Language Acquisition and Learning

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Course

Principles and Theories of Language Acquisition and Learning

Submitted by: Kate M. Surban

BSED – English 2nd Year

Submitted to: Prof. Esmeralda T. Metillo

October 2022
Introduction

Language is the primary method of human communication, but there are also other ways to
communicate without the use of language. When asked to define language we tend to think of a
verbal and written system in which certain sounds and symbols come together in a specific way
to convey meaning. Language in its most complex form is unique to humans, although some
animals have been found to have basic communication patterns.

CLASSROOM STRATEGIES: How can I position this child for success in my classroom?

All that teachers learn about themselves as teachers and about teaching practice emerges in the
planning, teaching and assessing of their students. This final characteristic of Inclusive
Pedagogy, classroom strategies, recognizes and is informed by that fact. Each of the
characteristics of Inclusive Pedagogy will inform classroom strategies. A clear understanding of
students, their needs, and the resources available to serve them will inform classroom strategies.
When teachers have clearly articulated the principles that form the moral and theoretical
foundation for their practice, they develop clear guidelines for their practice. An understanding
and development of policy to guide practice and political action for ensuring legal protection are
moral obligations that teachers fulfill so that they can utilize best practices in their schools and
classrooms. Teachers understand student development: cognitive, social, and linguistic. This
understanding helps them select the instructional practices which hold the most promise for
supporting student learning. Foundationally teachers come to understand that educating students
to meet their full potential is a joint and shared responsibility of educators, parents, students, and
other members of the community. Through the development of informed practice, teachers meet
the needs of all students and are better prepared to advocate for their own students both within
and beyond their classrooms.

Classroom Strategies Standard: Teachers know the what and the why of effective
classroom strategies for all students.

This standard reminds teachers that having a bag of tricks for teaching, while helpful, is not the
ultimate goal of an educator. Teachers do need to have multiple strategies in their repertoire in
order to respond effectively and quickly to the learning needs and potential of their students.
However, if their practice is to lead to maximum and powerful learning for students, teachers
need to know not only how a strategy works and what they need to effectively implement it; but
they also need to know why it works for particular student populations. Teachers who hold this
kind of knowledge soon realize that the same strategy will indeed work in teaching different
student populations but also that it is effective with these populations for different reasons. A
teaching strategy that works for a second language learner can also support the learning of
talented and gifted, culturally diverse, regular education students, or special populations.
However, teachers practice and use of strategies become stronger and more sophisticated when
they understand why it works for each population. When teachers hold this knowledge subtle
differentiation and nuanced teaching that supports the learning of all students quickly emerge.
1. Planning
How can I adjust my planning to meet the needs and utilize the strengths of all students?

If teachers are to truly meet the needs of all students under their charge, they will need to
intentionally and carefully plan their instruction. Such planning begins by developing deep
understanding of the content to be taught which positions them to ask “What is most essential?
What is absolutely necessary for future learning and success? Where and how should I begin
teaching about this content?” Such interrogation allows the teacher to identify the conceptual
level of the content and maintain it. This allows the teacher to attend to the complexity and
simplicity of what needs to be learned and modify and differentiate content to accommodate the
learning of all students. This allows teachers to create a, more complex, and richer context for
student learning. In this process, teachers will have considered what will be most difficult and
how they can support each child in learning what is needed to be successful in the content being
taught. Careful consideration of the content and attention to teaching it will reveal the hidden
complexities in delivery method or strategy. In their response to these understandings, teachers
will be better positioned to motivate and engage all students in learning. Teachers then become
freed to select the best teaching practices for supporting student learning.

2. Teaching
How can my teaching accommodate all students?

Based in their planning, teachers develop curriculum that can most effectively engage students in
learning. But during the teaching, teachers will be involved in scaffolding, adjusting,
accommodating, and individualizing in moment-to-moment negotiation of classroom learning.
The questions ask you to be thoughtful both during your teaching and as you reflect on it. In this
way, you will develop increased sensitivity to the strengths, behavior patterns and needs of
students in your classroom. When teachers plan carefully and are prepared for the lesson and
have developed understanding of what strategies work and why, they are more likely to be
present and flexible in the immediate context of a lesson. They will be able to adjust and modify
as they observe and immediately respond to student misunderstanding, misbehavior, or
confusion. They will continually push student learning. They will recognize when to pause,
recycle, or push forward in the immediate context of a lesson. When teachers understand the
how, what, and why behind the classroom strategies they employ, they develop excellence in
teaching practice.

3. Assessment
How can I make sure that my assessment practice allows all students to demonstrate what
they know?

A basic purpose of assessment is to enable all students who know the content or have the skill
being evaluated to demonstrate that knowledge or skills. This question asks teachers to examine
their assessment and evaluation practices. Assessment should provide teachers with clear insight
and information about the current state of students’ knowledge and skills. Uncovering what
students know and garnering evidence of their knowing is a challenge for teachers, particularly
when teachers gather evidence of the learning of special population students. The challenge is to
utilize assessment strategies and practices that allow you to distinguish between students
understanding of content and ability with the skill being assessed and their general problems with
learning, difficulties with language and issues related to cultural diversity. When teachers are
clear and plan lessons that target what is essential for students to know and be able to do, it
increased their ability to design assessments that accurately capture student knowledge, skills,
and learning. In this way, teachers are positioned to use a wider array of testing strategies and
formats, more frequently utilize authentic assessment experiences, and to provide a more
accurate picture of students' development, potential, and ability.
Behavioral Theory

Behaviorism or the behavioral learning theory is a popular concept that focuses on how students
learn. Behaviorism focuses on the idea that all behaviors are learned through interaction with the
environment. This learning theory states that behaviors are learned from the environment, and
says that innate or inherited factors have very little influence on behavior.
Behaviorism started as a reaction against introspective psychology in the 19th century, which
relied heavily on first-person accounts. J.B. Watson and B.F. Skinner rejected introspective
methods as being subjective and unquantifiable. These psychologists wanted to focus on
observable, quantifiable events and behaviors. They said that science should take into account
only observable indicators. They helped bring psychology into higher relevance by showing that
it could be accurately measured and understood, and it wasn’t just based off opinions.
Watson and Skinner believed that if they were given a group of infants, the way they were raised
and the environment they put them in would be the ultimate determining factor for how they
acted, not their parents or their genetics.
Positive reinforcement is key in the behavioral learning theory. Without positive reinforcement,
students will quickly abandon their responses because they don’t appear to be working. For
example, if students are supposed to get a sticker every time they get an A on a test, and then
teachers stop giving that positive reinforcement, less students may get A’s on their tests, because
the behavior isn’t connected to a reward for them. 
Repetition and positive reinforcement go hand-in-hand with the behavioral learning theory.
Teachers often work to strike the right balance of repeating the situation and having the positive
reinforcement come to show students why they should continue that behavior. 
Motivation plays an important role in behavioral learning. Positive and negative reinforcement
can be motivators for students. For example, a student who receives praise for a good test score
is much more likely to learn the answers effectively than a student who receives no praise for a
good test score. The student who receives no praise is experiencing negative reinforcement—
their brain tells them that though they got a good grade, it didn’t really matter, so the material of
the test becomes unimportant to them. Conversely students who receive positive reinforcement
see a direct correlation to continuing excellence, completely based on that response to a positive
stimulus.  
 Constructivism Theory

Constructivism is the theory that says learners construct knowledge rather than just passively
take in information. As people experience the world and reflect upon those experiences, they
build their own representations and incorporate new information into their pre-existing
knowledge (schemas).

Related to this are the processes of assimilation and accommodation.

 Assimilation refers to the process of taking new information and fitting it into an existing
schema.
 Accommodation refers to using newly acquired information to revise and redevelop an existing
schema.

For example, if I believe that friends are always nice, and meet a new person who is always nice
to me I may call this person a friend, assimilating them into my schema. Perhaps, however, I
meet a different person who sometimes pushes me to try harder and is not always nice. I may
decide to change my schema to accommodate this person by deciding a friend doesn’t always
need to be nice if they have my best interests in mind. Further, this may make me reconsider
whether the first person still fits into my friend schema.

Consequences for the Classroom

There are many consequences for teaching and the classroom if you adhere to constructivist
principles. The following chart from the Teaching and Learning Resources wiki compares
traditional and constructivist classrooms across several components.

Traditional Classroom Constructivist Classroom

Curriculum begins with the parts of Curriculum emphasizes big concepts, beginning with
the whole. Emphasizes basic skills. the whole and expanding to include the parts.

Strict adherence to fixed curriculum is

Pursuit of student questions and interests is valued.
highly valued.
Materials are primarily textbooks and Materials include primary sources of material and
workbooks. manipulative materials.

Learning is interactive, building on what the student

Learning is based on repetition.
already knows.

Teachers disseminate information to

Teachers have a dialogue with students, helping
students. Students are recipients of
students construct their own knowledge.
knowledge.

Teacher's role is directive, rooted in

Teacher's role is interactive, rooted in negotiation.
authority.

Assessment includes student works, observations and

Assessment is through testing and
points of view, as well as tests. Process is as
correct answers.
important as product.

Knowledge is seen as dynamic, ever changing with

Knowledge is seen as inert.
our experiences.

Students work primarily alone. Students work primarily in groups.

Nativist Theory
Linguists have long debated how and why we're able to learn a language. In some ways, this is
sort of a chicken and egg kind of scenario: are we born with the ability to communicate with
language, or do we learn it after we're born?
Guided by these burning questions about why children are so adept at learning a language, Noam
Chomsky developed what is called the nativist perspective. According to Chomsky's theory,
infants have an innate ability to learn language. From a very early age, we're able to understand
the basics of language. For instance, Chomsky argued, children are able to understand the
appropriate order of words from a young age. Instead of saying ''Juice I want,'' children know to
say ''I want juice!'' Chomsky noted that this is similar across languages. Children are able to do
this even before they have developed much of a vocabulary. This is an important point for
Chomsky because it underscores his theory that children are able to understand the structure and
rules even before they know many words.
Language acquisition is the study of the processes by which a person learns a language. Nativist
theories hypothesize that language is an innate fundamental part of the human genetic make-up
and that language acquisition occurs as a natural part of the human experience. Nativist theorists
argue that children are born with an innate ability to organize laws of language, which enables
children to easily learn a native language. They believe that children have language-specific
abilities that assist them as they work towards mastering a language. This notion is often times
contrasted to the behavioralist perspectives of Skinner and Watson who argued that language 

Language Acquisition Device

So, what is responsible for this? The language acquisition device (LAD) is a hypothetical area
of the brain that explains how children can learn languages so quickly. By hypothetical, we mean
that if you were to take a look inside of a person's brain you would not see a section labeled
LAD. In other words, LAD is more of a theoretical idea. It accounts for the ways in which
children have an innate ability to understand language and syntax. The LAD is meant to help us
understand the many underlying processes that explain why we're so good at learning languages.

Before Chomsky developed his theory, it was widely held by linguists and psychologists that
babies learn a language by mimicking those around them. In other words, we hear and see others
talk and copy that. Language acquisition is a cultural phenomenon. However, Chomsky argued
this approach could not explain how young children understand things like the arrangement of
words. That's more complicated than simply listening to your parents talk to you. Chomsky
stated that this part of the brain is a uniquely human trait and cannot be found in other animals,
which helps explain why it is only humans who can communicate through language.
The term Universal Grammar has been used to describe the knowledge contained within the
LAD. Let's take a closer look at Universal Grammar.
Interactionist/Social Theory of Language Acquisition

The interactionist/social theory proposes that language exists for the purpose of communication
and can only be learned in the context of interaction with adults and other children. It stresses the
importance of the environment and culture in which the language is being learned. Interactionists
acknowledge the presence of innate biological mechanisms, but emphasize the critical role of
social interactions (Jensen & Arnett, 2017; Levine & Munsch, 2018). Lev Vygotsky is the most
well-known interactionist theorist and provided a theoretical framework for other interactionists
to further develop theories of language acquisition. [1]

Influenced by the work of Vygotsky, Jerome Bruner believed that social interaction plays a
fundamental role in the development of cognition in general and language in particular. Whereas
Chomsky focused on innate mechanisms of language acquisition such as the idea of a language
acquisition device (LAD), Bruner proposed the language acquisition support system (LASS) in
opposition to Chomsky (Bakhurst & Shanker, 2001). The LASS refers to the social and cultural
experiences that support and encourage language acquisition. This includes child-directed
language exposure (e.g., parentese, dialogic reading, etc.,) as well as the various activities
children engage in while also receiving exposure to language. Whereas the LAD emphasizes that
children come into the world programmed ready to learn language, the LASS emphasizes that it
is the world that is ready to expose and support children in learning language. [2]

The interactionist approach can also help explain how differences in the quantity and quality of
language exposure affect a child's language development. The contexts that children are raised in
can be very different and the differences in language exposure across various contexts should be
emphasized when considering how children acquire language (Rowe & Weisleder, 2020).
Differences in language exposure, even exposure very early in life, such as exposure at a
neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) for children born premature, can have long lasting effects.
Variations in the amount of adult language a newborn heard on a single day in the NICU were
positively associated with language skills at 7 and 18 months of age (Caskey et al, 2014) and the
more language premature children heard at 16 months, the faster their language processing
abilities were at 18 months of age (Adams et al., 2018). Furthermore, the higher the quality
(responsive, verbally elaborative, and non-intrusive) of caregiver interactions with 22 month old
children born prematurely, the larger their vocabulary comprehension was at three years of age
(Loi et al., 2017). This research, along with so much more, demonstrates the critical importance
of social interaction and exposure in the process of language acquisition.
Schumann's Acculturation Model

Some learners make rapid progress in learning a second language, while others with the same
initial ability and language instruction make little progress in the same amount of time.
Schumann hypothesized that this difference could be accounted for by characteristics of the
social and psychological distance learners placed between themselves and the language they
were learning. Schumann identified eight characteristics of social distance and four
characteristics of psychological distance.

Schumann’s Acculturation Theory as presented in The Pidginization Process: A Model for

Second Language Acquisition (1978) predicts that the degree of a learner’s success in second
language (L2) acquisition depends upon the learner’s degree of acculturation.The social and
psychological factors influence the acculturation process and the second language
learning.According to Schumman the naturalistic or untutored SLA is a by-product of
acculturation, which is defined by him as "the social and psychological integration of the learner
with the target language (TL) group."

To Schuman ,the social distance consists of eight factors,which greatly hamper in the successful
learning of SLA. The eight components of the social distance are discussed below.

Social dominance. The social dominanace considers the degree of equality (subordination or

domination) between the host and guest cultures. If the second-language learning (2LL) group is
politically, culturally, technically or economically dominant to or subordinate to the target
language (TL) group, social contact between the two groups will tend not to be sufficient for
optimal target language acquisition. If they are nearly equal in status, then there will be more
contact between the two groups and thus, acquisition of the target language will be enhanced.

Integration pattern or  Assimilation, preservation, and adaptation: The best condition for L2

acquisition is obtained when the 2LL group wants to assimilate into the TL group. The second
best condition occurs when the 2LL group wants to adapt to the TL culture for intragroup
interaction without assimilating to it. The least favorable conditions obtain for acquiring the L2
when the 2LL group wishes to remain separated linguistically and culturally from the TL group.
 
Enclosure: The more the 2LL groups share social institutions such as schools, churches,
workplaces, clubs, and others with the TL group, the more favorable the conditions will be for
L2 acquisition. 
Cohesiveness: The guest community tends to stay as a cohesive group as seen in the avobe
example. But the smaller and less cohesive the 2LL group, the more likely the contact with the
TL group and the more favorable the conditions for L2 acquisition.

Size:  If the size of the learner’s group is large ,it tends to facilitate intragroup contact rather than
inter-group contact. 

Congruence: The more similar the culture of the two groups, the more likely there will be social
contact and thus language acquisition.
Attitude: The more positive the views of the 2LL group toward the TL group, the more favorable
will be the conditions for L2.

Intended length of residence: The longer L2 learners plan to remain in the L2 environment, the
more likely it is that they will feel the necessity of learning the TL.

Thus, the great social distance between the host community and the target language speakers and
culture deeply affects their acculturation, and hence their second language acquisition.

How social distance hampers SLA is also seen from the famous research on Alberto,on which
Schumman’s theory is based.

In the fall of 1973 a research project was undertaken to make a ten month longitudinal study of
the untutored acquisition of English by six native speakers of Spanish-two children, two
adolescents and two adults. Data collection involved the recording of both spontaneous and
experimentally elicited speech.

The study on a 33 year old Costa Rican named Alberto evidenced very little linguistic
development during the course of the project. It was felt that by attempting to account for his
lack of learning, significant insight could be gained about what is involved in successful second
language acquisition in general. Alberto spoke a reduced and simplified form of English in
which the negative particle was held external to the verb, questions were uninverted, inflectional
morphemes tended to be absent and auxiliary development was minimal. Three causes for his
lack of development were considered: ability, social and psychological distance from English
speakers, and age.

Psychological distance
 
The four affective variables included in Schumann's acculturation model are: 1) language shock,
or the degree to which speaking the new language makes the learner feel foolish or comical; 2)
culture shock, the extent to which the learner feels disoriented and uncomfortable with extended
residence in a new culture; 3) ego permeability, the ability of the learner to accept a new identity
associated with the belonging to a new speech community, and 4) motivation, the degree and
type of desire experienced by the learner to acquire the L2. Of these, only motivation seemed
particularly applicable to the situation involved in this research and therefore it will be the only
one included in the data collection. In Schumann's model high levels of motivation, both
integrative and instrumental contribute positively to second language acquisition.

Schumann  claims that acculturation, or the integration of the L2 learner into the target linguistic
community, is not a direct cause of second language acquisition (SLA), but rather it is the first in
a chain of factors which results in natural SLA. He proposes that "acculturation as a remote
cause brings the learner into contact with TL-speakers and verbal interaction with those speakers
as a proximate cause brings about the negotiation of appropriate input which then operates as the
immediate cause of language acquisition"
Stephen Krashen's Theory of Second Language Acquisition
Stephen Krashen (University of Southern California) is an expert in the field of linguistics,
specializing in theories of language acquisition and development. Much of his recent research
has involved the study of non-English and bilingual language acquisition. Since 1980, he has
published well over 100 books and articles and has been invited to deliver over 300 lectures at
universities throughout the United States and Canada.

The Acquisition-Learning distinction is the most fundamental of the five hypotheses in

Krashen's theory and the most widely known among linguists and language teachers. According
to Krashen there are two independent systems of foreign language performance: 'the acquired
system' and 'the learned system'. The 'acquired system' or 'acquisition' is the product of a
subconscious process very similar to the process children undergo when they acquire their first
language. It requires meaningful interaction in the target language - natural communication - in
which speakers are concentrated not in the form of their utterances, but in the communicative
act.

The "learned system" or "learning" is the product of formal instruction and it comprises a
conscious process which results in conscious knowledge 'about' the language, for example
knowledge of grammar rules. A deductive approach in a teacher-centered setting produces
"learning", while an inductive approach in a student-centered setting leads to "acquisition".

The Role of Grammar in Krashen's View

According to Krashen, the study of the structure of the language can have general educational
advantages and values that high schools and colleges may want to include in their language
programs. Any benefit, however, will greatly depend on the learner being already familiar with
the language. It should also be clear that analizing the language, formulating rules, setting
irregularities apart, and teaching complex facts about the target language is not language
teaching, but rather is "language appreciation" or linguistics, which does not lead to
communicative proficiency.

The only instance in which the teaching of grammar can result in language acquisition (and
proficiency) is when the students are interested in the subject and the target language is used as a
medium of instruction. Very often, when this occurs, both teachers and students are convinced
that the study of formal grammar is essential for second language acquisition, and the teacher is
skillful enough to present explanations in the target language so that the students understand. In
other words, the teacher talk meets the requirements for comprehensible input and perhaps, with
the students' participation, the classroom becomes an environment suitable for acquisition. Also,
the filter is low in regard to the language of explanation, as the students' conscious efforts are
usually on the subject matter, on what is being talked about, and not the medium.

This is a subtle point. In effect, both teachers and students are deceiving themselves. They
believe that it is the subject matter itself, the study of grammar, that is responsible for the
students progress, but in reality their progress is coming from the medium and not the message.
Any subject matter that held their interest would do just as well.
Cognitive Theory

Cognitive learning theory explains how internal and external factors influence an individual’s
mental processes to supplement learning.

Delays and difficulties in learning are seen when cognitive processes are not working regularly.
These processes are such as attention, observation, retrieval from long-term memory, and
categorization. Several researchers have made significant contributions to this theory. Jerome
Bruner focused on how mental processes are linked to teaching.

Another researcher by the name Jean Piaget recognized that the environment plays a huge role
and also focused on changes that take place in the internal cognitive structure. You can read
more about Piaget’s theory of cognitive development in our previous article.Today, cognitive
learning theory is dominant in psychology. It is broken down into two categories.

Social Cognitive Theory

This theory helps us understand how people are influenced and their influence on the
environment. One of the major components of social cognitive theory is observational learning.
It is the process of learning others’ desirable and undesirable behaviors through observation. It is
a quick way of acquiring information when you individually take action. A person who
demonstrates behavior for another person is known as a model.

These may be real people such as teachers, our peers, and supervisors, or symbolic models, also
known as fictional characters that influence an observer’s behavior. Observational learning
teaches people both positive and negative behaviors.

For example, a manager within a company can teach the employees how they are supposed to
behave ethically and be socially conscious when interacting and dealing with rude customers.
Moreover, the manager can also train his/her employees on the different procedures that they can
take in case of fire or other low probability hazardous scenarios.

Cognitive Behavioral Theory

This theory mainly refers to our mental processes, such as our thoughts and interpretations of life
events. It explains how the thoughts, feelings, and behavior of a person interact with each other.
Thoughts lead to particular emotions, which in turn lead to specific behavioral responses. When
we change our thoughts, we can change our emotions and then our behaviors. It also works in
reverse where changing how we behave leads to changes in our feelings and, ultimately, our
thoughts.
Let’s take an example of a developer who encounters a problem in a particular sphere and
automatically believes that the task is difficult for him/her right away. The employee is
automatically likely to have a negative attitude towards this particular task, and his performance
will likely be poor.

Cognitive Learning Strategies

Several psychologists have shaped the concept of cognitive learning through research. They
came up with theories and learning strategies that can be implemented in a corporate learning
environment.

Learner-centered strategy

Jean Piaget termed learning as relating information to already existing knowledge. And each
learner starts with their own knowledge and experience.

According to his theories, learning begins with the accumulation of some basic knowledge and
advancing deeper into the field with time.

Piaget suggested three vital components of learning:

 Accommodation - taking new information into account by modifying what we already

know.

 Assimilation - the arrangement of new knowledge inside our heads beside what we know.

 Equilibration - balancing what we already know with the new information that we are
trying to acquire.
Language Acquisition vs. Language Learning

Language learning is the teaching about a language (its use, its speaker, its structure), with the
hope that the student will learn enough to actually be able to speak the target language. Language
acquisition, in its current sense, tries to expose the student to the target language in meaningful
ways so that he or she acquires the language’s structure through actual use. Language learning
follows from the official language model, whereas Native American languages are taught as
foreign language in their own native community. This helps to commodify the heritage language;
makes studying it an artificial exercise; and occupies the time, money, and effort of the
population that could be better spent in doing language acquisition and achieving real results of
the revitalization of their heritage language.

Language Acquisition is the manner of learning a language by immersion. It provides the student
with the practical knowledge of the language. Whereas, language learning focuses on providing
theoretical knowledge of a language.
Language is the primary form of communication that humans use. However, language is not
something that is taught to children. A child will pick up his/her native language just by being
around other people, mainly their families. This is called language acquisition. The child
acquires the language without any conscious thought or study.

In fact, by the time a child is five years old, he/she can express ideas clearly and almost perfectly
from the point of view of language and grammar. This is despite any formal studying of the
language.

Language learning, on the other hand, is a structured learning of a language. This is the process
that most people follow when trying to learn another language. Here the student is made to study
lists of vocabulary, as well as sentence structure and grammar. This is the most common method
used in schools and language learning centers.

Language learning is generally considered to be a slower process than language acquisition.

There are people who study a language for years without mastering it. The main difference
between Language Acquisition and Language Learning is that Language Acquisition is the
manner of learning a language by immersion. It provides the student with the practical
knowledge of the language, for example, the student might not known the grammar rule but is
still able to immaculately converse with a native.

Whereas, language learning focuses on providing theoretical knowledge of a language. In this

case, the student might know all the proper grammar rules and the correct ways of sentence
structuring, but might still lack the confidence to have a conversation with a native.

Hence, as stated by Stephen Krashen, students who are taught in a formal, structured way will
“learn” the language but never fully acquire it.
Comparison between Language Acquisition and Language Learning:

 
Language Acquisition Language Learning

Meaning Picking up a language Studying a language

Focus Practical Knowledge Theoretical Knowlegde

Method Unconscious, implicit Conscious, explicit

Situations Informal situations Formal situations

Grammar Does not use grammatical rules Uses grammatical rules

Dependency Depends on attitude Depends on aptitude

Simple to complex order of

Order of learning Stable order of learning
learning

First Language Acquisition

vs Second Language
Acquisition
The expected cry of a newborn
baby is the first sign of human
communication. Language
acquisition process can be seen as
a running parallel throughout a
child‟s life every day.
She/he learns to communicate
through natural interactions with
his/her environment. The
process begins in the early
live of a human and requires
a healthy start, sufficient
opportunities, and exposure to a
care giving environment that
allows the child‟s innate
predisposition to learn to
communicate to functions
(Rossetti, 2001, p. 45).
More than half of the world‟s
population today uses more than
one language while being
connected to fundamental human
activities. Bilingualism symbolizes
the essential humanity
of building bridges between people
of different color, creed, culture
and language (Baker,
2000, p.5)
First Language Acquisition
vs Second Language
Acquisition
The expected cry of a newborn
baby is the first sign of human
communication. Language
acquisition process can be seen as
a running parallel throughout a
child‟s life every day.
She/he learns to communicate
through natural interactions with
his/her environment. The
process begins in the early
live of a human and requires
a healthy start, sufficient
opportunities, and exposure to a
care giving environment that
allows the child‟s innate
predisposition to learn to
communicate to functions
(Rossetti, 2001, p. 45).
More than half of the world‟s
population today uses more than
one language while being
connected to fundamental human
activities. Bilingualism symbolizes
the essential humanity
of building bridges between people
of different color, creed, culture
and language (Baker,
2000, p.5)
First Language Acquisition
vs Second Language
Acquisition
The expected cry of a newborn
baby is the first sign of human
communication. Language
acquisition process can be seen as
a running parallel throughout a
child‟s life every day.
She/he learns to communicate
through natural interactions with
his/her environment. The
process begins in the early
live of a human and requires
a healthy start, sufficient
opportunities, and exposure to a
care giving environment that
allows the child‟s innate
predisposition to learn to
communicate to functions
(Rossetti, 2001, p. 45).
More than half of the world‟s
population today uses more than
one language while being
connected to fundamental human
activities. Bilingualism symbolizes
the essential humanity
of building bridges between people
of different color, creed, culture
and language (Baker,
2000, p.5)
First Language Acquisition
vs Second Language
Acquisition
The expected cry of a newborn
baby is the first sign of human
communication. Language
acquisition process can be seen as
a running parallel throughout a
child‟s life every day.
She/he learns to communicate
through natural interactions with
his/her environment. The
process begins in the early
live of a human and requires
a healthy start, sufficient
opportunities, and exposure to a
care giving environment that
allows the child‟s innate
predisposition to learn to
communicate to functions
(Rossetti, 2001, p. 45).
More than half of the world‟s
population today uses more than
one language while being
connected to fundamental human
activities. Bilingualism symbolizes
the essential humanity
of building bridges between people
of different color, creed, culture
and language (Baker,
2000, p.5)
First Language Acquisition
vs Second Language
Acquisition
The expected cry of a newborn
baby is the first sign of human
communication. Language
acquisition process can be seen as
a running parallel throughout a
child‟s life every day.
She/he learns to communicate
through natural interactions with
his/her environment. The
process begins in the early
live of a human and requires
a healthy start, sufficient
opportunities, and exposure to a
care giving environment that
allows the child‟s innate
predisposition to learn to
communicate to functions
(Rossetti, 2001, p. 45).
More than half of the world‟s
population today uses more than
one language while being
connected to fundamental human
activities. Bilingualism symbolizes
the essential humanity
of building bridges between people
of different color, creed, culture
and language (Baker,
2000, p.5)
First Language Acquisition
vs Second Language
Acquisition
The expected cry of a newborn
baby is the first sign of human
communication. Language
acquisition process can be seen as
a running parallel throughout a
child‟s life every day.
She/he learns to communicate
through natural interactions with
his/her environment. The
process begins in the early
live of a human and requires
a healthy start, sufficient
opportunities, and exposure to a
care giving environment that
allows the child‟s innate
predisposition to learn to
communicate to functions
(Rossetti, 2001, p. 45).
More than half of the world‟s
population today uses more than
one language while being
connected to fundamental human
activities. Bilingualism symbolizes
the essential humanity
of building bridges between people
of different color, creed, culture
and language (Baker,
2000, p.5)
First Language Acquisition
vs Second Language
Acquisition
The expected cry of a newborn
baby is the first sign of human
communication. Language
acquisition process can be seen as
a running parallel throughout a
child‟s life every day.
She/he learns to communicate
through natural interactions with
his/her environment. The
process begins in the early
live of a human and requires
a healthy start, sufficient
opportunities, and exposure to a
care giving environment that
allows the child‟s innate
predisposition to learn to
communicate to functions
(Rossetti, 2001, p. 45).
More than half of the world‟s
population today uses more than
one language while being
connected to fundamental human
activities. Bilingualism symbolizes
the essential humanity
of building bridges between people
of different color, creed, culture
and language (Baker,
2000, p.5)
First Language Acquisition
vs Second Language
Acquisition
The expected cry of a newborn
baby is the first sign of human
communication. Language
acquisition process can be seen as
a running parallel throughout a
child‟s life every day.
She/he learns to communicate
through natural interactions with
his/her environment. The
process begins in the early
live of a human and requires
a healthy start, sufficient
opportunities, and exposure to a
care giving environment that
allows the child‟s innate
predisposition to learn to
communicate to functions
(Rossetti, 2001, p. 45).
More than half of the world‟s
population today uses more than
one language while being
connected to fundamental human
activities. Bilingualism symbolizes
the essential humanity
of building bridges between people
of different color, creed, culture
and language (Baker,
2000, p.5)
First Language Acquisition
vs Second Language
Acquisition
The expected cry of a newborn
baby is the first sign of human
communication. Language
acquisition process can be seen as
a running parallel throughout a
child‟s life every day.
She/he learns to communicate
through natural interactions with
his/her environment. The
process begins in the early
live of a human and requires
a healthy start, sufficient
opportunities, and exposure to a
care giving environment that
allows the child‟s innate
predisposition to learn to
communicate to functions
(Rossetti, 2001, p. 45).
More than half of the world‟s
population today uses more than
one language while being
connected to fundamental human
activities. Bilingualism symbolizes
the essential humanity
of building bridges between people
of different color, creed, culture
and language (Baker,
2000, p.5).
First Language Acquisition
vs Second Language
Acquisition
The expected cry of a newborn
baby is the first sign of human
communication. Language
acquisition process can be seen as
a running parallel throughout a
child‟s life every day.
She/he learns to communicate
through natural interactions with
his/her environment. The
process begins in the early
live of a human and requires
a healthy start, sufficient
opportunities, and exposure to a
care giving environment that
allows the child‟s innate
predisposition to learn to
communicate to functions
(Rossetti, 2001, p. 45).
More than half of the world‟s
population today uses more than
one language while being
connected to fundamental human
activities. Bilingualism symbolizes
the essential humanity
of building bridges between people
of different color, creed, culture
and language (Baker,
2000, p.5).
SIX PRINCIPLES OF LANGUAGE LEARNING APPLIED TO L2
A large literature on monolingual language development provides a useful guide on how to foster
strong language skills in L1 acquisition (e.g., Harris, Golinkoff, & Hirsh-Pasek, 2011;
ParishMorris, Golinkoff, & Hirsh-Pasek, 2013), but less is available on ESL. Because ESL
children’s early language skills have consequences for their later academic achievement (Miller
et al., 2006) and because the number of ESL children entering school is increasing (Batalova &
McHugh, 2010), understanding the factors that promote L2 acquisition is imperative.

Principle 1: Children Learn What They Hear Most Frequency matters; children learn
what they hear most.
A concern for ESL children growing up in impoverished environments is that the amount of
input a child hears in each language may affect vocabulary size in each language (Gollan,
Montoya, Cera, & Sandoval, 2008; Hoff, Core, et al., 2012; Pearson, Fernandez, Lewedeg, &
Oller, 1997). Research suggests that ESL children tend to have a smaller vocabulary size in each
language compared to their monolingual peers (Bialystok, Craik, Green, & Gollan, 2009;
Pearson et al., 1993), although the combined or conceptual vocabulary size of both languages is
often equal to that of monolinguals (Hoff, Core, et al., 2012; Pearson et al., 1993). ESL children,
who already have an established L1, may face additional struggles that bilingual children who
simultaneously acquire two languages do not experience. For example, ESL children are likely to
rely on their L1 during the initial stages of L2 acquisition (White, 1996), experiencing negative
transfer or interference from the L1 to the L2. Receiving a large amount of L2 input is especially
important for ESL children, as they may need extra support. Why is amount of input important
for language learning? As early as 8 months, infants extract regularities, such as word
boundaries, from the stream of speech input surrounding them. For example, infants can track
transitional probabilities of neighboring speech syllables (i.e., the likelihood that one syllable
follows another) in a continuous stream of speech (Saffran, Aslin, & Newport, 1996). This
statistical ability is robust and helps children not only detect neighboring sounds and find words
in their primary language(s), but also detect words in foreign languages to which they have never
been exposed (e.g., Hay, Pelucchi, Graf Estes, & Saffran, 2011). To extract regularities,
sufficient input must be present, and the frequency with which children hear words affects their
ability to acquire words (Huttenlocher, Haight, Bryk, Seltzer, & Lyons, 1991). In addition, the
amount of language input affects processing speed, or the rate at Downloaded by [Temple
University Libraries] at 08:05 21 December 2017 SIX PRINCIPLES OF SECOND
LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT 407 which children recognize spoken words. Processing speed,
in turn, likely affects children ability to grasp the meaning of new words uttered in linguistic
context (Weisleder & Fernald, 2013). Statistical learning is likely to be used by ESL children, as
studies have shown that infants can track speech sounds in foreign languages (e.g., Hay et al.,
2011). Even after children learn to isolate phonemes, stress patterns, and words in the initial
stages of acquisition, large quantities of L2 input are needed to acquire syntactic structures.
Amount of language input also affects language processing speed and trajectories of vocabulary
learning in bilingual children. Input quantity children received at 18 months related to word
recognition and vocabulary size at 24 months, such that those who received more input at 18
months were faster in word recognition and knew more words at 24 months (Hurtado,
Marchman, & Fernald, 2008). Because amount of language input is especially important for ESL
children who already have an established L1 (Hammer et al., 2008; Hoff, Core, et al., 2012),
parents and practitioners who work with ESL children must provide them with large amounts of
language input in both languages as early as possible, to prevent future language difficulties that
ESL children frequently face. Although research suggests that amount of language input matters,
it remains subject to future research to investigate how much L2 input is necessary for ESL
children to catch up to their monolingual peers in their academic achievement.

Principle 2: Children Learn Words for Things and Events That Interest Them
Bloom (1993) argued that children are likely to learn words for things they find interesting or
salient. In her words, “Language learning is enhanced when the words a child hears bear upon
and are pertinent to the objects of engagement, interest, and feelings ... ” (Bloom, 1993, p. 19—
Principle of Relevance). The learner’s interest plays an essential role in any type of learning.
Importantly, what is appealing to an infant may be different from what is interesting to a child.
Here, we consider how perceptual and social factors may promote L1 and L2 development. The
Emergentist Coalition Model (ECM) of language development suggests that children have access
to a number of co-occurring cues for word learning, but hone in on cues that they are particularly
drawn to at different developmental time points (Golinkoff & Hirsh-Pasek, 2006; Hollich et al.,
2000). Infants may initially map labels only to salient objects and may not learn the names of
objects they consider boring. Indeed, 10-month-old infants rely on perceptual saliency when
attaching labels to objects (Pruden, Hirsh-Pasek, Golinkoff, & Hennon, 2006). By 18 months,
infants begin to use social cues from the speaker such as eye gaze and object handling to attach
labels to referents (Hollich et al., 2000). Infants initially lack the skills required to coordinate
attention between objects and social partners; however, their ability to maintain joint attention, or
the mechanism of sharing common referents within a dyad, becomes well consolidated by the
age of 18 months (Bakeman & Adamson, 1984). Once infants acquire the capacity to engage in
joint attention, adults can manipulate objects to sustain the child’s interest, which facilitates word
learning. Indeed, the amount of time dyads spent in joint attentional episodes during six months
of home observation, beginning with the child’s first birthday, was positively related to the
child’s vocabulary size at 18 months (Tomasello & Todd, 1983; see also Tomasello, Mannle, &
Kruger, 1986). Research suggests that children whose parents follow their child’s interest to an
object, creating a joint attention situation, are more likely to learn the label for that object than
when parents redirect their children’s attention to another referent (Akhtar, Dunham, & Dunham,
Downloaded by [Temple University Libraries] at 08:05 21 December 2017 408 KONISHI ET
AL. 1991; Tomasello & Farrar, 1986). This process scaffolds children’s challenge in linking
linguistic symbols to their referents (Baldwin & Markman, 1989; Carpenter, Nagell, &
Tomasello, 1998; Tomasello & Farrar, 1986). Although both monolingual and bilingual children
must monitor and respond to pragmatic cues to avoid miscommunication, bilingual children are
known to have heightened sensitivity to social and pragmatic cues. In fact, Yow and Markman
(2011) found that 3- and 4-year-old bilingual children were more adept at using gesture and gaze
direction to locate a hidden object than monolingual children. Brojde, Ahmed, and Colunga
(2012) also demonstrated that bilingual children rely more on pragmatic cues such as eye gaze
than their monolingual counterparts when learning novel words. We may be able to boost ESL
children’s language knowledge by utilizing their existing sensitivity to social cues and piquing
their interest in language through engaging activities.

Principle 3: Interactive and Responsive Rather Than Passive Contexts Promote Language
Learning
Frequent language input matters but the social context in which language learning takes place is
also important to consider. For example, hearing words—even if presented in an interesting
format like television—does not guarantee that language learning will occur (Kuhl, Tsao, & Liu,
2003; Roseberry, Hirsh-Pasek, Parish-Morris, & Golinkoff, 2009). Interactions that involve
periods of joint focus, positive affect, sensitivity, cooperation, and acceptance provide children
with the scaffolding necessary to facilitate language acquisition (Bornstein, Tamis-LeMonda,
Hahn, & Haynes, 2008; Clarke-Stewart, 1973; Katz, 2001; Tamis-LeMonda & Bornstein, 2002;
Tamis-LeMonda, Kuchirko, & Song, 2014; Tomasello & Farrar, 1986). Infants and young
children learn language in contexts in which their vocalizations, gesture, and facial expressions
evoke responses from the people around them. That is, infants appear to thrive in social
interactions—and learn language—when they engender contingent responses from their
interlocutors. By contingent, we mean responses that promptly follow infant action within a brief
period of time (Tamis-LeMonda et al., 2014). An empirical investigation examined whether
English-reared 9-month-olds can learn Mandarin phonemes through live social interaction,
televised, or audio-only presentation. Infants learned phonemes only from live interaction,
suggesting that contingent social interaction can play a causal role in speech perception (Kuhl et
al., 2003). Similarly, Roseberry, Hirsh-Pasek, and Golinkoff (2013) tested 24- to 30-month-old
children’s ability to learn novel verbs in one of three conditions: live interaction training, socially
contingent video training, and non-contingent video training. Only the children in the live
interaction training and contingent video training condition successfully learned novel verbs,
highlighting the significance of social contingency in language learning. Contingency, or
parental responsiveness more generally, has been found to facilitate word learning across various
cultures (Tamis-LeMonda et al., 2014). Socially contingent contexts may be beneficial for
language development due to co-regulation, or the process by which communication between
individuals is continuously modified depending on the actions and needs of their partners (Fogel,
1993). Co-regulation allows parents to scaffold their child’s learning based on their needs. For
example, when a mother talks to her baby in an excited voice (e.g., “Where is the teddy bear?”),
the baby may immediately look at the toy box and Downloaded by [Temple University Libraries]
at 08:05 21 December 2017 SIX PRINCIPLES OF SECOND LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
409 giggle. This mutually regulated exchange between the parent and infant has also been
referred to as coordination, reciprocity, reciprocal engagement, mutual responsiveness,
attunement, and synchrony (Harrist & Waugh, 2002). Infants at 7 months who were given more
opportunities for co-regulated communication had larger vocabularies 7 months later than
children who were less exposed to co-regulated communication (Lunden & Silven, 2011). Co-
regulated playful interactions provide an opportunity to present vocabulary in a meaningful
manner, which in turn fosters L1 and L2 development (Hirsh-Pasek & Golinkoff, 2003; Hirsh-
Pasek, Golinkoff, Berk, & Singer, 2009; Lunden & Silven, 2011; Singer, Golinkoff, & Hirsh-
Pasek, 2006). The ESL literature also demonstrates a link between early interactive parenting
and later language ability. Frequency of story-book reading and children’s vocabulary in their L1
and L2 were found to be related. Caregivers who frequently read to children in English or
Spanish and used labeling questions (e.g., “What do you call this little animal?”) during book
reading were more likely to have children with a greater vocabulary in both languages (Quiroz,
Snow, & Zhao, 2010). These findings indicate that by asking engaging questions and
establishing interactive learning environments, caregivers can provide a positive influence on
children’s vocabulary development in both the L1 and the L2. Within an interactive
environment, the mindset of caregivers is also important. MexicanAmerican mothers who saw
themselves as an important participant in their children’s language learning were more likely to
actively listen to their children, interact with them, label objects and ideas, and create
opportunities for interaction with others (Hammer, Miccio, & Rodriguez, 2004). Such
interactions in turn have an impact on ESL children’s language development (Patterson, 2002).
In sum, research demonstrates that quantity and quality of interactive environments have
implications for children’s later language development (Cartmill et al., 2013). Types of
interactions that benefit children’s language development include joint focus, positive affect, and
appropriate scaffolding that changes depending on the child’s development and interest. Asking
questions about things children are interested in and engaging in shared book reading may foster
both L1 and L2 acquisition (Hoff & Naigles, 2002; Raikes et al., 2006).

Principle 4: Children Learn Words Best in Meaningful Contexts

“Strategies that introduce young children to new words and entice them to engage in meaningful
contexts through semantically related activities are much needed” (Neuman & Dwyer, 2009, p.
384). This insight is in line with research on memory: adults retain information long-term when
it is presented in integrated contexts rather than as a set of isolated facts (Bartlett, 1932;
Bransford & Johnson, 1972). This same idea can be applied to learning an L2 for ESL children.
Meaningful connections between words are also fostered when thematic play is used as a prop
for language development. For instance, children who often engage in thematic play such as
picking up a cup and pretending to drink out of it are more likely to have a larger receptive
vocabulary (Tamis-LeMonda & Bornstein, 1994). Experimental research comparing vocabulary
learning in meaningful versus less meaningful contexts is limited. Yet, correlational studies in
language, play, and memory research converge to suggest that teaching vocabulary in integrated
and meaningful contexts enriches children’s background knowledge and hence their mental
lexicons (Hirsh-Pasek et al., 2009). Encouraging Downloaded by [Temple University Libraries]
at 08:05 21 December 2017 410 KONISHI ET AL. children to play with objects that come from
the same superordinate category is a form of “guided play” in which adults scaffold children’s
active exploration in service of a learning goal (Weisberg, Zosh, Hirsh-Pasek, & Golinkoff,
2013). Since parents and teachers provide input that makes language learning possible, it is
crucial to understand guided play environments that are designed to stimulate children’s curiosity
and acquisition of language (Christie & Roskos, 2006; Fisher, Hirsh-Pasek, Golinkoff, Singer, &
Berk, 2011; Weisberg et al., 2013). Children who are given an opportunity to use vocabulary in a
playful context learn more effectively than those children who learn only under explicit
instruction. Han, Moore, Vukelich, and Buell (2011) investigated how play intervention affected
low-income children’s vocabulary knowledge. The control group spent 30 minutes in a
storybook session and received explicit vocabulary instruction. The play group spent 20 minutes
in a storybook session and heard the associated definitions but also had 10 minutes to engage in
play with props that corresponded to words from the story. Following the reading, they heard the
word “bake,” for example, while shown a picture elucidating the meaning of the word in the
storybook. They were then offered a “child-friendly” definition of bake and asked to repeat it and
point to an instance of the concept. Subsequent vocabulary tests revealed that the play group
remembered more of the target vocabulary and had more children who reached vocabulary
benchmark levels on the standardized Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (Han et al., 2011).
Guided play approaches promote superior learning, retention, and academic achievement
compared to direct instruction (Burts et al., 1992; Burts, Hart, Charlesworth, & Kirk, 1990;
Lillard & Else-Quest, 2006; Roskos, Tabors, & Lenhart, 2004, 2009; Schweinhart & Weikart,
1988; Schweinhart, Weikart, & Larner, 1986). In guided play contexts, children’s interests serve
as the foundation for learning. Educators structure an environment around a general curricular
goal by encouraging children’s natural curiosity, exploration, and play with learning-oriented
objects or materials (Fein & Rivkin, 1986; Fisher et al., 2011; Hirsh-Pasek et al., 2009; Marcon,
2002; Weisberg et al., 2013). Conversations between adults and children in a playful context
build on children’s interests and offer them new lexical concepts that are more likely to be
retained than unbidden verbal explanations (e.g., Golinkoff, 1986). ESL children not only face
the challenge of learning a new language but also learning a new culture. Thus, instructional
methods that incorporate individual experiences of ESL students may benefit L2 learning.
Reading programs involving open discussion around characters and themes of the story allow
students to make connections between the story and students’ experiences and cultural
backgrounds. Such reading programs allow ESL students to deeply engage in the material and
develop their literacy abilities (Tharp, 1982). Meaningful learning environments and
instructional methods that are tailored to the individual needs of ESL students should be
beneficial in developing their L2.

Principle 5: Children Need to Hear Diverse Examples of Words and Language Structures
A growing body of research emphasizes the importance of diversity in linguistic input to foster
rich language outcomes. Mothers’ use of rare words and the breadth of children’s vocabulary in
kindergarten and second grade are strongly related (Weizman & Snow, 2001; see also Pan,
Rowe, Singer, & Snow, 2005). Similarly, when fathers use diverse vocabulary in interactions
Downloaded by [Temple University Libraries] at 08:05 21 December 2017 SIX PRINCIPLES
OF SECOND LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT 411 with their children at 6 months of age, their
children have more advanced communication skills at 15 and 36 months (Pancsofar, Vernon-
Feagans, & The Family Life Project Investigators, 2010). More recently, Rowe (2012) reported
that the diversity of vocabulary input toddlers receive at 18 months is related to children’s later
vocabulary ability at 42 months even when controlling for SES, amount of input, and children’s
vocabulary skill at 18 months. Receiving multiple sources of language input is also crucial in
facilitating a deeper grasp of language. Seven-month-olds do not recognize a word when the
gender of the speaker (Houston & Jusczyk, 2000) or the tone of voice varies (Jusczyk & Aslin,
1995; Singh, 2008; Singh, Morgan, & White, 2004). Thus, receiving input from multiple
speakers will likely promote the formation of abstract phonological representation of words
(Richtsmeier, Gerken, Goffman, & Hogan, 2009). Hearing English from different speakers and
the amount of English input provided by native speakers explains the variation found in
children’s English skills (Place & Hoff, 2011), suggesting that an optimal language-learning
environment for ESL children occurs when they are exposed to diverse input from multiple
native speakers. Similarly, multiple examples of referents must be presented for each word in
different contexts. Hearing different examples helps children develop abstract meanings of words
(Oakes, Coppage, & Dingel, 1997; Perry, Samuelson, Malloy, & Schiffer, 2010), which
encourages children to recognize how words link to categories. For example, seeing different
breeds of dogs and hearing the label “dog” helps children extract the essential components of the
category and form an adult-like representation of dogs with a deeper semantic understanding of
the concept. Indeed, studies using event-related potentials (ERPs) have shown that infants as
young as 6 months display the neural signature associated with concept formation (Quinn,
Westerlund, & Nelson, 2006). In contrast, if infants are familiarized with highly similar
exemplars, they may develop an inaccurately narrow basis for category formation (Smith & Yu,
2008). Diverse input facilitates not only semantic development but also syntactic development.
Verbs stipulate the syntactic structure of a sentence. The verb eat is an optional two-argument
verb or is a verb that can either omit or preserve its direct object (e.g., I ate lunch or I ate).
However, obligatory two-argument verbs such as want, require a direct object (e.g., I want a
prize). Hearing various verbs in different syntactic frames may help children abstract the
components of sentence structure that vary by verb type (e.g., Gleitman, 1990; Hoff-Ginsberg,
1986; Naigles, 1996; Pinker, 1994). Hoff and Naigles (2002) found that variation in the syntactic
complexity of mothers’ utterances also correlates with children’s productive vocabulary. Rich
language input and sensitive social interactions offered together provide a powerful combination
for language development. A longitudinal study on teacher–child conversations reported that rich
language input during free play and group book reading at age 4 correlated positively with
children’s literacy skills at the end of kindergarten and fourth grade, even when controlling for
children’s mean length of utterance (MLU) at age 3, as well as parental income, education, and
home support for literacy (Tabors, Snow, & Dickinson, 2001). Diverse input appears to have
benefits at the phonological, semantic, syntactic, and literacy level of children’s L1 and L2.
However, the need for diverse input is a more complex issue for ESL children, as some ESL
children may not have access to rich language input at home. Intervention programs for L2
learning are beginning to address these concerns by focusing on creating increasingly diverse
linguistic experiences. Multisensory structured language (MSL) teaching, for instance,
encourages a learning experience using auditory, visual, and tactilekinesthetic input (Schneider
& Evers, 2009). The program asks instructors to explicitly indicate Downloaded by [Temple
University Libraries] at 08:05 21 December 2017 412 KONISHI ET AL. multiple contexts in
which a word can be used. As MSL uses various strategies at once, assessing the effects of
providing diverse examples per se is difficult. Nevertheless, ESL learners at risk for learning
disabilities who received MSL achieved a higher level of English proficiency than those who
received traditional instructional methods (Sparks et al., 1998). The implication for practice is
that exposure to various words in a variety of contexts in the L2 is beneficial for ESL children as
well as for monolingual children.

Principle 6: Vocabulary and Grammatical Development Are Reciprocal Processes

The final principle is based on the notion that children rarely learn new words and their meanings
in isolation. The ECM of language learning predicts that after overcoming the initial bias of
favoring perceptual saliency to learn words, children began to rely on linguistic cues such as
sentence context (Golinkoff & Hirsh-Pasek, 2006, 2007; Hollich et al., 2000). The idea that
children use the syntactic structure of a sentence to learn new words is a mechanism known as
syntactic bootstrapping (e.g., Dionne, Dale, Boivin, & Plomin, 2003; Fisher, Klinger, & Song,
2006; Gillette, Gleitman, Gleitman, & Lederer, 1999; Hirsh-Pasek & Golinkoff, 1996; Landau &
Gleitman, 1985; Naigles, 1990). Children use syntactic bootstrapping in learning new
vocabulary, just as children use vocabulary knowledge to learn the structure of language (i.e.,
semantic bootstrapping) (e.g., Pinker, 1994). Studies illustrate that vocabulary and grammar
develop simultaneously (Dionne et al., 2003). The relationship between vocabulary and grammar
has been investigated in a large sample of children between 16 to 30 months (N = 1,461), using
the MacArthur Communicative Development Inventory vocabulary and grammatical complexity
scores. Results showed that expressive vocabulary predicted grammar knowledge, suggesting
that vocabulary and grammar are “developing in synchrony across the first few years of life”
(Dixon & Marchman, 2007, p. 209). The reciprocity between vocabulary and grammar can be
understood in two ways. First, by noting the linguistic context in which words appear, children
gain information about a word’s part of speech (Imai et al., 2008). For example, the sentence
“Sally blorked John” suggests a different meaning for “blork” than the sentence “Sally has a
blork.” The former suggests that “blork” is a transitive verb, whereas the latter implies that
“blork” must be a noun. Indeed, when one teaches contextual cues as part of a word learning
intervention, L2 learners are better at mastering novel vocabulary items (Carlo et al., 2004).
Meaning emerges from how words are used in linguistic contexts. Grammatical and
morphological cues can signal parts of speech and be used as a tool for further vocabulary
learning. Second, once a word is known children can detect the nuances in word meaning by
observing its use in diverse linguistic contexts (Gillette et al., 1999; Yu & Smith, 2012). The
relationship between grammar and vocabulary learning is also observed in research with children
learning two languages. Toddlers’ English vocabulary size predicted English grammar abilities
and their Spanish vocabulary size predicted Spanish grammar abilities, supporting the theoretical
perspective that “learning in the lexical and grammatical domains of language is continuous and
utilizes common mechanisms” (Conboy & Thal, 2006, p. 728). Vocabulary and grammar
development in bilingual children proceeds in the same manner as in monolingual children of
each language (Conboy & Thal, 2006; Marchman, Martinez-Sussman, & Dale, 2004).
Downloaded by [Temple University Libraries] at 08:05 21 December 2017 SIX PRINCIPLES
OF SECOND LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT 413 Although only a few studies have
investigated the role of syntactic and semantic bootstrapping in L2 acquisition, bilingual children
seem to utilize their syntactic and semantic bootstrapping skills to learn new words or
grammatical structures in two languages (Conboy & Thal, 2006; de Bot, Paribakht, & Wesche,
1997). What are some ways in which the acquisition of grammar and vocabulary in ESL children
can be facilitated? One way to foster this reciprocal development may be to introduce new words
in various syntactic frames. For example, listen-and-do tasks appear to be effective in promoting
beginner ESL children’s vocabulary and grammar knowledge (Shintani, 2012). In listen-and-do
tasks, learners need to first listen to commands and then perform actions to show that they have
understood the commands. The study by Shintani (2012) found that children who were engaged
in listen-and-do tasks improved their receptive and productive vocabulary knowledge and their
understanding of plural and singular forms compared to the control group. Instructional methods
that teach vocabulary as an independent list of words devoid of semantic or syntactic context
may not be effective in enhancing language development. The presentation of new words in
different syntactic contexts will facilitate ESL children’s L2 development.

CONCLUSION
Language is crucial for children’s academic success—in both reading (Durand, Loe, Yeatman, &
Feldman, 2013; Scarborough, 2001) and in the STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and
Mathematics) disciplines (Levine, Suriyakham, Huttenlocher, Rowe, & Gunderson, 2010;
Pruden, Levine, & Huttenlocher, 2011). Language acquisition occurs most effectively in
preschool classrooms that mimic the way language learning naturally takes place in the home
(Harris et al., 2011). However, since the 1900s, ESL curricula have had limited success in
teaching English to young children who may receive impoverished language input in the home
(Faltis, 2011; Hoff, Core, et al., 2012). One reason for such findings could be that, although
many ESL students speak “conversational” English (e.g., greetings), learning the type of English
used in classrooms and performing well on assessments may take more language experience and
exposure than some of these children have at home (Cummins, 1984). Another reason may be
that general classroom teachers receive little education or support to adapt their instruction to
ESL students (Constantino, 1994). Despite a rich scientific base regarding how to foster ESL
students’ L1 and L2 development, this information rarely reaches parents and the community at
large. Dissemination of information about language development may be affected by the lack of
knowledge about the availability of programs such as CANNE-Criando a Nuestros Niños hacia
el Éxito, the Spanish adaptation of PACE—Parenting Our Children to Excellence that aim to
reduce the risk of adverse child outcomes by providing effective parenting techniques in socially
disadvantaged areas (Dumas, Arriaga, Begle, & Longoria, 2010, 2011). Home visitations in
which professionals visit families to provide guidance and working together with pediatricians
may be another means to spread this message. Increased collaboration and communication about
scientific research regarding language development between researchers, practitioners, and
policy makers is crucial to circulate information and to have an impact on ESL curricula.
Research on L2 acquisition is continuing to accrue, although much is still unknown. The L1
literature can guide caregivers and educators in designing curricula to foster children’s L1 and
L2. Downloaded by [Temple University Libraries] at 08:05 21 December 2017 414 KONISHI
ET AL. Equipped with a set of developmentally appropriate, evidenced-based principles derived
from the science of learning, we can promote the academic trajectory of ESL children. We have
argued based on the research in the field of language development, that there may be sufficient
empirical evidence to offer a toolbox of six principles to promote ESL children’s language
development and academic success. Principle 1: Children benefit from increased amounts of
language input. That is, the more English children hear, the more likely they are to acquire it.
Principle 2: Incorporating information that capture the interests of children may facilitate ESL
students’ L2 development. Principle 3: Interactive contexts are superior to passive contexts for
learning language. Playful learning environments in which children are happily engaged afford
opportunities to promote L2 acquisition. Principle 4: Meaningful learning environments are
important for language acquisition. Scaffolded interaction and instruction that occur in an
integrated context are ideal learning situations. Principle 5: The use of diverse examples and
sentence structures promote language development. Hearing different exemplars of words and
grammar by different English speakers may help ESL children gain a better grasp of their L2.
Principle 6: Vocabulary and grammar play a complementary role in language learning. Learning
more vocabulary can enhance children’s knowledge of the syntactic structure of their L2 and
vice versa. Our six principles of language development bring together the research on language
development and offer implications for practice to promote L2 learning. Putting these principles
into practice will increase language competences of ESL children and will thus put them on the
path to greater academic success from preschool and beyond.
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