Introduction

Research is the pursuit of knowledge.

Research is conducted for the following purposes -
 to advance one’s knowledge about a topic
 to replicate, vet, and potentially extend previous knowledge claims
 to develop new knowledge for humankind.
 to create new businesses and new applications.
Research is the systematic investigation and study of materials and sources to establish facts
and reach new conclusions.
Research is about using established methods to investigate a problem or question in detail to
generate new knowledge about it. It is a vital tool for scientific advancement because it
allows researchers to prove or refute hypotheses based on clearly defined parameters,
environments and assumptions. Due to this, it enables us to confidently contribute to
knowledge as it allows research to be verified and replicated. Knowing the research types and
what each focuses on will allow you to better plan your project, utilise the most appropriate
methodologies and techniques and better communicate your findings to other researchers and
supervisors.
Types of Research
Various types of research are classified according to their objective, depth of study, analysed
data, the time required to study the phenomenon and other factors. It’s important to note that
a research project will not be limited to one type of research but will likely use several.
1. According to its Purpose
 Theoretical Research - Theoretical research, also called basic research, focuses on
generating knowledge, regardless of its practical application. Here, data collection is
used to generate new general concepts for a beto better understanding of a particular
field or theoretical research question.
Results of this kind are usually oriented toward the formulation of theories. They are
based on documentary analysis, the development of mathematical formulas and the
reflection of high-level researchers.
For example, a philosophical dissertation, since the aim is to generate new approaches
from existing data without considering how its findings can be applied or
implemented in practice.
 Applied Research - Here, the goal is to find strategies that can be used to address a
specific research problem. Applied research draws on theory to generate practical
 scientific knowledge, and its use is widespread in engineering, computer science and
medicine.
This type of research is subdivided into two types:
i. Technological applied research: looks towards improving efficiency in a
particular productive sector through the improvement of processes or machinery
related to said productive processes.
ii. Scientific applied research: has predictive purposes. Through this type of
research design, we can measure certain variables to predict behaviours useful to
the goods and services sector, such as consumption patterns and viability of
commercial projects.
For example, market research, because by examining consumption patterns,
strategies can be developed for the development of new products and marketing
campaigns, etc.
Note: Applied research is usually based on knowledge or results obtained through
theoretical research.
In fact, it is common for research projects to first establish the theoretical
framework both to define the field of study and to identify possible theories that
could be tested or applied to solve the specific problem posed in the project.
2. According to your Depth of Scope
 Exploratory Research - Exploratory research is used for the preliminary
investigation of a subject that is not yet well understood or sufficiently researched. It
serves to establish a frame of reference and a hypothesis from which an in-depth study
can be developed that will enable conclusive results to be generated.
o Because exploratory research is based on the study of little-studied
phenomena, it relies less on theory and more on the collection of data to
identify patterns that explain these phenomena.
o For example, an investigation of the role social media in the perception of self-
image.
 Descriptive Research - The primary objective of descriptive research is to define the
characteristics of a particular phenomenon without necessarily investigating the
causes that produce it.
o In this type of research, the researcher must take particular care not to
intervene in the observed object or phenomenon, as its behaviour may change
if an external factor is involved.
o For example, investigating how the public census of influential government
officials differs between urban and non-urban areas.
 Explanatory Research - Explanatory research is the most common type of research
method and is responsible for establishing cause-and-effect relationships that allow
generalisations to be extended to similar realities. It is closely related to descriptive
research, although it provides additional information about the observed object and its
interactions with the environment.
o For example, investigating the brittle behaviour of a specific material when
under compressive load.
  Correlational Research - The purpose of this type of scientific research is to identify
the relationship between two or more variables. A correlational study aims to
determine whether a variable change, how much the other elements of the observed
system change.

3. According to the Type of Data Used

 Qualitative Research - Qualitative methods are often used in the social sciences to
collect, compare and interpret information, has a linguistic-semiotic basis and is used
in techniques such as discourse analysis, interviews, surveys, records and participant
observations.
o In order to use statistical methods to validate their results, the observations
collected must be evaluated numerically. Qualitative research, however, tends
to be subjective, since not all data can be fully controlled. Therefore, this type
of research design is better suited to extracting meaning from an event or
phenomenon (the ‘why’) than its cause (the ‘how’).
o For example, examining the effects of sleep deprivation on mood.
 Quantitative Research - Quantitative research study delves into a phenomena
through quantitative data collection and using mathematical, statistical and computer-
aided tools to measure them. This allows generalised conclusions to be projected over
time.
o For example, conducting a computer simulation on vehicle strike impacts to
collect quantitative data.

4. According to the Degree of Manipulation of Variables

 Experimental Research - It is about designing or replicating a phenomenon whose
variables are manipulated under strictly controlled conditions in order to identify or
discover its effect on another independent variable or object. The phenomenon to be
studied is measured through study and control groups, and according to the guidelines
of the scientific method.
For example, randomised controlled trial studies for measuring the effectiveness of
new pharmaceutical drugs on human subjects.
 Non-Experimental Research - Also known as an observational study, it focuses on
the analysis of a phenomenon in its natural context. As such, the researcher does not
intervene directly, but limits their involvement to measuring the variables required for
the study. Due to its observational nature, it is often used in descriptive research.
 For example, a study on the effects of the use of certain chemical substances in a
particular population group can be considered a non-experimental study.
 Quasi-Experimental Research - It controls only some variables of the phenomenon
under investigation and is therefore not entirely experimental. In this case, the study
and the focus group cannot be randomly selected, but are chosen from existing groups
or populations. This is to ensure the collected data is relevant and that the knowledge,
perspectives and opinions of the population can be incorporated into the study.
 For example, assessing the effectiveness of an intervention measure in reducing the
spread of antibiotic-resistant bacteria.

5. According to the Type of Inference

  Deductive Investigation - In this type of research, reality is explained by general
laws that point to certain conclusions; conclusions are expected to be part of the
premise of the research problem and considered correct if the premise is valid and the
inductive method is applied correctly.
 Inductive Research - In this type of research, knowledge is generated from an
observation to achieve a generalisation. It is based on the collection of specific data to
develop new theories.
 Hypothetical-Deductive Investigation - It is based on observing reality to make a
hypothesis, then use deduction to obtain a conclusion and finally verify or reject it
through experience.

6. According to the Time in Which it is Carried Out

 Longitudinal Study (also referred to as Diachronic Research) - It is the
monitoring of the same event, individual or group over a defined period of time. It
aims to track changes in a number of variables and see how they evolve over time. It
is often used in medical, psychological and social areas.
 For example, a cohort study that analyses changes in a particular indigenous
population over a period of 15 years.
 Cross-Sectional Study (also referred to as Synchronous Research) - Cross-
sectional research design is used to observe phenomena, an individual or a group of
research subjects at a given time.

7. According to The Sources of Information

 Primary Research - This fundamental research type is defined by the fact that the
data is collected directly from the source, that is, it consists of primary, first-hand
information.
 Secondary research - Unlike primary research, secondary research is developed with
information from secondary sources, which are generally based on scientific literature
and other documents compiled by another researcher.

8. According to How the Data is Obtained

 Documentary (cabinet) - Documentary research, or secondary sources, is based on a
systematic review of existing sources of information on a particular subject. This type
of scientific research is commonly used when undertaking literature reviews or
producing a case study.
 Field - Field research study involves the direct collection of information at the
location where the observed phenomenon occurs.
 From Laboratory - Laboratory research is carried out in a controlled environment in
order to isolate a dependent variable and establish its relationship with other variables
through scientific methods.
 Mixed-Method: Documentary, Field and/or Laboratory - Mixed research
methodologies combine results from both secondary (documentary) sources and
primary sources through field or laboratory research.

9. According to the main purpose of research

  Conceptual research - Conceptual research focuses on the concept
(abstract/ideas) or theory that explains the phenomenon being studied. The
conceptual researcher sits at his desk with pen in hand and tries to solve these
problems by thinking about them. The conceptual analysis is the preferred
method of analysis in social sciences and philosophy.
Here, the researcher tackles the problem part by part. He breaks down the concept
into smaller simpler parts to understand it better. This method of analysis has
gained immense popularity in spite of a lot of criticism against it.
 Empirical research – In empirical research, data collection is done through
observation and experimentation. It is data-based research, coming up with
conclusions which are capable of being verified by observation or experiment. It
is also known as experimental type of research.
Eg. Suppose that there is a hypothesis and two different scientists are working
separately on it. Scientists collect the information about the same hypothesis
through the observation and experimentation. They arrive at slightly different
results. This is because, the observation part which involves is bound to be
different. The two different persons have different perception while doing the
same research.

Research Design
Research design is the framework of research methods and techniques chosen by a researcher
to conduct a study. The design allows researchers to sharpen the research methods suitable
for the subject matter and set up their studies for success.
Creating a research topic explains the type of research (experimental, survey research,
correlational, semi-experimental, review) and its sub-type (experimental design, research
problem, descriptive case-study).
There are three main types of designs for research:
1. Data collection
2. Measurement
3. Analysis
The research problem an organization faces will determine the design, not vice-versa. The
design phase of a study determines which tools to use and how they are used.
Research Design Elements
Impactful research usually creates a minimum bias in data and increases trust in the accuracy
of collected data. A design that produces the slightest margin of error in experimental
research is generally considered the desired outcome. The essential elements are:
 Accurate purpose statement
 Techniques to be implemented for collecting and analyzing research
 The method applied for analyzing collected details
 Type of research methodology
 Probable objections to research
  Settings for the research study
 Timeline
 Measurement of analysis
 Characteristics of Research Design
A proper design sets your study up for success. Successful research studies provide insights
that are accurate and unbiased. You’ll need to create a survey that meets all of the main
characteristics of a design. There are four key characteristics:
Neutrality: When you set up your study, you may have to make assumptions about the data
you expect to collect. The results projected in the research should be free from bias and
neutral. Understand opinions about the final evaluated scores and conclusions from multiple
individuals and consider those who agree with the results.
Reliability: With regularly conducted research, the researcher expects similar results every
time. You’ll only be able to reach the desired results if your design is reliable. Your plan
should indicate how to form research questions to ensure the standard of results.
Validity: There are multiple measuring tools available. However, the only correct measuring
tools are those which help a researcher in gauging results according to the objective of the
research. The questionnaire developed from this design will then be valid.
Generalization: The outcome of your design should apply to a population and not just a
restricted sample. A generalized method implies that your survey can be conducted on any
part of a population with similar accuracy.
The above factors affect how respondents answer the research questions, so they should
balance all the above characteristics in a good design.
Research Design Types
A researcher must clearly understand the various research design types to select which model
to implement for a study. Like research itself, the design of your analysis can be broadly
classified into quantitative and qualitative.
Qualitative research
It determines relationships between collected data and observations based on mathematical
calculations. Statistical methods can prove or disprove theories related to a naturally existing
phenomenon. Researchers rely on qualitative research methods that conclude “why” a
particular theory exists and “what” respondents have to say about it.
Quantitative research
It is for cases where statistical conclusions to collect actionable insights are essential.
Numbers provide a better perspective for making critical business decisions. Quantitative
research methods are necessary for the growth of any organization. Insights drawn from
complex numerical data and analysis prove to be highly effective when making decisions
about the business’s future.
You can further break down the types of research design into five categories:
1. Descriptive: In a descriptive composition, a researcher is solely interested in describing
the situation or case under their research study. It is a theory-based design method created by
gathering, analyzing, and presenting collected data. This allows a researcher to provide
insights into the why and how of research. Descriptive design helps others better understand
the need for the research. If the problem statement is not clear, you can conduct exploratory
research.
2. Experimental: Experimental research establishes a relationship between the cause and
effect of a situation. It is a causal design where one observes the impact caused by the
independent variable on the dependent variable. For example, one monitors the influence of
an independent variable such as a price on a dependent variable such as customer satisfaction
or brand loyalty. It is an efficient research method as it contributes to solving a problem.
The independent variables are manipulated to monitor the change it has on the dependent
variable. Social sciences often use it to observe human behavior by analyzing two groups.
Researchers can have participants change their actions and study how the people around them
react to understand social psychology better.
3. Correlational research: Correlational research is a non-experimental research technique.
It helps researchers establish a relationship between two closely connected variables. There is
no assumption while evaluating a relationship between two other variables, and statistical
analysis techniques calculate the relationship between them. This type of research requires
two different groups.
A correlation coefficient determines the correlation between two variables whose values
range between -1 and +1. If the correlation coefficient is towards +1, it indicates a positive
relationship between the variables, and -1 means a negative relationship between the two
variables.

4. Diagnostic research: In diagnostic design, the researcher is looking to evaluate the

underlying cause of a specific topic or phenomenon. This method helps one learn more about
the factors that create troublesome situations.
This design has three parts of the research:
 Inception of the issue
 Diagnosis of the issue
 Solution for the issue
5. Explanatory research: Explanatory design uses a researcher’s ideas and thoughts on a
subject to further explore their theories. The study explains unexplored aspects of a subject
and details the research questions’ what, how, and why.
Source - https://www.questionpro.com/blog/research-design/

Literature Review
A literature review demonstrates your ability to research; it also showcases your expertise on
your chosen topic. By including a literature review in your project or thesis, you are also
providing your reader with the most prevalent theories and studies on your topic, evaluations
and comparisons of these studies, and gaps there may be in the literature. This helps your
reader understand your project/thesis better. It also makes you a more credible and reliable
author.
Definition - A literature review is a review or discussion of the current published material
available on a particular topic. It attempts to synthesize and evaluate the material and
information according to the research question(s), thesis, and central theme(s).
In other words, instead of supporting an argument, or simply making a list of summarized
research, a literature review synthesizes and evaluates the ideas of others on your given topic.
This allows your readers to know what is being said about your given topic, how these
sources compare with one another, and what gaps there are in the research.
Types of Literature Review -
1. Chronological – The research papers cited are organized by publication date or
history of topic. This type of review is useful if sequential order of events is
important.
2. Thematic – The research papers are organized by topic or issue, may still involve
chronology or an order of importance. This type is useful to go from general topic
themes to more specific (e.g., education to higher education to writing centers)
3. Methodological – In this type, the research papers are organized not by the content of
literature review material, but on the methods of the researcher/writer. Use this type if
the methods of the researchers/writers are the most important.
Summary, Synthesis, and Evaluation of literature review
Remember, to summarize means to recap the important information of the source; whereas,
to synthesize means to re-organize, re-shuffle, or re-interpret that information and involves
finding connections and relationships among your sources. Synthesizing research shows an
awareness of how research from different articles can be intertwined. Additionally, to
evaluate means to assess the worth of something. This means that while you are synthesizing
the information of a certain resource, be sure to also include an evaluation of that resource.
Parts of a Literature Review
A literature review is composed of three parts:
 Introduction
o Keep it brief: most commonly only a paragraph long, but can go up to 1.5 pages.
o Introduce the larger subject.
o Narrow that larger subject into your manageable topic.
o Explain the significance of the topic.
o Formulate research question(s).
o Explain the scope of your coverage (what criteria was used to include or exclude
o studies and why).
o Lay out the organization of the review (forecasting statements).
 Body
o Provide some background information (e.g. definition of concepts, historical
 perspective(s) on the issue, etc.).
o Group the research according to themes, trends, approaches, etc.
o Summarize individual items with as much detail as merited (determined by its
comparative significance within your overall paper).
o Weave citations/descriptions of the literature with your analysis and show the
reader how this connects to your overall research question(s).
o Point out any methodological flaws, gaps in research, or inconsistencies in theory and
findings.

 Conclusion
o Summarize major contributions of significant studies and articles to the body of
knowledge under review.
o Point out any gaps in the published literature and discuss areas or issues pertinent
to future study.

Experimental Designs and Their Analysis

Design of experiment means how to design an experiment in the sense that how the
observations or measurements should be obtained to answer a query in a valid, efficient and
economical way. The designing of the experiment and the analysis of obtained data are
inseparable. If the experiment is designed properly keeping in mind the question, then the
data generated is valid and proper analysis of data provides the valid statistical inferences. If
the experiment is not well designed, the validity of the statistical inferences is questionable
and may be invalid. It is important to understand first the basic terminologies used in the
experimental design.

Experimental unit: For conducting an experiment, the experimental material is divided into
smaller parts and each part is referred to as an experimental unit. The experimental unit is
randomly assigned to treatment is the experimental unit. The phrase “randomly assigned” is
very important in this definition.
Experiment: A way of getting an answer to a question which the experimenter wants to
know.
Treatment: Different objects or procedures which are to be compared in an experiment are
called treatments.
Sampling unit: The object that is measured in an experiment is called the sampling unit. This
may be different from the experimental unit.
Factor: A factor is a variable defining a categorization. A factor can be fixed or random in
nature. A factor is termed as a fixed factor if all the levels of interest are included in the
experiment.
A factor is termed as a random factor if all the levels of interest are not included in the
experiment and those that are can be considered to be randomly chosen from all the levels of
interest.
Replication: It is the repetition of the experimental situation by replicating the experimental
unit.
Experimental error: The unexplained random part of the variation in any experiment is
termed as experimental error. An estimate of experimental error can be obtained by
replication.
Treatment design: A treatment design is the manner in which the levels of treatments are
arranged in an experiment.

Design of experiment:
One of the main objectives of designing an experiment is how to verify the hypothesis in an
efficient and economical way. In the contest of the null hypothesis of equality of several
means of normal populations having the same variances, the analysis of variance technique
can be used. Note that such techniques are based on certain statistical assumptions. If these
assumptions are violated, the outcome of the test of a hypothesis then may also be faulty and
the analysis of data may be meaningless. So the main question is how to obtain the data such
that the assumptions are met and the data is readily available for the application of tools like
analysis of variance. The designing of such a mechanism to obtain such data is achieved by
the design of the experiment. After obtaining the sufficient experimental unit, the treatments
are allocated to the experimental units in a random fashion. Design of experiment provides a
method by which the treatments are placed at random on the experimental units in such a way
that the responses are estimated with the utmost precision possible.

Principles of experimental design:

There are three basic principles of design which were developed by Sir Ronald A. Fisher.
1. Randomization
2. Replication
3. Local control
(1) Randomization
The principle of randomization involves the allocation of treatment to experimental units at
random to avoid any bias in the experiment resulting from the influence of some extraneous
unknown factor that may affect the experiment. In the development of analysis of variance,
we assume that the errors are random and independent. In turn, the observations also become
random. The principle of randomization ensures this.
The random assignment of experimental units to treatments results in the following
outcomes.
a) It eliminates systematic bias.
b) It is needed to obtain a representative sample from the population.
c) It helps in distributing the unknown variation due to confounded variables throughout
the experiment and breaks the confounding influence.
Randomization forms a basis of a valid experiment but replication is also needed for the
validity of the experiment. If the randomization process is such that every experimental unit
has an equal chance of receiving each treatment, it is called complete randomization.
(2) Replication
In the replication principle, any treatment is repeated a number of times to obtain a valid and
more reliable estimate than which is possible with one observation only. Replication provides
an efficient way of increasing the precision of an experiment. The precision increases with
the increase in the number of observations. Replication provides more observations when the
same treatment is used, so it increases precision.
(3) Local control (error control)
The replication is used with local control to reduce the experimental error. For example, if the
experimental units are divided into different groups such that they are homogeneous within
the blocks, then the variation among the blocks is eliminated and ideally, the error component
will contain the variation due to the treatments only. This will, in turn, increase the
efficiency.

Completely randomized design (CRD)

The CRD is the simplest design. Suppose there are v treatments to be compared.
 All experimental units are considered the same and no division or grouping among
them exist.
 In CRD, the v treatments are allocated randomly to the whole set of experimental
units, without making any effort to group the experimental units in any way for more
homogeneity.
 Design is entirely flexible in the sense that any number of treatments or replications
may be used.
 The number of replications for different treatments need not be equal and may vary
from treatment to treatment depending on the knowledge (if any) on the variability of
the observations on individual treatments as well as on the accuracy required for the
estimate of individual treatment effect.
Example: Suppose there are 4 treatments and 20 experimental units, then
o the treatment 1 is replicated, say 3 times and is given to 3 experimental units,
o the treatment 2 is replicated, say 5 times and is given to 5 experimental units,
o the treatment 3 is replicated, say 6 times and is given to 6 experimental units and
o finally, the treatment 4 is replicated [20-(6+5+3)=]6 times and is given to the
remaining 6 experimental units.
 All the variability among the experimental units goes into experimented error.
 CRD is used when the experimental material is homogeneous.
 CRD is often inefficient.
 CRD is more useful when the experiments are conducted inside the lab.
 CRD is well suited for the small number of treatments and for the homogeneous
experimental material.
Layout of CRD
Following steps are needed to design a CRD:
a) Divide the entire experimental material or area into a number of experimental units,
say n.
b) Fix the number of replications for different treatments in advance (for given total
number of available experimental units).
c) No local control measure is provided as such except that the error variance can be
reduced by choosing a homogeneous set of experimental units.

Randomized Block Design

If a large number of treatments are to be compared, then a large number of experimental units
are required. This will increase the variation among the responses and CRD may not be
appropriate to use. In such a case when the experimental material is not homogeneous and
there are v treatments to be compared, then it may be possible to
 group the experimental material into blocks of sizes v units.
 Blocks are constructed such that the experimental units within a block are relatively
homogeneous and resemble to each other more closely than the units in the different
blocks.
 If there are b such blocks, we say that the blocks are at b levels. Similarly, if there are
v treatments, we say that the treatments are at v levels. The responses from the b
levels of blocks and v levels of treatments can be arranged in a two-way layout. The
observed data set is arranged as follows:

Latin Square Design

The treatments in the RBD are randomly assigned to b blocks such that each treatment must
occur in each block rather than assigning them at random over the entire set of experimental
units as in the CRD. There are only two factors – block and treatment effects – which are
taken into account and the total number of experimental units needed for complete replication
are bv where b and v are the numbers of blocks and treatments respectively.
If there are three factors and suppose there are b, v and k levels of each factor, then the total
number of experimental units needed for a complete replication are bvk. This increases the
cost of experimentation and the required number of experimental units over RBD.
In Latin square design (LSD), the experimental material is divided into rows and columns,
each having the same number of experimental units which is equal to the number of
treatments. The treatments are allocated to the rows and the columns such that each treatment
occurs once and only once in each row and in each column.
In order to allocate the treatment to the experimental units in rows and columns, we take help
from Latin squares.

Latin Square: A Latin square of order p is an arrangement of p symbols in p2 cells arranged

in p rows and p columns such that each symbol occurs once and only once in each row and in
each column. For example, to write a Latin square of order 4, choose four symbols – A, B, C
and D. These letters are Latin letters which are used as symbols. Write them in a way such
that each of the letters out of A, B, C and D occurs once and only once in each row and each
column. For example, as

This is a Latin square.

Factorial
Some experiments involve the study of the effects of multiple factors. For such studies, the
factorial experimental design is very useful. A full factorial design, also known as fully
crossed design, refers to an experimental design that consists of two or more factors, with
each factor having multiple discrete possible values or “levels”.
Using this design, all the possible combinations of factor levels can be investigated in each
replication. Although several factors can affect the variable being studied in factorial
experiments, this design specifically aims to identify the main effects and the interaction
effects among the different factors.
To understand the factorial experimental design, you must be well-acquainted with the
following terms:
 Factors: This is a broad term used to describe the independent variable that is
manipulated in the experiment by the researcher or through selection. 
 Main Effects: The main effect of a factor refers to the change produced in response to a
change in the level of the factor. Therefore, the effect of factor A is the difference
between the average response at A1 and A2.
 Interaction: An Interaction between factors occurs when the difference in response
between the levels of one factor is not the same at all the levels of the other factor.

Types of Factorial Design

There are three main types of factorial designs.
1. Within Subject Factorial Design: In this factorial design, all of the independent
variables are manipulated within subjects.  
2. Between Subject Factorial Design: In the Between Subject Factorial Design, the
subjects are assigned to different conditions and each subject only experiences one of
the experimental conditions. 
3. Mixed Factorial Design: This design is most commonly used in the study of
psychology. It is named the ‘Mixed Factorial Design’ because it has at least one
Within Subject variable and one Between Subject variable.