a definite sign
Peripheral arterial disease: Peripheral arterial diseases is a disease of blood vessels supplying the
arms and legs. It happens when there is a blockage in the arteries to the limbs (usually the legs).
Signs to watch out for:
a) Dull or cramping pain that gets worse with walking and better with rest
b) Hair loss on the limbs
c) Numbness or weakness in the limbs
d) Persistent ulcers on the legs and feet
Rheumatic heart disease: Rheumatic heart disease is characterised by damage to the heart muscle
and heart valves from rheumatic fever, caused by streptococcal bacteria. Some of the most common
symptoms are fever and painful, tender joints.
Congenital heart disease: Congenital heart disease is a problem with the structure of the heart, i.e.
malformations of heart structure, that exist at birth. The problem can range from a small hole in the
heart to a more severe problem such as a defective heart muscle. Some of the common symptoms
are shortness of breath and having trouble exercising. In infants and younger kids, cyanosis, a bluish
tint to the skin, fingernails and lips can be an important marker.
Risk factors include:
i. Use of certain medications, drugs or alcohol during pregnancy
ii. Viral infections in the mother in the first trimester
iii. Genetic problems or issues with chromosomes of the child
Pulmonary embolism due to deep vein thrombosis (DVT): DVTs are blood clots, often found in the
veins of the legs, which can dislodge and move to the heart and lungs, causing pulmonary embolism.
This condition can be life-threatening and special care should be taken if diagnosed with DVT.
Symptoms include:
a) Chest pain – may get worse with deep breaths
b) Sudden shortness of breath
c) Sudden cough or coughing up blood
d) Anxiety
 VIJAY E-ACADEMY – FSO EXAM NOTES

e) Light-headedness and fainting

Aortic disease: Aortic diseases are a group of conditions that affect the aorta, the largest blood
vessel in the body. The aorta is responsible for carrying blood from the heart to the rest of the
body. An example of an aortic disease would be aortic aneurism, where the walls of the aorta are
weakened, leading to outward bulging of the blood vessel. Usually symptomless, this condition can
lead to life-threatening circumstances if it bursts.
Managing CVD: Depending on the type of CVD, an appropriate treatment plan can help alleviate
the problem/s. There are a number of treatments ranging from medication to surgeries that can
help, however, prevention is always recommended over treatment. To prevent CVD, one must:
a) Stop smoking
b) Have a balanced diet with plenty of fibre
c) Exercise regularly (>150 minutes of aerobic activity per week)
d) Maintain a healthy weight and body mass index (BMI; aim for a BMI below 25)
e) Cut down on alcohol (<14 alcohol units per week) f) Aspirin and anti-platelet therapy11
Control and prevention of lifestyle diseases
An important way of controlling non-communicable diseases is by controlling the risk factors
associated with it. In other words, a number of communicable diseases can be prevented by
controlling the behavioural or lifestyle habits associated with those diseases. There are a number of
low-cost solutions that can be implemented by the government and other involved groups to
reduce the common modifiable risk factors1. Monitoring the trends of non -communicable diseases
and their associated risks is crucial for guiding policies and guidelines.
A comprehensive approach is essential that involves all sectors including health, finance,
education, planning and others, to minimise the impact of lifestyle diseases on individuals and
society. The approach needs to instigate a collaborative effort to minimise the risks associated with
no communicable diseases and at the same time inspire interventions to control and prevent them.
Lifestyle diseases are a threat to the socio-economic aspects of nations globally and appropriate
actions for their management are the need of the moment. Management of lifestyle diseases
includes proper diagnosis, screening and treatment of these diseases in addition to providing
palliative care for people who require it. Quality lifestyle disease intervention needs to be delivered
through a primary healthcare approach where early detection and proper treatment are
prioritised.