War of The Austrian Succession

War of the Austrian Succession
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Part of the French–Habsburg rivalry and the Austria–Prussia rivalry
Left to right:
• The Capture of the Nuestra Señora de Covadonga (20 April 1743)
• The Battle of Fontenoy (11 May 1745)
• The Battle of Hohenfriedberg (4 June 1745)
• The Siege of Bergen op Zoom (14 July – 18 September 1747)
Date 16 December 1740 – 18 October 1748

(7 years, 10 months and 2 days)
Location Europe, North America, South America, South India
Result Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle
Territorial • Prussian control of Silesia confirmed.
changes
• Duchies of
Parma, Piacenza and Guastalla ceded to
the Spanish Bourbons.
• All other territories restored to pre-war
owners
Belligerents
• France • Habsburg Monarchy

• Prussia (1740–42, 1744– • Great Britain
45) • Hanover
• Spain • Dutch Republic
• Bavaria (1741–45) • Saxony (1743–45)
• Saxony (1741–42) • Savoy-Sardinia (1742–
• Savoy-Sardinia (1741– 48)
42) • Russia (1741–43,
• Genoa (1745–48) 1748)
• Sweden (1741–43)
• Duchy of Modena
Commanders and leaders
• Louis XV of France • Maria Theresa
o Maurice, • Francis I
Count of Saxony o Ludwig
o François- Khevenhüller
Marie, 1st duc de o Charles of
Broglie Lorraine
o Ulrich o Otto von
Lowendal Traun
• Frederick II • George
o Leopold of II (personal union)
Anhalt-Dessau o Sir Robert
o Leopold II Walpole
• Philip V of Spain o Spencer
o Infante Philip Compton
o Count of o Henry
Gages Pelham
• Emperor Charles VII o George
o Max Joseph Wade
• Lewenhaupt o Duke of
• Lorenzo De Mari Cumberland
• Francesco III d'Este o Thomas
Mathews
• Anthonie van der Heim
• William IV
• Prince of Waldeck
• Isaac Cronström
• Frederick Augustus II
• Count Rutowsky
• Charles Emmanuel III
• Elizabeth I
• Peter Lacy
Strength
1740: 1747:
200,000 204,000[2]
80,000[1] 120,000[1][a]
127,000 [b]
55,000 [4]
Casualties and losses
France: Habsburg Monarchy:
158,400 killed and wounded[5] 148,000 killed and wounded[5]
Naval losses: 20 ships of the line, 16

Great Britain:
frigates, 20 minor ships, 2,185 merchant
26,400 killed and wounded[5]
ships and 1,738 naval guns[2]
Prussia: frigates, 28 minor ships, 3,238
23,100 killed and wounded[5] merchant ships and 1,012 naval guns[2]
Spain: Dutch Republic:
3,000 killed and wounded[5] 14,630 killed and wounded[5]

Savoy-Sardinia:
frigates, 1,249 merchant ships and 1,276
7,840 killed and wounded[5]
naval guns [2]
Total 750,000 dead or wounded[6]
show
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War of the Austrian Succession:
Italian Campaigns
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Sea battles
The War of the Austrian Succession (German: Österreichischer Erbfolgekrieg),

was a European conflict that took place between 1740 and 1748. Fought primarily
in Central Europe, the Austrian Netherlands, Italy, the Atlantic and Mediterranean,
related conflicts included King George's War in North America, the War of Jenkins'
Ear, the First Carnatic War and the First and Second Silesian Wars.
Its pretext was the right of Maria Theresa to succeed her father Emperor Charles
VI as ruler of the Habsburg monarchy. France, Prussia and Bavaria saw it as an
opportunity to challenge Habsburg power, while Maria Theresa was backed
by Britain, the Dutch Republic and Hanover, collectively known as the Pragmatic
Allies. As the conflict widened, it drew in other participants, among
them Spain, Sardinia, Saxony, Sweden and Russia.
Prussia occupied Silesia in 1740 and repulsed Austrian efforts to regain it, although
Austria and Sardinia defeated Spanish attempts to regain their territories in Northern
Italy. By early 1748, France had conquered most of the Austrian Netherlands but a
British naval blockade was crippling their trade and the state was close to
bankruptcy. The stalemate led to the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) which
confirmed Maria Theresa in her titles but failed to resolve underlying tensions
between the signatories, many of whom were unhappy with the terms. France
achieved minimal gains for vast expenditure, while the Spanish failed to
recover Menorca or Gibraltar, ceded to Britain in 1714.
The clearest winner was Prussia, which acquired Silesia from Austria, an outcome
that undermined the long-standing Anglo-Austrian Alliance, since Maria Theresa
deeply resented Britain's insistence she cede Silesia to make peace and whose main
objective became regaining it. The war also demonstrated the vulnerability of
Hanover, then held in personal union with the British Crown, while many British
politicians felt they had received little benefit from the enormous subsidies paid to
Austria. The result was the realignment known as the Diplomatic Revolution, in
which Austria and France ended the French–Habsburg rivalry which had dominated
European affairs for centuries, while Prussia allied with Great Britain. These changes
set the scene for the outbreak of the Seven Years' War in 1756.
Contents
• 1Background
• 2Military overview and strategies
o 2.1Methods and technologies
• 3Campaign of 1740
• 9Italian Campaigns, 1741–1747
• 10The Low Countries, 1745–1748
• 11The Peace of 1748
• 12North America
• 13India
• 14Naval operations
o 14.1West Indies
o 14.2Mediterranean
o 14.3Northern waters
o 14.4Indian Ocean
• 15Strength of armies 1740
• 16Related wars
• 17Gallery
• 18References
• 19Sources
Background[edit]
The immediate cause of the war was the death in 1740 of Emperor Charles
VI (1685–1740) and the inheritance of the Habsburg Monarchy, often collectively
referred to as Austria. The 1703 Mutual Pact of Succession provided that if
the Habsburgs became extinct in the male line, these possessions would go first
to Maria Josepha and Maria Amalia, daughters of Emperor Joseph I, then those of
Charles, his younger brother. Since Salic law excluded women from the inheritance,
this agreement required approval by the various Habsburg territories and the
Imperial Diet.[7]
Charles succeeded Joseph in 1711 and two years later issued the Pragmatic
Sanction of 1713, which confirmed the principle of female inheritance. However, it
also modified the 1703 agreement by placing the rights of his own children first and
after his first child Maria Theresa was born in 1717, Charles' internal and external
policy was dominated by ensuring her succession ahead of his two nieces. [8] Prior to
their respective marriages to Frederick Augustus of Saxony and Charles Albert of
Bavaria in 1719, both women were obliged to formally renounce their rights to the
inheritance. Charles assumed the rivalry between Saxony and Bavaria would secure
his daughter's throne, since neither would be prepared to allow the other to inherit,
but instead he gave his two greatest rivals a legitimate claim to the Habsburg lands. [9]
Maria Theresa, Queen regnant of Hungary and Bohemia and Archduchess of Austria, Holy Roman
Empress
Charles was also seeking to ensure the succession of Maria Theresa not just to her
family lands but the titles and powers of the Holy Roman Emperor. Although held by
a Habsburg for over 300 years, it was theoretically an elective position which had
never been held by a woman and this element turned an internal dynastic dispute
into a European one. The problem was exacerbated by tensions within the Holy
Roman Empire, caused by dramatic increases in the size and power of Bavaria,
Prussia, and Saxony, mirrored by the post-1683 expansion of Habsburg power into
lands previously held by the Ottoman Empire. These were the centrifugal forces
behind a war that reshaped the traditional European balance of power; the various
legal claims were largely pretexts and seen as such.[10]
Bavaria and Saxony refused to be bound by the decision of the Imperial Diet, while
in 1738 France agreed to back the 'just claims' of Charles Albert of Bavaria, despite
previously accepting the Pragmatic Sanction in 1735.[11] Attempts to offset this
involved Austria in the 1733–1735 War of the Polish Succession and the Russo-
Turkish War of 1735–1739, and it was weakened by the losses incurred.
Compounded by the failure to prepare Maria Theresa for her new role, many
European statesmen were sceptical Austria could survive the contest that would
follow Charles' death, which finally occurred in October 1740.[12]
Military overview and strategies[edit]

The war consisted of four primary theatres, Central Europe, Italy, the Austrian
Netherlands and the seas, which can be divided into three separate but connected
conflicts. The first involved Prussia and Austria in the Silesian Wars; in the second,
Austria and Sardinia defeated Spanish attempts to regain territories in Northern Italy,
while the third featured an increasingly global contest between Britain and France. In
the end, French conquest of the Austrian Netherlands gave them clear dominance
on land, while Britain's victories at sea cemented its place as the dominant naval
power.
For much of the eighteenth century, French military strategy focused on potential
threats on its eastern and northern borders, which required a strong land army.[13] Its
colonies were left to fend for themselves, or given minimal resources, anticipating
they would likely be lost anyway.[14] This strategy was driven by a combination of
geography, and the superiority of the British navy, which made it difficult for the
French navy to provide significant supplies and support to French colonies. [15] The
expectation was military victory in Europe would compensate for any colonial losses;
in 1748, France recovered possessions like Louisbourg, in return for withdrawing
from the Austrian Netherlands.[16]
The British tried to avoid large-scale commitments of troops on the Continent.[17] They
sought to offset the disadvantage this created in Europe by allying themselves with
one or more Continental powers whose interests were antithetical to those of their
enemies, particularly France. In the War of the Austrian Succession, the British were
allied with Austria; by the time of the Seven Years' War, they were allied with its
enemy, Prussia. In contrast to France, once Britain became engaged in the war, it
took advantage of the Royal Navy to expand it into the colonies.[18] The British
pursued a dual strategy of naval blockade and bombardment of enemy ports, and
also utilized their ability to move troops by sea to the utmost.[19] They would harass
enemy shipping and attack enemy outposts, frequently using colonists from nearby
British colonies in the effort. This plan worked better in North America than in
Europe, but set the stage for the Seven Years' War.
Methods and technologies[edit]
Europe after the Treaty of Vienna (1738), Habsburg Monarchy in gold
European warfare in the early modern period was characterised by the widespread
adoption of firearms in combination with more traditional bladed weapons.
Eighteenth-century European armies were built around units of
massed infantry armed with smoothbore flintlock
muskets and bayonets. Cavalrymen were equipped
with sabres and pistols or carbines; light cavalry were used principally
for reconnaissance, screening and tactical communications, while heavy
cavalry were used as tactical reserves and deployed for shock attacks.
Smoothbore artillery provided fire support and played the leading role in siege
warfare.[20] Strategic warfare in this period centred around control of
key fortifications positioned so as to command the surrounding regions and roads,
with lengthy sieges a common feature of armed conflict. Decisive field battles were
relatively rare, though they played a larger part in Frederick's theory of warfare than
was typical among his contemporary rivals.[21]
The War of the Austrian Succession, like most European wars of the eighteenth
century, was fought as a so-called cabinet war in which disciplined regular
armies were equipped and supplied by the state to conduct warfare on behalf of the
sovereign's interests. Occupied enemy territories were regularly taxed and extorted
for funds, but large-scale atrocities against civilian populations were rare compared
with conflicts in the previous century.[22] Military logistics was the decisive factor in
many wars, as armies had grown too large to support themselves on prolonged
campaigns by foraging and plunder alone. Military supplies were stored in
centralised magazines and distributed by baggage trains that were highly vulnerable
to enemy raids.[23] Armies were generally unable to sustain combat operations during
winter and normally established winter quarters in the cold season, resuming their
campaigns with the return of spring.[20]
Campaign of 1740[edit]
Lands of the Bohemian Crown; in 1742, most of Silesia was ceded to Prussia
Frederick II succeeded his father Frederick William as king of Prussia on 31 May

1740 at the age of 28. Although Prussia had increased in importance over the past
few decades, its disparate and scattered territories prevented it wielding significant
power, a reality Frederick intended to change.[24] The death of Emperor Charles VI on
20 October 1740 provided him with an ideal opportunity to acquire Silesia [25] but he
needed to do so before Augustus of Saxony and Poland could pre-empt him.[26]
With a population of 16 million, Austria had an authorised standing force of 157,000,
although financial restraints meant its true size was considerably less than that in
1740.[27] Since they had a much greater area to defend, their army was more of "a
sieve" than a shield against foreign invasion.[28] In contrast, the Prussian army was
better trained and led than its opponents, while its standing army of 80,000 was
disproportionately large, at around 4% of its 2.2 million population.[29] To add to these
advantages, in April 1739 Frederick ensured Austria faced war on two fronts
when Louis XV of France agreed to attack from the west, while Prussia did so from
the north.[30]
In early December 1740, the Prussian army assembled along the Oder river and on
16 December invaded Silesia without a formal declaration of war.[31] Since Austrian
military resources were concentrated in Hungary and Italy, they had fewer than
3,000 troops in Silesia, although this increased to 7,000 shortly before the invasion.
They held onto the fortresses of Glogau, Breslau, and Brieg, but abandoned the rest
of the province and withdrew into Moravia, with both sides taking up winter
quarters.[32] In under two weeks Prussia had occupied most of the richest province in
the Holy Roman Empire, containing a population of over one million, the commercial
centre of Wrocław along with mining, weaving and dyeing industries.[33] However,
Frederick underestimated Maria Theresa's determination to reverse her loss, while
the retention of Austrian fortresses in Southern Silesia meant a quick victory could
not be achieved.[34]
Linz
Brieg
Vienna
Prague
Neisse
Budapest
Mollwitz
Tábor
Munich
Tyrol
class=notpageimage|
Central European campaign, 1741
Early in the year, an Austrian army under von Neipperg relieved Neisse, and
marched on Brieg, threatening to cut the Prussians off. On 10 April, just outside
Brieg, they were defeated at the Battle of Mollwitz; Frederick made serious mistakes
in his first battle, and was so close to defeat that his subordinates ordered him to
avoid capture and leave the battlefiled. His deputy von Schwerin managed to drag
out a victory, both sides losing nearly 25% of their strength.[35]
On 5 June, Frederick signed an alliance against Austria with France, who crossed
the Rhine on 15 August. [36] A combined Franco-Bavarian force now advanced along
the Danube, towards Vienna, capturing Linz on 14 September.[37] Joined by a Saxon
army of 20,000, they advanced on Prague from three different points, initially
meeting little resistance. Before long, the Austrians had an army at Tábor, while
Neipperg was recalled from Silesia to defend Vienna.[38] Apparently close to defeat,
on 21 September Maria Theresa made an emotional speech to the Hungarian
Diet in Pressburg. They approved a levée en masse, which ultimately produced
22,000 troops, rather than the promised 60,000, but was an assertion of loyalty long
remembered.[39]
Maria Theresa was also helped by deep divisions among her opponents and
Frederick's duplicity.[40] Hoping to weaken Saxony, on 9 October he signed the Klein–
Schnellendorf agreement with Neipperg and in what is now considered a memorable
act of diplomatic subterfuge, the Austrians surrendered Neisse after a mock defence.
Under the prevailing rules of war, this allowed them to receive a pass to the nearest
friendly territory and thus be used against Prussia's allies elsewhere, rather than
being taken prisoner.[41] Her best general, von Khevenhüller incorporated them into
an army being assembled for a winter offensive to retake Upper Austria, and attack
Bavaria.[42]
While Frederick completed his conquest of Silesia, a French force under Maurice de
Saxe took Prague on 26 November 1741, allowing the Bavarian elector, Charles
Albert, to be crowned King of Bohemia. The year ended with Khevenhüller decisively
defeating a bigger Franco-Bavarian army at Sankt Pölten and advancing up the
Danube towards Linz, while a second column under Johann Bärenklau moved
through the Tyrol, towards Munich.[42]
On 17 January, von Khevenhüller defeated a Bavarian army at Schärding while
seven days later 10,000 French soldiers surrendered at Linz. On 12 February,
Charles Albert of Bavaria was crowned Emperor Charles VII, the first non-Habsburg
to hold the position in 300 years, although Bärenklau captured Munich the same day.
Although technically all allies, Prussia, Saxony and Bavaria had no desire to see
France established in the Empire, nor to see one another gain relative ground. Maria
Theresa ended Austria's secret truce with Frederick, first releasing the details. The
Austrians assembled a second army of 28,000 to retake Prague, under Charles of
Lorraine.[43]
Prague
Schärding
Zahájí
Chotusice
Kutná Hora
Židlochovice
Olomouc
Kłodzko
class=notpageimage|
Bohemia and Moravia, 1742
News of the secret truce badly damaged the relationship between Frederick and his
allies, but Emperor Charles asked him to relieve the pressure by invading Moravia.
Frederick had used the interval to reorganise his cavalry, previously neglected in
favour of the infantry, and who performed poorly at Mollwitz; they would prove more
effective in the 1742 campaign.[44]
In December 1741, von Schwerin had captured Olomouc; Frederick took Kłodzko,
before moving onto Židlochovice in March 1742. This allowed him to
threaten Vienna; a few Prussian patrols even appeared in the suburbs, before
withdrawing.[45] In early May, he took the offensive, and moved into North-East
Bohemia; by 16 May, he had 10,000 infantry at Kutná Hora, and another 18,000 men
under Leopold of Anhalt-Dessau a day's march behind.[46]
On the afternoon of 16 May, Charles of Lorraine's cavalry ran into Leopold's
rearguard. Leopold recognized he was in contact with the Austrian main force and so
accelerated his march ahead to close the gap with Frederick. At 2:00 am on 17 May,
his exhausted troops stopped at the small village of Chotusice, still three hours from
Kutná Hora.[47] Fought later the same day, the Battle of Chotusitz was inconclusive,
but technically a Prussian victory, since the Austrians withdrew. On 24 May, French
Field Marshal de Broglie won a minor action at Zahájí. The two victories left the
strategic situation unchanged, since Charles was still able to move against Prague,
while the Prussian presence in Moravia remained a threat to Vienna.
However, Habsburg policy was generally to avoid fighting on too many fronts at the
same time; Prussia was the most dangerous, and most difficult to defeat. Although
recovering Silesia remained a priority for decades, Maria Theresa was willing to
agree a temporary truce with Prussia to improve her position elsewhere. [48] This
suited Frederick, who was short of money and men and also suspected France was
preparing a separate peace. In June, the Treaty of Breslau ended the First Silesian
War; Prussian troops withdrew from Bohemia, and Austria recaptured Prague in
December.[49]
Mainz
Dettingen
Vienna
Prague
Simbach
Budapest
Worms
Milan
Munich
Augsburg
class=notpageimage|
Key locations, 1743
At the beginning of the year, Louis XV insisted Broglie be given command of the
Franco-Bavarian forces, creating tension with the Bavarians, and their general von
Seckendorff.[50] With most of his lands occupied by the Austrians, Charles VII fled
to Augsburg, from where he initiated talks with Vienna and London, feeling he had
been abandoned by his French allies.[51] Divided at the top, and their troops
weakened by disease, the Franco-Bavarian forces offered limited resistance to the
Austrian advance; on 9 May, the Bavarians were defeated outside Simbach, by
Charles of Lorraine.[52]
In mid-June, the Pragmatic army arrived at Aschaffenburg, on the north bank of
the River Main. Here they were joined by George II, who was attending the
coronation of a new Elector of Mainz in Wiesbaden.[52] By late June, the Allies were
running short of supplies and withdrew towards the nearest supply depot at Hanau,
the road to which ran through Dettingen, now known as Karlstein am Main, where
23,000 French troops blocked the road. Despite a strong position, mistakes made by
their commander Gramont, allowed the Allies to win a narrow victory.[53]
While the Pragmatic Army were able to continue their retreat, they had to abandon
their wounded, and although reinforced by Charles of Lorraine were unable to agree
what to do next. Charles later described Allied headquarters as a 'republic', while
Noailles told Louis XV he was 'heavily indebted to the irresolutions of George II.'
They ended by doing nothing, and in October, took up winter quarters in the
Netherlands.[54]
Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia, who entered the war by the September Treaty of Worms
Frederick had responded to Dettingen by renewing his search for allies, and building
up his army once again. In July, the Russian court discovered an alleged plot to
overthrow Tsarina Elizabeth, and restore three-year old Ivan VI, with his
mother Grand Duchess Leopoldovna as his regent.[55] Whether this amounted to
anything more than drunken gossip is disputed; one suggestion is that it was a
fabrication by Frederick, designed to remove anti-Prussian opponents,
chiefly Chancellor Bestuzhev-Ryumin.[56]
Anna Bestuzhev, wife of his brother Mikhail, and her friend Natalia Lopukhina,
confessed to the plot after 25 days of torture; they were publicly flogged, and had
their tongues removed before being exiled to Siberia. Fredrick's supporters referred
to it as the "Botta Conspiracy", alleging the involvement of Austrian envoy Antoniotto
Botta Adorno.[57] When Tsarina Elizabeth demanded Botta be punished, Maria
Theresa refused, and the episode poisoned the relationship between Austria and
Russia. Frederick managed to divide his two main opponents, but Bestuzhev-
Ryumin remained in place, leaving the overall position unchanged. [56]
On 13 September, Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia, Maria Theresa and Britain
agreed the Treaty of Worms, intended to expel Spain from Italy. In return for
Sardinian support in Lombardy, the Austrians ceded all their territories west of
the Ticino River and Lake Maggiore, along with lands south of the Po River. In
return, Charles Emmanuel renounced his claim to the strategic Duchy of Milan,
guaranteed the Pragmatic Sanction, and provided 40,000 troops, paid for by
Britain.[58]
France and Spain responded with the Second Pacte de Famille in October, and
Louis XV began plans to invade the Austrian Netherlands. The year ended with
Saxony agreeing a pact of mutual defence with Austria, leaving Prussia isolated, and
facing a renewed offensive as Maria Theresa sought to regain Silesia. [59]
Louis XV of France by Maurice Quentin de La Tour
Under the 1743 Treaty of Fontainebleau, Louis XV and his uncle, Philip V of
Spain agreed on joint action against Britain. This included a proposed invasion of
Britain, aimed at restoring the exiled Stuarts, and over the winter, 12,000 French
troops and transports were assembled at Dunkirk.[60]
In the February 1744 Battle of Toulon, a combined Franco-Spanish fleet fought an
indecisive action with a British naval force commanded by Admiral Mathews.
Although Mathews prevented them exiting the Mediterranean and supporting the
invasion attempt, he was forced to retreat, which led to his dismissal.[61] Success
allowed Spain to land troops in Northern Italy, and in April they captured the
important port of Villefranche-sur-Mer, then part of Savoy.[62]
However, storms sank or severely damaged many French ships, while most of Louis'
ministers opposed what they considered an expensive and futile diversion of
resources. The invasion was cancelled on 11 March, Louis formally declared war on
Britain, and in May, a French army invaded the Austrian Netherlands.[63] As in 1744,
they were greatly helped by divisions between the Pragmatic Allies, making it very
difficult to formulate a consistent strategy. The British and Hanoverians detested
each other, Austrian resources were focused in Alsace, while the Dutch were
reluctant to declare war on France, and unsuccessfully tried to persuade Louis to
withdraw.[64] The Dutch however did want to protect their Barrier fortresses and Isaac
Cronström thus argued to engage the French in the open field. George Wade,
supreme commander of the allied army, disagreed. He was under strict orders of the
British government to not risk losing his connection to Ostend and not to risk British
or Hanoverians troops becoming prisoners of war, which also ment that he refused
to put them on garrison duty. The British feared another Jacobite uprising and
therefore wanted to be able to send their troops home in time.[65]
As a result, the French made rapid progress, quickly capturing most of the Dutch-
held Barrier fortresses along the border, including Menen and Ypres. When an
Austrian army under Prince Charles of Lorraine invaded Alsace in early June, Louis
went on the defensive in the Southern Netherlands, and travelled to Metz to meet
this threat. In early August, he fell dangerously ill with smallpox, a disease often fatal
at the time; although he later recovered, this temporarily paralysed the French
command system.[66]
With the bulk of the Austrian army occupied in Eastern France, Frederick launched
the Second Silesian War on 15 August, and by the end of the month, all 80,000 of
his troops were in Bohemia.[67] Although Maria Theresa's main objective was to
regain Silesia, the speed of the Prussian advance took them by surprise. On 23
August, Prince Charles withdrew from Alsace to defend Bohemia, with little
interference from the French due to Louis' illness.[68]
Frederick the Great, by Wilhelm Camphausen; his position at the end of 1744 was extremely precarious
By mid-September, Frederick had captured

Prague, Tabor, Budweis and Frauenberg; he now advanced up the Vltava river,
hoping to catch the Austrians between his forces, and the Franco-Bavarian army he
assumed was in pursuit. However, the Bavarians contented themselves with re-
occupying Munich, while the French settled down to besiege Freiburg im Breisgau, a
town of far less importance to Maria Theresa than Bohemia.[69]
Frederick was left dangerously exposed, a situation worsened in early October when
Saxony joined the coalition against him as an active belligerent. Under pressure from
Charles of Lorraine and a combined Austro-Saxon force under Count Traun, the
Prussians were forced to retreat; by the time they entered Silesia in late November,
Frederick's army was reduced to 36,000, half of whom then died of dysentery.[70]
Despite the surrender of Freiburg and French advances in the Southern
Netherlands, Austria seemed well-positioned at the end of 1744. Frederick's retreat
damaged his reputation and weakened his army, but the most significant impact was
on Franco-Prussian relations, with Louis accused of failing to support Prussia.[71]
In Italy, an Austrian attack on the Kingdom of Naples was unsuccessful, largely due
to the incompetence of their commanders. In the north, arguments over strategy, and
Spanish accusations of French cowardice at Toulon prevented them from taking full
advantage of their victories earlier in the year. This was offset by similar divisions
among their opponents; Charles Emmanuel was reluctant to see the Bourbons
expelled from Italy, leaving the Habsburgs as the dominant power, while his territorial
ambitions could only be achieved at Austrian expense. As a result, neither side could
make significant progress in this area.[72]
Maria Theresa's husband, Francis I, elected Holy Roman Emperor on 13 September 1745
Frederick's position continued to deteriorate; on 8 January, Austria, Britain, the Dutch

Republic and Saxony signed the Treaty of Warsaw, which was clearly aimed at
Prussia.[73] This was accompanied by ominous signs of Russian military activity
in Livonia, followed by the death of Emperor Charles VII on 20 January. Since Maria
Theresa's husband, Duke Francis, was the best-supported candidate to replace him,
this was a major setback for the Franco-Prussian alliance.[74]
Charles' son and heir, Max Joseph made one last effort to drive the Austrians out of
Bavaria, but his demoralised and ill-equipped army was out-manoeuvered by Count
Batthyány, while a Franco-Bavarian army was defeated at Pfaffenhofen on 15
April.[75] With most of his electorate once again occupied, on 22 April he signed
the Treaty of Füssen, in which he agreed to vote for Francis Stephen as Emperor,
and made peace with Austria.[76] Prussia was now isolated; attempts by Frederick to
divide his opponents by supporting Frederick Augustus of Saxony for Emperor were
unsuccessful, while neither Britain or Russia was willing to mediate for him with
Austria.[77]
Bavaria's exit allowed France to focus on the Low Countries, which Saxe persuaded
Louis XV provided the best opportunity of defeating Britain, whose financial backing
was crucial to the Pragmatic Alliance. He proposed to attack Tournai, a vital link in
the trading network for Northern Europe, and strongest of the Dutch Barrier Forts,
this forcing the Allies to fight on ground of his own choosing.[78] On 11 May, he won a
hard-fought victory at Fontenoy, a success that established French dominance in the
Netherlands, and caused bitter disputes between the British and Dutch. [79]
On 4 June, Frederick won a major victory at Hohenfriedberg, but despite this, Austria
and Saxony continued the war. Prussian requests for French support were ignored;
Louis had been warned by his ministers state finances were increasingly strained,
making it important to focus their efforts. One area was the Netherlands, particularly
after British troops were recalled to deal with the 1745 Jacobite Rising. The other
was Italy, where a Franco-Spanish army under Maillebois and Infante Philip defeated
the Sardinians at Bassignano on 27 September, then
captured Alessandria, Valenza and Casale Monferrato.[80]
Victory at Fontenoy in May 1745 re-established French confidence
As a result, France made no effort to block the election of Duke Francis, who was
proclaimed Emperor Francis I on 13 September.[81] Bolstered by this significant
political victory, Maria Theresa continued her attempts to regain Silesia, only to be
defeated once again at the Battle of Soor on 30 September.[82] On 15 December, the
Prussians forced Saxony out of the war with victory in the Battle of Kesselsdorf,
leading to the Treaty of Dresden on 25th. Austria accepted Frederick's ownership of
Silesia, while Saxony paid him an indemnity of one million crowns; in return, Prussia
accepted the Pragmatic Sanction, acknowledged Francis as Emperor, and
evacuated Saxony.[83]
After 1745, Germany ceased to be an active military theatre; although Frederick
knew Maria Theresa still intended to regain Silesia, both sides needed a period of
peace in order to re-organise. French objectives were less clear; for centuries, the
central plank of its foreign policy was weakening the Habsburgs, but it began the war
due to concern at British commercial growth post-1713. Since the war in Northern
Italy was largely fought to support Spanish aims, this left the Netherlands as the only
remaining theatre where France could achieve strategic victory.[84]
Another significant development was the start of the realignment of alliances that
became the Diplomatic Revolution in 1756. Under the August 'Convention of
Hanover', Frederick and George II mutually guaranteed the borders of Hanover and
Prussia to each other, and British diplomats tried to persuade Austria to end the
Second Silesian War. Franco-Prussian relationships were marked by mutual distrust,
while Maria Theresa resented British attempts to persuade her to accept the loss of
Silesia.[85]
Italian Campaigns, 1741–1747[edit]

Philip V of Spain's family by Louis-Michel van Loo
In central Italy an army of Spaniards and Neapolitans was collected for the purpose
of conquering the Milanese. In 1741, the allied army of 40,000 Spaniards and
Neapolitans under the command of the Duke of Montemar had advanced
towards Modena, the Duke of Modena had allied himself with them, but the vigilant
Austrian commander, Count Otto Ferdinand von Traun had out-marched them,
captured Modena and forced the Duke to make a separate peace. [38]
The aggressiveness of the Spanish in Italy forced Empress Maria Theresa of Austria
and King Charles Emmanuel of Sardinia into negotiations in early 1742.[86] These
negotiations were held at Turin. Maria Theresa sent her envoy Count
Schulenburg and King Charles Emmanuel sent the Marquis d'Ormea. On 1 February
1742, Schulenburg and Ormea signed the Convention of Turin which resolved (or
postponed resolution) many differences and formed an alliance between the two
countries.[87] In 1742, field marshal Count Traun held his own with ease against the
Spanish and Neapolitans. On 19 August 1742, Naples was forced by the arrival of a
British naval squadron in Naples' own harbour, to withdraw her 10,000 troops from
the Montemar force to provide for home defence.[88] The Spanish force under
Montemar was now too weak to advance in the Po Valley and a second Spanish
army was sent to Italy via France. Sardinia had allied herself with Austria in
the Convention of Turin and at the same time neither state was at war with France
and this led to curious complications, combats being fought in the Isère valley
between the troops of Sardinia and of Spain, in which the French took no part.[89] At
the end of 1742, the Duke of Montemar was replaced as head of the Spanish forces
in Italy by Count Gages.[90]
In 1743, the Spanish on the Panaro had achieved a victory over Traun at Campo
Santo on 8 February 1743.[91] However, the next six months were wasted in inaction
and Georg Christian, Fürst von Lobkowitz, joining Traun with reinforcements from
Germany, drove back the Spanish to Rimini. Observing
from Venice, Rousseau hailed the Spanish retreat as "the finest military manoeuvre
of the whole century".[92] The Spanish-Savoyan War in the Alps continued without
much result, the only incident of note being the first Battle of Casteldelfino (7–10
October 1743), when an initial French offensive was beaten off.[89]
In 1744 the Italian war became serious. Prior to the War of the Spanish
Succession (1701–1714) Spain and Austria had been ruled by the same (Habsburg)
royal house. Consequently, the foreign policies of Austria and Spain in regards to
Italy had a symmetry of interests and these interests were usually opposed to the
interests of Bourbon controlled France.[93] However, since the Treaty of Utrecht and
the end of the War of the Spanish Succession, the childless last Habsburg monarch
(Charles II) had been replaced by the Bourbon grandson of the French king Louis
XIV Philip of Anjou, who became Philip V in Spain. Now the symmetry of foreign
policy interests in regards to Italy existed between Bourbon France and Bourbon
Spain with Habsburg Austria usually in opposition.[94] King Charles Emmanuel of
Savoy had followed the long-established foreign policy of Savoy of opposing Spanish
interference in northern Italy.[95] Now in 1744, Savoy was faced with a grandiose
military plan of the combined Spanish and French armies (called the Gallispan army)
for conquest of northern Italy.
However, in implementing this plan, the Gallispan generals at the front were
hampered by the orders of their respective governments. For example, the
commander of the Spanish army in the field, the Prince of Conti, could not get along
with, or even reason with, the Marquis de La Mina, the Supreme commander of all
Spanish forces.[96] The Prince of Conti felt that the Marquis "deferred blindly to all
orders coming from Spain" without any consideration of the realities on the
ground.[96] In preparation for the military campaign the Gallispan forces sought to
cross the Alps in June 1744 and regroup the army in Dauphiné uniting there with the
army on the lower Po.[97]
Charles III of Spain by Anton Raphael Mengs
The support of Genoa allowed a road into central Italy.[96] While the Prince of Conti
stayed in the north, Count Gages followed this road to the south. But then the
Austrian commander, Prince Lobkowitz took the offensive and drove the Spanish
army of the Count de Gages further southward towards the Neapolitan frontier near
the small town of Velletri. Velletri just happened to be the birthplace of Caesar
Augustus, but now from June through August 1744, Velletri became the scene of
extensive military maneuvering between the French-Spanish army under the
command of the Count Gages and the Austrian forces under the command of Prince
Lobkowitz[98] The King of Naples (the future Charles III of Spain) was increasingly
worried about the Austrian army operating so close to his borders and decided to
assist the Spaniards. Together a combined army of French, Spanish and
Neapolitans surprised the Austrian army on the night of 16–17 June 1744. The
Austrians were routed from three important hills around the town of Velletri during
the attack.[99] This battle is sometimes called the "Battle of Nemi" after the small town
of Nemi located nearby. Because of this surprise attack, the combined army was
able to take possession of the town of Velletri. Thus, the surprise attack has also
been called the "first Battle of Velletri".
In early August 1744, the King of Naples paid a visit in person to the newly captured
town of Velletri.[99] Hearing about the presence of the King, the Austrians developed a
plan for a daring raid on Velletri. During the predawn hours of 11 August 1744, about
6,000 Austrians under the direct command of Count Browne staged a surprise raid
on the town of Velletri. They were attempting to abduct the King of Naples during his
stay in the town. However, after occupying Velletri and searching the entire town, the
Austrians found no hint of the King of Naples. The King had become aware of what
was happening and had fled through a window of the palace where he was staying
and rode off half-dressed on horseback out of the town.[100] This was the
second Battle of Velletri. The failure of the raid on Velletri meant that the Austrian
march toward Naples was over. The defeated Austrians were ordered north where
they could be used in the Piedmont of northern Italy to assist the King of Sardinia
against the Prince of Conti. Count de Gages followed the Austrians north with a
weak force. Meanwhile, the King of Naples returned home.
The Prince of Conti by Alexis Simon Belle
The war in the Alps and the Apennines had already been keenly contested before
the Prince of Conti and the Gallispan army had come down out of the
Alps. Villefranche and Montalbán[clarification needed] had been stormed by Conti on 20 April
1744. After coming down out of the Alps, Prince Conti began his advance into
Piedmont on 5 July 1744.[101] On 19 July 1744, the Gallispan army engaged the
Sardinian army in some desperate fighting at Peyre-Longue on 18 July 1744.[102] As a
result of the battle, the Gallispan army took control of Casteldelfino in the
second Battle of Casteldelfino. Conti then moved on to Demonte where on the night
of 8–9 August 1744, (a mere 36 hours before the Spanish army in south of Italy
fought the second Battle of Velletri, [as noted above]) the Gallispan army took the
fortress of Demonte from the Sardinians in the Battle of Demonte.[103] The King of
Sardinia was defeated yet again by Conti in a great Battle at Madonna dell'Olmo on
30 September 1744 near Coni (Cuneo).[104] Conti did not, however, succeed in taking
the huge fortress at Coni and had to retire into Dauphiné for his winter quarters.
Thus, the Gallispan army never did combine with the Spanish army under Count of
Gages in the south and now the Austro-Sardinian army lay between them.
The campaign in Italy in 1745 was also no mere war of posts. The Convention of
Turin of February 1742 (described above), which established a provisional
relationship between Austria and Sardinia had caused some consternation in
the Republic of Genoa. However, when this provisional relationship was given a
more durable and reliable character in the signing of the Treaty of Worms
(1743) signed on 13 September 1743,[105] the government of Genoa became fearful.
This fear of diplomatic isolation had caused the Genoese Republic to abandon its
neutrality in the war and join the Bourbon cause.[106] Consequently, the Genoese
Republic signed a secret treaty with the Bourbon allies of France, Spain and Naples.
On 26 June 1745, Genoa declared war on Sardinia.[106]
The Genoese charge during the Battle of Bassignano in 1745
Empress Maria Theresa, was frustrated with the failure of Lobkowitz to stop the
advance of Gage. Accordingly, Lobkowitz was replaced with Count
Schulenburg.[107] A change in the command of the Austrians, encouraged the Bourbon
allies to strike first in the spring of 1745. Accordingly, Count de Gages moved from
Modena towards Lucca, the Gallispan army in the Alps under the new command
of Marshal Maillebois (Prince Conti and Marshal Maillebois had exchanged
commands over the winter of 1744–1745[108]) advanced through the Italian Riviera to
the Tanaro. In the middle of July 1745, the two armies were at last concentrated
between the Scrivia and the Tanaro. Together Count de Gage's army and the
Gallispan army composed an unusually large number of 80,000 men. A swift march
on Piacenza drew the Austrian commander thither and in his absence the allies fell
upon and completely defeated the Sardinians at Bassignano on 27 September 1745,
a victory which was quickly followed by the capture
of Alessandria, Valenza and Casale Monferrato. Jomini calls the concentration of
forces which effected the victory "Le plus remarquable de toute la Guerre".[109]
Infante Philip of Spain by Laurent Pécheux
The complicated politics of Italy, however, are reflected in the fact that Count
Maillebois was ultimately unable to turn his victory to account. Indeed, early in 1746,
Austrian troops, freed by the Austrian peace with Frederick II of Prussia, passed
through the Tyrol into Italy. The Gallispan winter quarters at Asti, Italy, were
brusquely attacked and a French garrison of 6,000 men at Asti was forced to
capitulate.[110] At the same time, Maximilian Ulysses Count Browne with an Austrian
corps struck at the allies on the Lower Po, and cut off their communication with the
main body of the Gallispan army in Piedmont. A series of minor actions thus
completely destroyed the great concentration of Gallispan troops and the Austrians
reconquered the duchy of Milan and took possession of much of northern Italy. The
allies separated, Maillebois covering Liguria, the Spaniards marching against
Browne. The latter was promptly and heavily reinforced and all that the Spaniards
could do was to entrench themselves at Piacenza, Philip, the Spanish Infante as
supreme commander calling up Maillebois to his aid. The French, skilfully conducted
and marching rapidly, joined forces once more, but their situation was critical, for
only two marches behind them the army of the King of Sardinia was in pursuit, and
before them lay the principal army of the Austrians. The pitched Battle of
Piacenza on 16 June 1746 was hard-fought but ended in an Austrian victory, with the
Spanish army heavily mauled. That the army escaped at all was in the highest
degree creditable to Maillebois and to his son and chief of staff. Under their
leadership the Gallispan army eluded both the Austrians and the Sardinians and
defeated an Austrian corps in the Battle of Rottofreddo on 12 August 1746.[111] Then
the Austrian army made good its retreat back to Genoa.[112]
Although the Austrian army was a mere shadow of its former self, when they
returned to Genoa, the Austrians were soon in control of northern Italy. The
Austrians occupied the Republic of Genoa on 6 September 1746.[113] But they met
with no success in their forays towards the Alps. Soon Genoa revolted from the
oppressive rule of the victors, rose and drove out the Austrians on 5–11 December
1746. As an Allied invasion of Provence stalled, and the French, now commanded
by Charles Louis Auguste Fouquet, duc de Belle-Isle, took the offensive
(1747).[114] Genoa held out against a second Austrian siege.[115] As usual the plan of
campaign had been referred to Paris and Madrid. A picked corps of the French army
under the Chevalier de Belle-Isle (the younger brother of Marshal Belle-Isle[114]) was
ordered to storm the fortified pass of Exilles on 10 July 1747. However, the
defending army of the Worms allies (Austria and Savoy) handed the French army a
crushing defeat at this battle, which became known as the (Colle dell'Assietta).[116] At
this battle, the chevalier, and with him much of the elite of the French nobility, were
killed on the barricades.[116] Desultory campaigns continued between the Worms allies
and the French until the conclusion of peace at Aix-la-Chapelle.[117]
The Low Countries, 1745–1748[edit]
Map of the Low Countries; Bergen op Zoom, upper center
The British and their allies withdrew from Fontenoy in good order but Tournai fell to
French forces and through a swift advance, Ghent, Oudenarde, Bruges,
and Dendermonde soon followed. By the end of July, the French stood on the
threshold of Zeeland, the south-western corner of the Dutch Republic.[118] The French-
backed Jacobite rising of August, 1745 forced the British to transfer troops from
Flanders to deal with it. This prompted the French to seize the strategic ports
of Ostend and Nieuwpoort, threatening Britain's links to mainland Europe.[119]
William IV, became stadtholder of all the Dutch provinces after a bloodless orangist revolution
During 1746, the French continued their advance into the Austrian Netherlands,
taking Antwerp and then clearing Dutch and Austrian forces from the area
between Brussels and the Meuse. After defeating the Jacobite Rebellion
at Culloden in April, the British launched a diversionary raid on Lorient in an
unsuccessful attempt to divert French forces, while the new Austrian commander,
Prince Charles of Lorraine, was defeated by Saxe at the Battle of Rocoux in
October.[120]
The Dutch Republic itself was now in danger. In April 1747, the French began
reducing the Barrier Fortresses along the border with the Austrian Netherlands and
invaded Dutch Flanders, which they swiftly captured. A general anger and panic
broke out under the Dutch population, who still remembered the French invasion of
1672 and they demanded that William IV should be appointed stadtholder.
The regents of Zeeland and Holland, fearing violence against them, soon appointed
William stadtholder. The remaining provinces followed and by the 10th of May
the Second Stadtholderless Period had ended. William was also appointed head of
the all the Dutch armed forces.[121] The strategic situation however failed to change
and at Lauffeld on 2 July 1747, Saxe won another victory over a British and Dutch
army under the Prince of Waldeck and Cumberland; the French then
besieged Maastricht and Bergen op Zoom, which fell in September.[120]
These events lent greater urgency to ongoing peace talks at the Congress of Breda,
which took place to the sound of French artillery firing on Maastricht. Following their
1746 alliance with Austria, an army of 30,000 Russians [ru] marched from Livonia to
the Rhine, but arrived too late to be of use. Maastricht surrendered on 7 May and on
18 October 1748, the war ended with the signing of the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle.[122]
The Peace of 1748[edit]
Europe in the years after the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748
Negotiations between Britain and France had been taking place at Breda since June
1746; the terms they agreed were then imposed on the other parties at Aix-la-
Chapelle. Despite their victories in Flanders, French Finance Minister Machault
repeatedly warned of the impending collapse of their financial system. The British
naval blockade led to the collapse of French customs receipts and caused severe
food shortages, especially among the poor; after Cape Finisterre in October, the
French navy could no longer protect their colonies or trade routes.[123]
This was followed in November by a convention between Britain and Russia; in
February 1748, a Russian corps of 37,000 arrived in the Rhineland.[124] Although the
Dutch city of Maastricht surrendered to French forces in May 1748, ending the war
was increasingly urgent. Louis XV therefore agreed to return the Austrian
Netherlands, whose acquisition had cost so much. Few of his countrymen
understood this decision; combined with the lack of tangible benefits for helping
Prussia, it led to the phrase "as stupid as the Peace".[125]
A commission to negotiate competing territorial claims in North America was set up,
but made very little progress. Britain regained Madras, in return for
restoring Louisbourg, in Nova Scotia, much to the fury of British colonists. Neither of
the two main protagonists appeared to have gained much for their investment and
both viewed the Treaty as an armistice, not a peace.[126]
In Austria, reactions were mixed; Maria Theresa was determined to regain Silesia
and resented British support for Prussia's occupation.[127] On the other hand, the
Treaty confirmed her right to the Monarchy, while the Habsburgs had survived a
potentially disastrous crisis, regained the Austrian Netherlands without fighting and
made only minor concessions in Italy.[128] Administrative and financial reforms made it
stronger in 1750 than 1740, while its strategic position was strengthened through
installing Habsburgs as rulers of key territories in Northwest Germany,
the Rhineland and Northern Italy.[129]
Of the other combatants, Spain retained its predominance in Spanish America and
made minor gains in Northern Italy. With French support, Prussia doubled in size
with the acquisition of Silesia but twice made peace without informing their ally; Louis
XV already disliked Frederick and now viewed him as untrustworthy. The war
confirmed the decline of the Dutch Republic; combined with a sense they received
little value for the subsidies paid to Maria Theresa, Britain moved to align itself with
Prussia, rather than Austria, in order to protect Hanover from French aggression. [130]
These factors led to the realignment known as the 1756 Diplomatic Revolution and
the 1756 to 1763 Seven Years' War, which was even grander in scale than its
predecessor.
North America[edit]
Main article: King George's War
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King George's War
The war was also conducted in North America and India. In North America the
conflict was known in the British colonies as King George's War, and did not begin
until after formal war declarations of France and Britain reached the colonies in May
1744. The frontiers between New France and the British colonies of New
England, New York, and Nova Scotia were the site of frequent small scale raids,
primarily by French colonial troops and their Indian allies against British targets,
although several attempts were made by British colonists to organise expeditions
against New France. The most significant incident was the capture of the
French Fortress Louisbourg on Cape Breton Island (Île Royale) by an expedition (29
April – 16 June 1745) of colonial militia organised
by Massachusetts Governor William Shirley, commanded by William
Pepperrell of Maine (then part of Massachusetts), and assisted by a Royal Navy
fleet. A French expedition to recover Louisbourg in 1746 failed due to bad weather,
disease, and the death of its commander. Louisbourg was returned to France in
exchange for Madras, generating much anger among the British colonists, who felt
they had eliminated a nest of privateers with its capture.
India[edit]
Flag of the East India Company (founded in 1600)
British Admiral Edward Boscawen besieged Pondicherry in the later months of 1748.
The war marked the beginning of a powerful struggle

between Britain and France in India and of European military ascendancy and
political intervention in the subcontinent. Major hostilities began with the arrival of a
naval squadron under Mahé de la Bourdonnais, carrying troops from France. In
September 1746 Bourdonnais landed his troops near Madras and laid siege to the
port. Although it was the main British settlement in the Carnatic, Madras was weakly
fortified and had only a small garrison, reflecting the thoroughly commercial nature of
the European presence in India hitherto. On 10 September, only six days after the
arrival of the French force, Madras surrendered. The terms of the surrender agreed
by Bourdonnais provided for the settlement to be ransomed back for a cash payment
by the British East India Company. However, this concession was opposed
by Dupleix, the governor general of the Indian possessions of the Compagnie des
Indes. When Bourdonnais was forced to leave India in October after the devastation
of his squadron by a cyclone Dupleix reneged on the agreement. The Nawab of the
Carnatic Anwaruddin Muhammed Khan intervened in support of the British and
advanced to retake Madras, but despite vast superiority in numbers his army
was easily and bloodily crushed by the French, in the first demonstration of the gap
in quality that had opened up between European and Indian armies.[131]
The French now turned to the remaining British settlement in the Carnatic, Fort St.
David at Cuddalore, which was dangerously close to the main French settlement
of Pondichéry. The first French force sent against Cuddalore was surprised and
defeated nearby by the forces of the Nawab and the British garrison in December
1746. Early in 1747 a second expedition laid siege to Fort St David but withdrew on
the arrival of a British naval squadron in March. A final attempt in June 1748 avoided
the fort and attacked the weakly fortified town of Cuddalore itself, but was routed by
the British garrison.
With the arrival of a naval squadron under Admiral Boscawen, carrying troops and
artillery, the British went on the offensive, laying siege to Pondichéry. They enjoyed a
considerable superiority in numbers over the defenders, but the settlement had been
heavily fortified by Dupleix and after two months the siege was abandoned. [132]
The peace settlement brought the return of Madras to the British company,
exchanged for Louisbourg in Canada. However, the conflict between the two
companies continued by proxy during the interval before the outbreak of the Seven
Years' War, with British and French forces fighting on behalf of rival claimants to the
thrones of Hyderabad and the Carnatic.[133]
Naval operations[edit]
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Sea battles
The naval operations of this war were entangled with the War of Jenkins' Ear, which
broke out in 1739 in consequence of the long disputes between Britain and Spain
over their conflicting claims in America.[117] The war was remarkable for the
prominence of privateering on both sides. It was carried on by the Spaniards in the
West Indies with great success, and actively at home. The French were no less
active in all seas. Mahé de la Bourdonnais's attack on Madras partook largely of the
nature of a privateering venture. The British retaliated with vigour. The total number
of captures by French and Spanish corsairs was in all probability larger than the list
of British—as the French wit Voltaire drolly put it upon hearing his government's
boast, namely, that more British merchants were taken because there were many
more British merchant ships to take; but partly also because the British government
had not yet begun to enforce the use of convoy so strictly as it did in later times.[134]
Further information: War of Jenkins' Ear
West Indies[edit]
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War of Jenkins' Ear
Vice-Admiral Edward Vernon
War on Spain was declared by Great Britain on 23 October 1739, which has become
known as the War of Jenkins' Ear. A plan was laid for combined operations against
the Spanish colonies from east and west. One force, military and naval, was to
assault them from the West Indies under Admiral Edward Vernon. Another, to be
commanded by Commodore George Anson, afterwards Lord Anson, was to
round Cape Horn and to fall upon the Pacific coast of Latin America. Delays, bad
preparations, dockyard corruption, and the squabbles of the naval and military
officers concerned caused the failure of a hopeful scheme. On 21 November 1739,
Admiral Vernon did, however, succeed in capturing the ill-defended Spanish harbour
of Porto Bello in present-day Panama. When Vernon had been joined by
Sir Chaloner Ogle with massive naval reinforcements and a strong body of troops,
an attack was made on Cartagena de Indias in what is now Colombia (9 March – 24
April 1741). The delay had given the Spanish under Sebastián de Eslava and Blas
de Lezo time to prepare. After two months of skilful defence by the Spanish, the
British attack finally succumbed to a massive outbreak of disease and withdrew
having suffered a dreadful loss of lives and ships.[135]
The war in the West Indies, after two other unsuccessful attacks had been made on
Spanish territory, died down and did not revive until 1748. The expedition under
Anson sailed late, was very ill-provided, and less strong than had been intended. It
consisted of six ships and left Britain on 18 September 1740. Anson returned alone
with his flagship the Centurion on 15 June 1744. The other vessels had either failed
to round the Horn or had been lost. But Anson had harried the coast
of Chile and Peru and had captured a Spanish galleon of immense value near
the Philippines. His cruise was a great feat of resolution and endurance.[134]
After the failure of the British invasions and a Spanish counter invasion of Georgia in
1742, belligerent naval actions in the Caribbean were left to the privateers of both
sides. Fearing great financial and economic losses should a treasure fleet be
captured, the Spanish reduced the risk by increasing the number of convoys, thereby
reducing their value. They also increased the number of ports they visited and
reduced the predictability of their voyages.[citation needed]
In 1744 a British force of 300 men accompanied by two privateers from Saint
Kitts successfully captured the French half of neighbouring Saint Martin, occupying it
until the 1748 Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. In late May 1745 two French royal frigates of
36 and 30 guns respectively under Commodore La Touché, plus three privateers in
retaliation sailed from Martinique to invade and capture the British colony
of Anguilla but were repelled with heavy loss.[citation needed]
The last year of the war saw two significant actions in the Caribbean. A second
British assault on Santiago de Cuba which also ended in failure and a naval action
which arose from an accidental encounter between two convoys.
The action unfolded in a confused way with each side at once anxious to cover its
own trade and to intercept that of the other. Capture was rendered particularly
desirable for the British by the fact that the Spanish homeward-bound fleet would be
laden with bullion from the American mines.[134] The advantage lay with the British
when one Spanish warship ran aground and another was captured but the British
commander failed to capitalise and the Spanish fleet took shelter in Havana.
Mediterranean[edit]
The Franco-Spanish fleet commanded by Don Juan José Navarro drove off the British fleet under Thomas
Mathews near Toulon in 1744.
While Anson was pursuing his voyage round the world, Spain was mainly intent on
the Italian policy of the King. A squadron was fitted out at Cádiz to convey troops to
Italy. It was watched by the British admiral Nicholas Haddock. When the blockading
squadron was forced off by want of provisions, the Spanish admiral Don Juan José
Navarro put to sea. He was followed, but when the British force came in sight of him
Navarro had been joined by a French squadron under Claude-Elisée de La Bruyère
de Court (December 1741). The French admiral told Haddock that he would support
the Spaniards if they were attacked and Haddock retired. France and Great Britain
were not yet openly at war, but both were engaged in the struggle in Germany—
Great Britain as the ally of the Queen of Hungary, Maria Theresa; France as the
supporter of the Bavarian claimant of the empire. Navarro and de Court went on
to Toulon, where they remained until February 1744. A British fleet watched them,
under the command of Admiral Richard Lestock, until Sir Thomas Mathews was sent
out as commander-in-chief and as Minister to the Court of Turin.[135]
Sporadic manifestations of hostility between the French and British took place in
different seas, but avowed war did not begin until the French government issued its
declaration of 30 March, to which Great Britain replied on 31 March. This formality
had been preceded by French preparations for the invasion of England, and by
the Battle of Toulon between the British and a Franco-Spanish fleet. On 11 February,
a most confused battle was fought, in which the van and centre of the British fleet
was engaged with the Spanish rear and centre of the allies. Lestock, who was on the
worst possible terms with his superior, took no part in the action. Mathews fought
with spirit but in a disorderly way, breaking the formation of his fleet, and showing no
power of direction, while Navarro's smaller fleet retained cohesion and fought off the
energetic but confused attacks of its larger enemy until the arrival of the French fleet
forced the heavily damaged British fleet to withdraw. The Spanish fleet then sailed to
Italy where it delivered a fresh army and supplies that had a decisive impact upon
the war. The mismanagement of the British fleet in the battle, by arousing deep
anger among the people, led to a drastic reform of the British navy.[135]
Northern waters[edit]
The French scheme to invade Britain was arranged in combination with
the Jacobite leaders, and soldiers were to be transported from Dunkirk. In February
1744, a French fleet of twenty sail of the line entered the English
Channel under Jacques Aymar, comte de Roquefeuil, before the British force under
Admiral John Norris was ready to oppose him. But the French force was ill-equipped,
the admiral was nervous, his mind dwelt on all the misfortunes which might possibly
happen, and the weather was bad. De Roquefeuil came up almost as far as The
Downs, where he learnt that Sir John Norris was at hand with twenty-five sail of the
line, and thereupon precipitately retreated. The military expedition prepared at
Dunkirk to cross under cover of De Roquefeuil's fleet naturally did not start. The utter
weakness of the French at sea, due to long neglect of the fleet and the bankrupt
state of the treasury, was shown during the Jacobite rising of 1745, when France
made no attempt to profit by the distress of the British government.[135]
The Dutch, having by this time joined Great Britain, made a serious addition to the
naval power opposed to France, though the Dutch Republic was compelled by the
necessity for maintaining an army in Flanders to play a very subordinate part at sea.
Not being stimulated by formidable attack, and having immediate interests both at
home and in Germany, the British government was slow to make use of its latest
naval strength. Spain, which could do nothing of an offensive character, was almost
neglected. During 1745 the New England expedition which took Louisburg (30 April –
16 June) was covered by a British naval force, but little else was accomplished by
the naval efforts of any of the belligerents.[135]
In 1746 a British combined naval and military expedition to the coast of France—the
first of a long series of similar ventures which in the end were derided as "breaking
windows with guineas"—was carried out during August and October. The aim was
the capture of the French East India Company's dockyard at Lorient, but it was not
attained.[136][135]
From 1747 until the close of the war in October 1748, the naval policy of the British
government, without reaching a high level, was more energetic and coherent. A
closer watch was kept on the French coast, and effectual means were taken to
intercept communication between France and her American possessions. In the
spring information was obtained that an important convoy for the East and
West Indies was to sail from L'Orient.[135] The convoy was intercepted by Anson on 3
May, and in the first Battle of Cape Finisterre, British admiral George Anson's
fourteen ships of the line wiped out the French escort of six ships of the line and
three armed Indiamen, although in the meantime the merchant ships escaped.
On 14 October, another French convoy, protected by a strong squadron, was
intercepted by a well-appointed and well-directed squadron of superior numbers—
the squadrons were respectively eight French and fourteen British—in the Bay of
Biscay. In the second Battle of Cape Finisterre which followed, the French admiral,
Henri-François des Herbiers-l'Étenduère, succeeded in covering the escape of most
of the merchant ships, but Hawke's British squadron took six of his warships. Most of
the merchantmen were later intercepted and captured in the West Indies. This
disaster convinced the French government of its helplessness at sea, and it made no
further effort.[135]
Indian Ocean[edit]
Main article: First Carnatic War
show
• v
• t
• e
First Carnatic War
In the East Indies, attacks on French commerce by a British squadron under Curtis
Barnett in 1745 led to the despatch of a French squadron commanded by Mahé de
la Bourdonnais. After an inconclusive clash off Negapatnam in July 1746, Edward
Peyton, Barnett's successor, withdrew to Bengal, leaving Bourdonnais unopposed on
the Coromandel Coast. He landed troops near Madras and besieged the port by land
and sea, forcing it to surrender on 10 September 1746. In October the French
squadron was devastated by a cyclone, losing four ships of the line and suffering
heavy damage to four more, and the surviving ships withdrew. French land forces
went on to make several attacks on the British settlement at Cuddalore, but the
eventual replacement of the negligent Peyton by Thomas Griffin resulted in a return
to British naval supremacy which put the French on the defensive. Despite the
appearance of another French squadron, the arrival of large-scale British
reinforcements under Edward Boscawen (who considered but did not make an
attack on Île de France on the way) gave the British overwhelming dominance on
land and sea, but the ensuing siege of Pondichéry organised by Boscawen was
unsuccessful.
Strength of armies 1740[edit]

Horse
Belligeren Artiller Engineer Other Militi Source
Foot Dragoon
t y s s a s
s
[137]
Austria 76,000 32,000 2,600 150 0 ..
[138]
Bavaria 36,000 4,000 200 0 0 ..
111,00 [139]
France 19,000 3,000 .. 0 30,000
0
Horse
Belligeren Artiller Engineer Other Militi Source
Foot Dragoon
t y s s a s
s
[140]
Great Britain 19,000 7,000 2,000 .. 6,000[c] 130,000
[141]
Hanover 18,000 5,000 360 23 0 0
[142]
Hesse-Kassel 18,000 4,000 900 .. .. 0
[143]
Cologne 1,000 0 0 0 0 0
[144]
Palatinate 9,000 1,000 200 15 0 0
[145]
Prussia 76,000 22,000 1,200 43 0 0
Savoy- [146]
41,000 5,000 .. .. 0 0
Sardinia
[147]
Saxony 20,000 8,800 600 0 0 0
1. ^ The amount of British troops on the continent however

never reached above 48,000 men[3]
2. ^ Authorised strength in 1747, actual closer to 90,000
men
3. ^ Royal Marines
Related wars[edit]
• First Silesian War (1740–1742) – Prussian
invasion and ensuing Central European theatre
of the war
• Second Silesian War (1744–1745) – Renewed
Prussian invasion and continuation of First
Silesian War
• First Carnatic War – Anglo-French rivalry in India
often seen as a theatre of the War of the Austrian
Succession.
• Russo-Swedish War (1741–1743) – Swedish and
Russian participation in the War of the Austrian
Succession.
• King George's War – American participation in
the War of the Austrian Succession.
• War of Jenkins' Ear – Anglo-Spanish war which
merged into the War of the Austrian Succession.
• Jacobite rising of 1745 – France provided limited
support to Charles Edward Stuart's invasion of
Great Britain.
Gallery[edit]
•
The Prussian infantry during the Battle of Mollwitz, 1741
King George II at the Battle of Dettingen, 1743
The Duke of Lorraine and Imperial troops crossing the

Rhine before Strasbourg, 1744
•
View of the British landing on the island of Cape Breton to

attack the fortress of Louisbourg, 1745
The British fleet bombarding the Corsican port of Bastia in

1745
The Battle of Fontenoy, 11 May 1745
Colonels of the French Guards and British guards politely

discussing who should fire first at the battle of Fontenoy,
1745
•
The Battle of Rocoux in 1746, between the French and the

British, Dutch and Austrians
The Battle of Cape Finisterre, 1747
Marshal Maurice de Saxe at the Battle of Lauffeld, 1747
Taking and looting of the fortress of Bergen-op-Zoom in

1747
References[edit]
1. ^ Jump up to:a b Dwyer 2001, p. 14.
2. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Clodfelter 2002, p. 78.
3. ^ Van Nimwegen 2002, p. 102.
4. ^ Hanlon 1997, p. 120.
5. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g Statistics of Wars, Oppressions and
Atrocities of the Eighteenth Century
6. ^ Clodfelter 2002, p. 81.
7. ^ Anderson 1995, pp. 7–9.
8. ^ Holborn 1982, p. 108.
9. ^ Horn 1929, pp. 33–37.
10. ^ Anderson 1995, p. 3.
11. ^ Black 1999, p. 82.
12. ^ Coxe 1847, p. 242.
13. ^ Borneman 2007, p. 80.
14. ^ Pritchard 2004, p. 356.
15. ^ Dull 2007, p. 14.
16. ^ Lee 1984, p. 285.
17. ^ Till 2006, p. 77.
18. ^ Black 1999, p. 45.
19. ^ Vego 2003, pp. 156–157.
20. ^ Jump up to:a b Black (1994b), pp. 38–52
21. ^ Black (1994b), pp. 67–80
22. ^ Clark (2006), p. 209
23. ^ Creveld (1977), pp. 26–28
24. ^ Luvaas 1966, p. 3.
25. ^ Robinson 2016, pp. 291–332.
26. ^ Davies 1982, p. 507.
27. ^ Black 1994, p. 62.
28. ^ Browning 1993, p. 20.
29. ^ Browning 1993, p. 24.
30. ^ Asprey 1986, p. 129.
31. ^ Asprey 1986, p. 164.
32. ^ Anderson 1995, p. 68.
33. ^ Armour 2012, pp. 99–101.
34. ^ Anderson 1995, pp. 69–72.
35. ^ Luvaas 1966, p. 46.
36. ^ Black 1998, p. 13.
37. ^ Asprey 1986, p. 223.
38. ^ Jump up to:a b Hannay 1911, p. 40.
39. ^ Anderson 1995, p. 86.
40. ^ Anderson 1995, p. 89.
41. ^ Anderson 1995, p. 88.
42. ^ Jump up to:a b Anderson 1995, p. 94.
43. ^ Showalter 2012, p. 22.
44. ^ Asprey 1986, p. 208.
45. ^ Duffy 2015, pp. 39.
46. ^ Browning 1975, p. 103.
47. ^ Berry 2013.
48. ^ Mitchell 2018, p. 170.
49. ^ Showalter 2012, p. 27.
50. ^ Asprey 1986, p. 274.
51. ^ Anderson 1995, p. 114.
52. ^ Jump up to:a b Browning 1993, p. 136.
53. ^ Périni 1896, p. 295.
54. ^ Anderson 1995, pp. 117–118.
55. ^ Asprey 1986, p. 275.
56. ^ Jump up to:a b Anderson 1995, p. 128.
57. ^ Lincoln 1981, p. 197.
58. ^ Hochedlinger 2003, p. 255.
59. ^ Anderson 1995, pp. 126–127.
60. ^ Harding 2013, p. 171.
61. ^ Baugh 2004.
62. ^ Anderson 1995, p. 137.
63. ^ Riding 2016, p. 29.
64. ^ Anderson 1995, p. 132.
65. ^ Van Nimwegen 2002, p. 187.
66. ^ Browning 1993, p. 175.
67. ^ Asprey 1986, p. 289.
68. ^ Asprey 1986, pp. 290–294.
69. ^ Anderson 1995, p. 134.
70. ^ Duffy 2015, p. 56.
71. ^ Anderson 1995, p. 135.
72. ^ Anderson 1995, p. 139.
73. ^ Anderson 1995, p. 142.
74. ^ Anderson 1995, p. 140.
75. ^ Browning 1993, p. 203.
76. ^ Anderson 1995, p. 141.
77. ^ Anderson 1995, p. 143.
78. ^ Starkey 2003, p. 107.
79. ^ Anderson 1995, pp. 143–144.
80. ^ Browning 1993, p. 218.
81. ^ Anderson 1995, pp. 146–147.
82. ^ Asprey 1986, p. 333.
83. ^ Anderson 1995, p. 148.
84. ^ McKay 1983, pp. 138–140.
85. ^ Anderson 1995, p. 153.
86. ^ Browning, p. 96
91. ^ Browning, pp. 132–133
92. ^ Cranston, Maurice (1991). Jean-Jacques: The Early Life
and Work of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, 1712–1754.
Chicago (IL): University of Chicago Press. p. 183. ISBN 0-
226-11862-2.
93. ^ Smith, pp. 200–201.
94. ^ Smith, pp. 231–233.
95. ^ Smith, p. 243
96. ^ Jump up to:a b c Browning, p. 166
99. ^ Jump up to:a b Browning, p. 164
100. ^ Browning, p. 165
101. ^ Browning, p. 168
102. ^ Browning, pp. 168–169
103. ^ Browning, p. 169
104. ^ Browning, pp. 186–188
105. ^ Browning, pp. 142–143
107. ^ Browing, p. 231
108. ^ Browning, p. 204
109. ^ Hannay 1911, p. 42.
110. ^ Browning, p. 262
111. ^ Browning, p. 287
112. ^ Hannay 1911, pp. 42–43.
113. ^ Browning, pp. 287–288
115. ^ Browning, p. 313
118. ^ Browning: Austrian Succession, 219
119. ^ Tucker, Spencer C., ed. (2009). A Global Chronology
of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle
East. Santa Barbara (CA): ABC-CLIO. p. 746. ISBN 978-
1-851-09667-1.
120. ^ Jump up to:a b Tucker, p. 753
121. ^ Van Nimwegen 2002, p. 299.
122. ^ Tucker, pp. 755–756
123. ^ Black (1999), pp. 97–100
124. ^ Hochedlinger, Michael; Austria's Wars of Emergence,
1683–1797, Longman, London, 2003, p. 259
125. ^ McLynn, p. 1
126. ^ McLynn, p. 2
127. ^ McGill, W. J. (1971). "The Roots of Policy: Kaunitz in
Vienna and Versailles, 1749–53". Journal of Modern
History (43): 229.
128. ^ Armour, pp. 99–101
129. ^ Black (1994), p. 63
130. ^ Browning, p. 150
131. ^ George W. Forrest, "The Siege of Madras in 1746
and the action of La Bourdonnais." Transactions of the
Royal Historical Society 2 (1908): 189–234.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/3678377
132. ^ Jean Sutton, The East India Company's Maritime
Service, 1746–1834: Masters of the Eastern
Seas (Boydell & Brewer, 2010).
133. ^ Jack M. Sosin, "Louisburg and the Peace of Aix-la-
Chapelle, 1748." William and Mary Quarterly (1957): 516–
535.
134. ^ Jump up to:a b c Hannay 1911, p. 45.
135. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g h Hannay 1911, p. 44.
136. ^ Harding
137. ^ K. und K. Kriegsarchiv (1896); Oesterreichischer
Erbfolge-Krieg, vol. 1:1, Verlag L. W. Seidel & Sohn,
Wien, pp. 372, 432–434, 444–445
138. ^ K. und K. Kriegsarchiv (1896), vol. 1:1, pp. 589–590
139. ^ K. und K. Kriegsarchiv (1896), vol. 1:1, pp. 639, 642
140. ^ K. und K. Kriegsarchiv (1896), vol. 1:1, pp. 620–621,
626–627
142. ^ K. und K. Kriegsarchiv (1896), vol. 1:1, p. 605
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War of the Austrian Succession

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

War of the Austrian Succession

Part of the French–Habsburg rivalry and the Austria–Prussia rivalry

• The Capture of the Nuestra Señora de Covadonga (20 April 1743)

• The Battle of Fontenoy (11 May 1745)

• The Battle of Hohenfriedberg (4 June 1745)

• The Siege of Bergen op Zoom (14 July – 18 September 1747)

Date 16 December 1740 – 18 October 1748

• France • Habsburg Monarchy

• Spain • Dutch Republic

• Bavaria (1741–45) • Saxony (1743–45)

• Saxony (1741–42) • Savoy-Sardinia (1742–

• Savoy-Sardinia (1741– 48)

42) • Russia (1741–43,

• Genoa (1745–48) 1748)

Commanders and leaders

• Louis XV of France • Maria Theresa

Marie, 1st duc de o Charles of

o Ulrich o Otto von

o Leopold of II (personal union)

Anhalt-Dessau o Sir Robert

o Infante Philip Compton

• Emperor Charles VII o George

o Max Joseph Wade

• Lorenzo De Mari Cumberland

• Francesco III d'Este o Thomas

• Anthonie van der Heim

• Charles Emmanuel III

Casualties and losses

France: Habsburg Monarchy:

158,400 killed and wounded[5] 148,000 killed and wounded[5]

Naval losses: 20 ships of the line, 16

Prussia: frigates, 28 minor ships, 3,238

Spain: Dutch Republic:

3,000 killed and wounded[5] 14,630 killed and wounded[5]

Naval losses: 17 ships of the line, 7

Total 750,000 dead or wounded[6]

The War of the Austrian Succession (German: Österreichischer Erbfolgekrieg),

Military overview and strategies[edit]

Europe after the Treaty of Vienna (1738), Habsburg Monarchy in gold

Frederick II succeeded his father Frederick William as king of Prussia on 31 May

Louis XV of France by Maurice Quentin de La Tour

By mid-September, Frederick had captured

Frederick's position continued to deteriorate; on 8 January, Austria, Britain, the Dutch

Victory at Fontenoy in May 1745 re-established French confidence

Italian Campaigns, 1741–1747[edit]

Charles III of Spain by Anton Raphael Mengs

The Prince of Conti by Alexis Simon Belle

The Genoese charge during the Battle of Bassignano in 1745

The Low Countries, 1745–1748[edit]

Map of the Low Countries; Bergen op Zoom, upper center

The Peace of 1748[edit]

Europe in the years after the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748

The war marked the beginning of a powerful struggle

Strength of armies 1740[edit]

1. ^ The amount of British troops on the continent however

The Prussian infantry during the Battle of Mollwitz, 1741