Journal of Cleaner Production 339 (2022) 130587

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Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro

Vehicle to grid connected technologies and charging strategies: Operation,

control, issues and recommendations
M.A. Hannan a, *, M.S. Mollik b, Ali Q. Al-Shetwi c, S.A. Rahman a, M. Mansor a, R.A. Begum d, K.
M. Muttaqi e, Z.Y. Dong f
a
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, University Tenaga Nasional, Kajang, 43000, Malaysia
b
Department of Mechatronics Engineering, International Islamic University Malaysia, 53100, Selangor, Malaysia
c
Electrical Engineering Department, Fahad Bin Sultan University, Tabuk, 71454, Saudi Arabia
d
Sustainability and Environmental Finance, Macquarie University, NSW, 2109, Australia
e
School of Electrical, Computer and Telecommunications Engineering, University of Wollongong, NSW, 2522, Australia
f
School of Electrical Engineering and Telecommunications, UNSW Sydney, 2052, NSW, Australia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Handling Editor: M.T. Moreira Since a significant number of electric vehicles (EVs) are progressively hitting the market, vehicle to grid (V2G)
technology has gotten a lot of attention. Electric vehicles can be employed as mobile storage devices to assist in
Keywords: load balancing in the power grid as a specialised electricity load. In addition, the EVs development will have a
Electric vehicles number of impacts and benefits on the grid, including load leveling, voltage and frequency regulation, peak load
Plug-in electric vehicles
shaving, smooth integration of renewable energies, and reactive power compensation. However, it has some
Vehicle-to-grid
negative impacts on the grid. The literature reviews the impact of V2G technologies and charging strategies along
Grid operator
Charging infrastructure with their operations, control, and issues are sufficiently covered in a comprehensive manner. Therefore, the aim
Unidirectional/bidirectional power flow of this paper is to discuss and investigate the opportunities, challenges, and technologies of EVs in a V2G con­
necting system. Moreover, the V2G topologies, operations, applications, issues, control systems, main features,
updated details, pros, cons, and related applications are comprehensively reviewed. This paper discusses the
benefits of both the EV owners and the power grid. This paper concludes with potential recommendations for
future research directions to solve the existing research gaps and issues.

1. Introduction
The power distribution system (PDS) supplies power from the
transmission system to the consumer or home consumers. PDS has a
variable structure and voltage disparity. The PDS is split into two main
parts: primary and secondary distribution systems. The main delivery
grid has an 11 kV and 33 kV medium voltage (MV) stage, which is
supplied directly to heavy loads and factories. In domestic market
agitation, secondary distribution system are used where the voltage
level is low around 400 V and 230 V. A primary and secondary PDS
network are interconnected and make a form of a mesh network for
electricity flow. A network consists of nodes and aligned branches that
correspond to the physical paths between nodes. The key features of the
primary grid (PG) and the secondary grid (SG) have been used to share
nodes and physical paths (Jian et al., 2015).
Rising energy prices and energy protection issues, as well as supplies
of fossil fuel capital and higher customer demands, make plug-in electric
and hybrid (PEVs) vehicles appear worldwide and draw more interest of
states, businesses, and clients (Hannan et al., 2014). As a result, PEVs are
not widely adopted due to vehicle components, technological con­
straints, societal barriers, and increased prices compared to conven­
tional internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles (Bibak and
Tekiner-Moğulkoç, 2021). The PEV industry offers several advantages,
such as being compared to hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) and ICE cars.
Plug-in Electric Vehicles (PEVs) can act as a vehicle-to-grid (V2G) sys­
tem in discharge mode where an electric power grid relates to PEVs.
Different researches on electric vehicles have been conducted to assure
the high efficiency of adopting V2G technology and incorporating it into
existing networks such as microgrids (MG), where energy is generated
and distributed on the load or consumer side. For instance, optimal
operation of networked MGs for enhancing resilience using mobile EVs
was introduced in (Ali et al., 2021). This study results have shown that

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: hannan@uniten.edu.my (M.A. Hannan).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.130587
Received 25 August 2021; Received in revised form 12 January 2022; Accepted 15 January 2022
Available online 28 January 2022
0959-6526/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M.A. Hannan et al.
the proposed algorithm is capable of providing power to islanded MGs
for surviving critical loads without any direct power connection be­
tween the MG. A historical overview and analysis of battery EV inte­
grated RES has been reviewed in (Wali et al., 2021). In (Lipu et al.,
2021), different intelligent approaches and control schemes of the bat­
tery management system in electric vehicle applications are reviewed.
This study identified the issues and challenges in terms of computation
complexity, execution problems along with various internal and
external factors. Based on the literature, one of the key problems is how
V2G technology has not been accomplished by a power grid as EVs are
incorporated in the charging and discharge stages (Prem et al., 2020).
The energy system is influenced by increasing the harmonic substance
and voltage distortion, which influences the power quality and contin­
uous function of the whole system’s aligned components (Al-Ogaili
et al., 2021a). Further charge and discharge of V2G cars could decrease
battery cycle longevity and storage space.
Recent studies have shown that EVs hold a definite advantage over
other traditional energy-saving technologies for their ease of imple­
mentation and for ensuring an eco-friendly environment. As a result of
their higher efficiencies, these EVs are likely to increase considerably by
gaining market acceptance, especially in urban areas (Zhang et al.,
2021). In France, for instance, the first estimations expect that a per­
centage of 15% of electric vehicles in the entire car fleet would increase
energy by just 3% and reduce the CO2 emissions by 90% (Wang et al.,
2021). In order to improve environmental health, the latest industrial
transition is jumping into the use of green energy technologies, the ad­
vantages of urban decarbonization and the potential to leverage local
energy supplies better. All of these three are interrelated with each other
(Hannan, Mohammad A et al., 2017). As such, sustainable resources are
photovoltaic and wind-based generators that can then promote pollution
reductions by traditional electricity generators during peak-demand
times if retained. They offer a possible backup for renewable power
sources, such as wind and solar power, supporting the efficient inte­
gration of intermittent power production (Goel et al., 2021). EVs are
known to be one of the most powerful instruments to reduce the need for
gasoline, thus encouraging urban decarbonization, which improves the
wellbeing of people.
When electric vehicles are connected to the grid for charging, they
become on-grid electric vehicles, namely, vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V),
vehicle-to-home (V2H), and vehicle-to-grid (V2G) technologies (Loc­
ment et al., 2010). EVs have a lot of benefits for the environment, and
most people know this information. However, few people realize that
the electric grid can be operated efficiently with these cars. It is less
costly than conventional vehicles, demanding to satisfy grid demand
flexibly at off-peak hours. Electric cars will also use more batteries for
their battery capabilities, provide contingency power during shut-offs
and export electricity to the grid. The V2G charge systems should be
used during high periods when electricity consumption is at its
maximum, and the grid is spared from overload. Users will theoretically
prevent expensive grid improvements, including installing new power
stations, by using electric cars as their personal energy storage systems.
Electric vehicles can also increase the grid’s reliability when subjected to
major disruptions, including abrupt major load shifts, bus failures, or
tricking of generators and branches. They can serve as protection,
minimizing variations in the speed and the action of voltage moves
smoothly up and down and up to 40% longer vital clearing periods.
Electric cars store energy from renewable energy and release it to the
grid if necessary (Liu et al., 2015). At present, electric vehicles are one of
the most convenient technologies that will help to minimize the de­
pendency and use of fossil fuels. Electric cars are helping to decrease
harmful emissions, environmental pollution, and global warming.
Currently, V2G technology is oriented more closely to incorporate it as a
grid power source successfully. This connection may have a two-sided
power flow so that vehicles can load and unload. It will contribute to
greater grid reliability and integrity. The advantages of PHEVs and
electric battery vehicles (EBVs) are hypnotically compared with HEVs
2
Journal of Cleaner Production 339 (2022) 130587
(Zeynali et al., 2020).
Any motor vehicle with rechargeable battery packages that can be
charged from the electrical grid and the electricity stored in board drive
systems or helps drive wheels for propulsion are PHEVs, also known as
plug-in electric vehicles discussed in (Adnan et al., 2017). Plug-in
electronic vehicles can also be identified as electrically charged vehi­
cles or grid-enabled (GEV) vehicles. Not only does the vehicle charge,
but it also releases energy and injects energy into the grid. This is
referred to as V2G operations, as disused in (Dinkhah et al., 2019). The
energy consumption for PHEV charging constitutes 5% of the overall
consumption of electricity. The chemical energy stored in rechargeable
battery packs is the only energy source for a BEV. Instead of ICEs, BEVs
use proposed electric motors and motor controls (Zhang et al., 2020). A
comprehensive review of the impact of V2G technologies and charging
strategies along with their operations, control, and issues not sufficiently
covered in the literature. Therefore, the aims and contribution of this
paper can be summarized as follows:
• It discusses and investigates the V2G opportunities, challenges, and
technologies of electric vehicles in a V2G connecting system.
• A comprehensive analysis of the diverse of V2G topologies, opera­
tions, applications, issues, and future directions.
• A detailed review to outline V2G topology, control system, main
features, updated details, pros, cons, and related applications.
• Finally, recommendations for future V2G performance improvement
to enable widespread adoption in the energy market are highlighted
based on the review.
2. Surveying method
To accomplish the goal of this study, the survey process was carried
out based on content interpretation. The literature for this study was
discovered through the usage of the Scopus databases. The citation was
selected from the Web of Science, Google Scholar, and Scopus databases.
To find relevant publications within the scope of the study, the authors
used many keywords, including V2G, vehicle to grid-connected technolo­
gies, V2G control scheme, electric vehicles, hybrid vehicles, V2G impacts, and
optimization. Numerous publications were found through the search;
nevertheless, appropriate material was chosen by assessing the key­
words, title, abstract, paper content, and the journal’s primary area of
interest. The relevant articles were then selected based on their impact
factor, review procedure, and citations. As illustrated in Fig. 1, the re­
view method is separated into two phases, which are summarized as
follows:
2.1. Selection process
• Following the primary search, a total of 562 articles were chosen.
• The first evaluation and screening were conducted using the proper
keywords, title, abstract, article content, and the journal’s major
subject of interest, resulting in the identification of 304 articles.
• The impact factor, review procedure, and citations of the publica­
tions were used in the second evaluation and screening.
• At this point, a total of 123 publications from journals and scientific
conference proceedings were chosen for review.
2.2. Results of the review
• A comprehensive overview of the hybrid vehicle system was pro­
vided, including the electric vehicle battery, battery capacity and
technologies, PHEVs, and plug-in fuel cell hybrid electric vehicles
(PFC-HEV).
• A thorough review and detailed explanation of the concept of V2G,
system requirements and power flow, unidirectional and bidirec­
tional power flow, V2G system, and DC fast charging station
configuration for V2G, including battery charger configuration, buck
M.A. Hannan et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 339 (2022) 130587

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram for selection process of the review.

operation mode (charging), and boost operation mode (discharging),

is provided.
• V2G control scheme, topology and control charging system, and
application in distribution system were broadly analyzed.
• A discussion is presented on the benefits of V2G systems in the grid,
such as ancillary services, voltage and frequency regulation.
• The impacts, potential, limitations, issues, challenges, and future
trends of V2G were thoroughly examined.
• Selected recommendations for future V2G performance enhance­
ments to enable widespread adoption in the energy market are
highlighted and provide.

3. Overview of the hybrid vehicle system

The grid’s load demand is significant during several seasons. There

will be increased stress on the electrical system throughout the summer.
An example of an air conditioner that may be utilized in various
Fig. 2. A typical load profile over 24 h.

3
M.A. Hannan et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 339 (2022) 130587

industries is air conditioners that are refrigeration units. Conversely, Table 1

power demand is not consistent throughout the day. For example, the Battery technologies and capacities (INSIDEEVs, 2021).
24-h load profile observed in Fig. 2 throughout the day may be applied Car model/EV Drive Battery EPA Charging Energy
to commercial, manufacturing, and residential customers (Lopes et al., type EV time at consumption
2010). A variety of models to minimize grid pressure in high demand range domestic [kWh/100 km]
socket
periods have been identified. V2G is a promising alternative for stabi­
lizing the power network and fluidizing the load curve. EVs are claimed Nissan LEAF FWD 40 149 mi 18 h 17 kWh
to be loaded and distributed storage (Ferdowsi, 2007). kWh (240
km)
The current AC grid is seen as a profitable option for potential V2G Hyundai Kona FWD 64 258 mi 28 h 14.3 kWh
connections to EVs or PHEVs. Furthermore, V2G allows for the reduction Electric kWh (415
of uncomfortable demands within the grid, particularly during times km)
when grid power is expensive, as well as the provision of supplementary Jaguar I-PACE AWD 90 234 39,5 h 21.2 kWh
EV400 kWh mi*
services. V2G power transfer will be activated when a connection is
(377
established, and energy will be transported from the vehicle to the km)
electrical grid. As illustrated in Fig. 3, the V2G connection has been Audi e-tron S/ AWD 95 208 mi 42 h –
extended. The use of multiple converter stages to connect the electric 55 kWh (335
vehicle’s power supply to a power grid, as well as a bidirectional km)
Volvo C40 AWD 78 210 mi
charging unit on-board or off-board, are all essential for a successful V2G
– –
kWh (338
implementation. It is also important to integrate precise, certified km)
metering on-board the vehicle to monitor the flow of energy. However, Kia Niro EV FWD 64 239 mi 28 h 14.3 kWh
different conversion stages may increase the complexity and energy loss (e-Niro) kWh (385
km)
(Ferdowsi, 2007). Three different V2G mechanisms have been identified
BMW i3, RWD 42.2 153 mi 12 h 12.9 kWh
to apply to vehicles, all of which are predicated on the vehicle model as BMW i3s kWh (246
follows: km)
Volkswagen AWD 82 240 mi – –
ID.4 Pro S kWh (386
3.1. Electric vehicle battery km)
Tesla Model 3 RWD 60 263 mi 27 h –
Standard kWh (423
For fully EVs, the drive train of BEVs is entirely functional, with km)
batteries as the primary source of electricity for power. The battery pack Tesla Model Y AWD 80 326 mi 36 h 20,8 kWh
can charge when grid power is low and tap into the grid when grid kWh (525
km)
power is abundant. When the grid is experiencing a power shortage, the
Tesla Model X AWD 100 340 mi 45 h 21 kWh
battery pack will plug in and charge, and when the grid is experiencing a Plaid kWh (547
power shortage, the mechanism will reverse. The EV will discharge the km)
generated energy back to the grid. In comparison to traditional batteries Tesla Model S AWD 100 396 mi 45 h 21 kWh
used in electronic devices such as smartphones and tablets, batteries for Plaid kWh (637
km)
EVs must be built to maximize run time while maintaining a high level of
Lucid Air AWD 113 520 mi – –
electricity. Additionally, these batteries can have small volume and Dream kWh (837
weight specifications (Hannan et al., 2018). Since there is a growing Edition km)
interest in PEV growth, considerable researches have been undertaken
AWD: All wheels drive. FWD: Front wheels drive. RWD: Rear wheels drive.
globally to discover superior vehicle-specific battery techniques. This is
a more straightforward way of saying that we’re doing a quick recap of
the most modern battery technology that is already in place (Hoang

Fig. 3. V2G Schematic diagram.

4
M.A. Hannan et al.
et al., 2017). Table 1 lists the battery capacity, charging time, energy
consumption and range for some of the recent EV types (The mobility
house, 2021). It is important to mention that batteries with heavy
weights may be encountered, normally providing a faster journey time.
However, in terms of PEVs, if the battery is strong, the efficiency of PEVs
would be inefficient because the heavy battery would reduce the speed
of PEVs and use greater energy for transportation. Therefore, future
developments in electric car batteries must strike a balance between
strength and weight (Hannan et al., 2017).
3.2. Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles
In PHEVs, the battery pack merely supports relatively medium to
short-range travel distances. Having a larger power supply onboard, the
ICE, as an external backup, allows the vehicle to go well outside of the
normal operating range of the battery power source (Ferdowsi, 2007).
The battery or the engine can provide electricity to the grid for V2G
applications. PHEV battery packs are intended for short trips and cannot
provide significant energy feedback to the grid. As a result,
grid-connected PHEVs can rely on the ICE to serve as an alternator.
3.3. Plug-in fuel cell hybrid electric vehicles
Recyclable hydrogen is used as the fuel source for these vehicles.
Water may be used as a source of hydrogen, or it may be derived from
hydrocarbons. Hydrogen has been applied for energy storage as well as
on these cars as a battery expansion, which means that it can also be
used in hybrid and electric power (and regenerate hydrogen onboard).
The stored energy can be used for both mechanical and electrical pur­
poses, while another source of energy is contained in the battery
(Sulaiman et al., 2015).
4. V2G concept, power flow and grid requirements
4.1. V2G concept
Electric drive vehicles (EDVs) can supply grid power when parked or
dormant, but the fundamental theory of vehicle-to-grid power must be
charged while on the road. A fuel cell vehicle, a battery-electric car, or a
plug-in hybrid are all examples of EDVs. Battery electric vehicles can
charge during lower demand times and use less energy during peak
periods. EDVs powered by fuel cells produce electricity using either
liquid or gaseous fuel. When EDVs are equipped with plug-in hybrid
Fig. 4. Power line and wireless control links between EV and the electric power grid.
5
Journal of Cleaner Production 339 (2022) 130587
technology, they may run in either a conventional or electric mode. Each
vehicle should have three components required: (a) electrical energy
flow network connection; (b) logical or control connection needed to
communicate with the grid operator; and (c) on-board monitoring and
measurement of the vehicle. According to marketing strategy, these
components differ slightly and are discussed in greater detail in the
companion article (Kempton and Tomić, 2005c). The relations between
vehicles and the electric power grid are depicted schematically in Fig. 4.
Electric power flows in one direction from the generators to consumers
to the grid. Electricity is returned to the grid through EDVs, or in the case
of battery EDVs, it is returned in two directions. There are many ways in
which the control signal from the grid operator can be transmitted. The
simplest of these is over-air via a broadcaster or via a wireless, direct
internet link, or electric power grid carrier. Either way, the grid operator
delivers electricity to a range of vehicles. The signal is available directly
to each vehicle, scheme in the upper right corner of Fig. 4, or to a fleet
operator’s office who manages vehicles in the lower right corner of
Fig. 4, in turn by means of a distributed power aggregator per individual
vehicle. The signal is available on a separate parking lot and scheme. (A
voice telephone call or a T1 line can also be used by the grid operator to
dispatch electricity from traditional central-station generators, which is
not illustrated in Fig. 4.)
4.2. Power flow in V2G
The main six subsystems of the PEV network include the following:
(a) power and electricity resources; (b) decentralized autonomous sys­
tem operator; (c) on-board and off-board intelligent metering and con­
trol; (d) charging facilities and locations; and on-to-to- and
communication between the ISO or system operator; (e) a system
aggregator with two-to-energy management and electrical control on-at
systems; and the PEB system itself with its battery charger; and (f) on-to-
and-grid and independent metering. According to (How et al., 2020),
PEVs can both charge and inject and discharge energy while parked,
so-in to when connected to the V2G interfaces. These three things are
required to avoid problems: a connection to the power grid, communi­
cation with the grid operator, and efficient metering of energy; better
management means gathering more accurate data (Oudalov et al.,
2006). All general-purpose contact equipment is bi-directional. Ac­
cording to (Chakraborty et al., 2012), the bidirectional power flow be­
tween EV and the grid has advantages such as isolation, high efficiency,
high power density, wide output voltage range, good dynamic perfor­
mance and low cost. A type of metering that accounts for battery
M.A. Hannan et al.
capacity and charge levels (to provide more intelligent metering) pre­
sents a difficult problem for many firms. The authors in (Qu, 2016),
developed novel and competitive control strategies for V2G services
implementation for EVs in smart electrical car parks or smart parks. A
combination of smart metering and smart charging is introduced in
(Barone et al., 2020). The results showed the feasibility of the proposed
solution and demonstrated the effectiveness of combining smart
metering and smart charging to increase the daily synchronous
self-consumption by 45%. While proponents of V2G are working on both
on- and off-board meters, there are doubts about whether V2G meters
will actually be supported (Saber and Venayagamoorthy, 2010). Smart
metering enables the controllability of PEV loads and enables the inte­
gration of PEVs and renewable energy (Rua et al., 2010). On-board
meters and GPS locators are helpful, as proved in (Srivastava et al.,
2010). As concluded in (Su et al., 2011), smart meter-connected sensors
can send and receive information from the control networked power
sources and then increase the V2G operational efficiency. Services that
need knowledge and flexibility for changing market prices are discussed,
evaluated and analyzed in the literature such as rotating generation
(Quinn et al., 2010), power frequency (Kempton and Letendre, 1997),
power reserves must be regulated (Clement-Nyns et al., 2011), and
controllers must be operated using knowledge and tools like power price
regulation and monitoring and real-oriented pricing (Markel et al.,
2009). While a few networking approaches have been explored in the
literature, including ZigBee in (Su et al., 2012b), Bluetooth (Kulshrestha
et al., 2009), and Z-Wave (Kulshrestha et al., 2009). In the United States,
the Institute of Engineers and the Society of American Engineers outline
and definitions what contact specifications are needed (Lee et al., 2003).
Additionally, the National Electric Infrastructure Working Council is
defining a communications protocol that will enable PEVs to connect
with chargers (Gungor et al., 2011). The expansion-capable microgrids
are not equipped with the latest and state-of-the-art control electronics
and capable of distributing device noise that can be very deleterious (Bai
and Lukic, 2011). The standard addressing PEV shock control systems
contain procedures for PEV charging (Aggeler et al., 2010). Isolation is
good for high-voltage batteries, dc-dc converters, and traction. It is also
good for PEV features, such as the isolation charger. If it is used in the
high-frequency insulation (electric vehicle supply: a line transformer, or
a high-frequency transformer, may be used to provide galvanic isolation
for both the dc and battery-charging stages. Increased voltage range for
greater precision, greater equipment protection, and reduced size.
Though galvanic isolation is a good choice for safety, on-board chargers
are normally avoided because of the additional cost. These issues can be
avoided when using loader circuit traction engine and an inverter to
provide an integrated drive system and loader. Various efforts have been
made to solve the isolation problem by incorporating special machine
configurations that include extra windings.
Fig. 5. Power flow topologies in both directions.
6
Journal of Cleaner Production 339 (2022) 130587
4.2.1. Unidirectional power flow
The flow of power can be bidirectional in the general situation, as
seen in Fig. 5. Whether or not reversal is used, the basic battery charge
mechanism, unidirectional V2G, is a system that can deliver services
that are dependent on reactive power and dynamic rate change. While
the computer requires an outlet, no other hardware is needed beyond
that, and no further EV battery depletion is caused by cycling. With very
little additional expense, this framework can be built (Bhaskar et al.,
2020). Through the application of time-sensitive price of energy and
fundamental control, both are feasible. The simplest circuit is a diode
bridge, which then gets filtered and used to power as a dc-dc converter.
In order to save weight, cost, losses, and volume, these converters are
typically installed in one step (Singh et al., 2004). When there is a need
for increased isolation, transformers that have a high-frequency rating
should be employed. (Singh et al., 2004). To generate the highest
possible power from rectified alternating current (A/C), reactive power
flow control must be employed to properly charge batteries using uni­
directional chargers.
4.2.2. Bidirectional power flow
Chargers that work in both directions are often composed of two
stages. The first stage is a bidirectional ac–dc converter linked to the grid
and imposes active power factor adjustment. The second stage is a
bidirectional dc–dc converter that controls the battery charge or
discharge current. During charging, the charger should provide a sinu­
soidal current with a defined phase angle. When the charger is in
discharge mode, the current should be returned in a sinusoidal pattern.
Although much of the study on bidirectional power flow has been with
regard to V2G, there are a number of significant problems that hinder it
from being widely used (Tomić and Kempton, 2007; Kempton and
Tomić, 2005b). A new electrolytic capacitor-less bi-directional EV
charger for grid-connected electric vehicle applications is proposed by
(Saisrinivas et al., 2018). The proposed bidirectional EV charger is
connected in series with the grid, which minimizes the switching losses
and improves the efficiency of the system. Batteries are included in this
category because they require regular charging and discharging to
control. In this regard, a precise bidirectional charging control strategy
of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles by considering the State of Charge
(SoC) of the batteries and simultaneous voltage and frequency regula­
tion is presented by (Mohammadi et al., 2019). Bidirectional converters,
metering issues, and setup problems are all considered to be additional
costs. This means that islands’ anti-laying and other connection prob­
lems must be taken into consideration. A key impediment to adopting a
full V2G model is the lack of such guarantees, which ultimately keeps
the V2G concept successful (Peterson et al., 2010b). The charger must be
highly secure in order to use bidirectional charging, as introduced in
(Crozier et al., 2020). The study demonstrated that bi-directional smart
charging offers additional flexibility compared to uni-directional smart
chargers but are expensive to install and implement. Table 2 highlights
M.A. Hannan et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 339 (2022) 130587

Table 2
Comparisons of unidirectional and bidirectional electricity flow (Yilmaz, M. and Krein, P.T.J.I.T.o.p.e., 2012b).
Situation Power Power Flow and Cost Control Distribution Battery Effect Benefits Requirements
Level Switches system and
Challenges

Bidirectional Not Expected Electrical energy The cost is Complex. upgrades and Due to regular - Ancillary services Grid-
Power Flow available only for flows in both high. Additional investment cycling, there - Voltage regulation connected
Level 2 directions control expenses is an increase and frequency power supply
through a two- circuits for necessary in regulation are
way conduit., the drive. deterioration. examples of active
charge/discharge Numerous power regulation
(V2G), IGBT protections. and stabilization.
(Medium power) (down-up)
MOSFET (low - Reserves for
power), GTO spinning
(High power - Filling the valley
level) -Following the
load
- Support for
reactive power
- Peak shaving
- Current harmonic
filtering
- Balance of energy
- Continuous
monitoring of the
renewable energy
sources output
Unidirectional Available Levels 1, Electrical energy Low price, Regulating No update or There is no - Simplifies Grid-
Power Flow 2 and 3 flow in just one no the charging investment. deterioration difficulties of connected
direction, additional current for With a from connectivity power supply
fundamental cost active significant discharging - Simple and
battery charging control. penetration of straightforward
(G2V) Diode Timing- PEVs, this controls
bridge + sensitive scenario - Efficient,
unidirectional pricing might satisfies most consistent services
converter serve as a utility criteria. are delivered,
basic kind of even in the
control. absence of
reversal.
- Reactive power is
supplied or
absorbed using
electricity, but
without needing
to deplete a
battery.
- phase-angle
control
- Regulation of
voltage and
frequency

Fig. 6. Fast dc charging EV charging station.

7
M.A. Hannan et al.
the comparisons between unidirectional and bidirectional power flows
in terms of needs, difficulties, advantages, cost, battery and distribution
system effects, safety, control, and power level. The following sections
will explore the benefits, costs, and problems associated with bidirec­
tional V2G systems in further depth.
4.3. V2G system requirements
4.3.1. DC rapid charging station configuration for V2G
Fig. 6 illustrates the installation of a direct current rapid charging
station for the purpose of integrating V2G-G2V infrastructure into a MG
(Fouladi et al., 2020). A charging station for electric vehicles with G2V
and V2G charging configurations is discussed in (Thomas and Moham­
med, 2020). The energy management system is also used to effectively
control the operation to maintain the power-sharing between the com­
ponents. Charging of electric car batteries is enabled via off-board
chargers. An LCL filter and a step-up transformer have been connected
to a dc bus through the utility grid. The following is a comprehensive list
of the charging station’s most important components.
a) Configuration of the Battery Charger: DC rapid charging is accom­
plished by offloading the chargers and putting them in an electric
vehicle supply equipment (EVSE). The off-board charger with V2G
capability is constructed using a bidirectional dc-dc converter. It
establishes a connection between an electric car’s battery system and
the alternating current distribution grid. The configuration of the
converter is depicted in Fig. 7 (Ammous et al., 2017). The circuitry
comprises two MOSFET/IGBT switches that are controlled together
with two complementary control signals.
b) The buck mode of operation (charging mode): The converter automat­
ically lowers the input voltage to the voltage necessary for battery
charging when the top switch (S buck) is switched on. The current
goes into the battery to charge it, passing through the switch and
inductor during the activation stage. The charging method illustrates
how the automobile connects to the grid (G2V). The inductor is a coil
that has an external magnetic field running through it. The magnetic
field then goes through the lower switch diode to complete the cir­
cuit and stop the switch from being switched on again. If D is the duty
ratio of the upper switch, the battery voltage is given by:
Vbatt = Vdc × D (1)
c) Boost mode of operation (discharging mode): The converter works as a
boost converter when the lower switch (S boost) is activated and
converts the voltage of the battery (Vbatt) to the current direct bus
voltage (Vdc). Following activation of the switch by turning it on, the
current continues to flow via the inductor, where the anti-parallel
diode and capacitor complete it in the top switch. When a vehicle
transfers power to the grid, the battery is discharged, which is a kind
of V2G. When the capacitor is large enough to generate a continuous
dc voltage, boost mode is used to supply the output voltage by:
Vbatt
Vdc = (2)
1 − D′
where D is the duty cycle of the lower switch.
′
4.3.2. Inverter with grid connectivity and LCL filter
The grid-connected inverter (GCI) connects directly to the dc bus and
uses the three-phase alternating current of the bus voltage to power its
corresponding three-phase motor. Additionally, it has an anti-parallel
diode circuit through which reverse current flows for the switched
branches of the circuit (Fig. 6). The LCL filter is attached to the inverter’s
output terminals in order to provide pure sinusoidal voltage and current.
The method used in this work to determine the LCL filter parameters was
8
Journal of Cleaner Production 339 (2022) 130587
adapted (Arancibia and Strunz, 2012).
5. Projects, impacts, and economic values of V2G
5.1. V2G global projects
Widespread electrification of the transportation sector has allowed
the production of millions of EVs around the world as V2G technology.
This widespread holds the promise of greater vehicle efficiency and
lower emissions of GHGs and other air pollutants. Many governments
around the world have identified EVs as a cornerstone of transportation
sector emission control strategies, alongside other efforts to reduce per-
mile emissions from conventional vehicles, by improving technology
and creating new standards for liquid fuels. The global EV sales grew by
43% from 2019 and the global electric car industry market share rose to
a record 4.6% in 2020 (Meelen et al., 2021). In this regard, the currently
and previously developed V2G R&D and demonstration projects in the
world are listed in Table 3 (Everoze, 2018).
5.2. The impacts of the V2G in a country levels
Potentially, under stated EV participation assumptions to demand-
side response programmes, V2G services could unlock up to nearly
600 GW of flexible capacity, split across China, European Union, United
States and India. This flexible capacity could be used for compensating
variability in renewable-based generation during peak periods. Indeed,
while variable renewables account for 25–40% of the power being
drawn during off-peak times, 8 it could fall to 5–10% during peak time,
which represents a capacity loss of 400 GW across China, India, Euro­
pean Union and United States (IEA, 2021). In 2030, across China, India,
European Union and United States, V2G could help avoid 380 TW-hours
(TWh) of electricity generation needs during peak demand. This is
nearly equivalent to the total final electricity consumed in Italy in 2018.
If V2G from EVs met peak demand instead of fossil fuel-based genera­
tion, 330 million tonnes of CO2 (Mt CO2) emissions would be avoided
globally, equivalent to total energy-related CO2 emissions from Italy in
2018. To achieve these peak demand savings, and accounting for energy
losses, around 470 TWh of electricity would need to be supplied to EV
batteries at off-peak times, during which the carbon intensity of the
electricity will be lower (Bibak and Tekiner-Moğulkoç, 2021; Blumberg
et al., 2022).
In terms of V2G impacts of residential EV charging, residential EV
charging represents a significant increase in household electricity con­
sumption that can require upgrades of the household electrical system.
Unless properly managed, it may lead to demand that exceeds the
maximum power that can be supported by distribution systems, espe­
cially for legacy infrastructure and during times of high electricity uti­
lization (e.g. in peak hours or on extreme days). For example, the
Norwegian water resources and energy directorate indicates that an
average increase in residential load of 5 kW would overload more than
30% of distribution transformers in Norway (IEA, 2021). In Germany, its
market share of more than 10% EV may be leading to bottlenecks
(Jochem et al., 2018). In the UK, using V2G charging could expect to cut
electricity operating costs by up to £12,000 per annum per EV and
reduce CO2 by approximately 60 tons annually per EV (Meelen et al.,
2021). In China, the study presented by (Zhou et al., 2020) reported that
EV owner participation in ancillary services both in Chengdu and
Shanghai can bring additional economic benefits for their EV owner and
provide peak-shaving and frequency regulation service to relieve the
load pressure on the local grid. The analysis of the legal status of V2G in
Poland, referring to the documents of the European Union and domestic
legislation is presented in (Zagrajek et al., 2021).The results of this study
concluded that the implementation of the V2G program requires sig­
nificant changes in the Polish energy law, but it is feasible from the
technical point of view.
M.A. Hannan et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 339 (2022) 130587

Table 3 5.3. The economic impact of V2G

Worldwide V2G project list.
Project name Country No. of Start year No. of The global V2G market grew at a compound annual growth rate
projects Chargers (CAGR) of around 15% during 2015–2020. Looking forward, the global
Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) Hong Kong 1 2011 1 vehicle-to-grid market is expected to exhibit strong growth during the
Pilot Project next five years. Europe dominated the V2G market in 2020 with the
M-tech Labo, Osaka Japan 5 2010, 5, -, -, -,40 highest share close to 33% followed by North America and Asia-Pacific,
business park, -,2018, as shown in Fig. 8. North America region is estimated to witness a sig­
Toyota Tsuho/ 2018, 2012
Chubu Electric/
nificant amount of growth during the forecast period 2021–2026, due to
Nuvve, V2G high investment in electric vehicle production and increasing govern­
Aggregator project, ment initiatives for the adoption of eco-friendly EVs and its supporting
Leaf to home. infrastructures (Industry ARC, 2021). In February 2021, Ford invested
Korean V2G Korea 1 2015 3
$1 billion to transform its Cologne, German based factory into an EV
Elia V2G Belgium 1 2018 2
Parker Denmark 1 2016 50 production factory. Similarly, in November 2020, German based Com­
Suvilahti pilot Finland 1 2017 1 pany, Tier had raised a fund worth $250 million led by SoftBank. In April
Grid Motion France 1 2017 15 2021, European e-scooter and micro-mobility Start-up Company, Dott
Redispatch V2G, Germany 5 2018, 2017, 10, 1, 40, got $85 million funding and is planning to launch e-bikes throughout
Offenbach, INEES, 2012, 2012, -, 1
iZEus, Vehicle-to- 2015
London in the next summers. Such investments create a huge amount of
coffee requirements for EV charging stations in this region, which in turn drives
Genoa pilot Italy 1 2017 2 the growth of V2G market and to meet such growing requirement major
SEEV4City Netherlands, 1 2016 13 players of this region are taking strategic steps, which is fuelling the
Norway, UK,
growth of this market. In May 2021, Nuvve teamed up with the Danish
Belgium
City-Zen Smart City, Netherlands 6 2014, 2.15, 4, 22, 10, charging solution provider Spirii, to integrate the platforms of these two
Smart Solar 2016, 2014, 2, 1, 1 companies in order to provide unidirectional grid services and bidirec­
Charging, 2015, 2018 tional customer offers for EV fleets in Denmark, the Nordics and
NewMotion V2G, northern Europe. Hence, the above-mentioned factors are expected to
Amsterdam
drive the growth of this market during 2021–2026 (Industry ARC,
Vehicle2Grid,
Solar-powered 2021).
bidirectional EV Based on the latest report of global EV outlook (IEA, 2021), while
charging station, government expenditure in Europe increased, decreases were observed
Hitachi, Mitsubishi
in China and the United States because average European incentives are
and Engie
Porto Santo Portugal 1 2018 – on the lower end of the spectrum, at around $ 4000 per vehicle (with the
GrowSmarter, Spain 2 2015,2012 6, 6 exception of Norway, where incentives, in the form of tax exemptions,
Zem2All are much higher).
Nissan Enel UK, The UK 5 2016, 2018, 100, 16, -,
Network Impact of 2017, 2015, 1, 4
6. Applications of V2G in the distribution system
Grid-Integrated 2013
Vehicles, Hitachi -
Isle of Scilly Smart Two service charge providers were established at the feeder ends,
Island, ITHECA, EFE which were then planned to join the distribution system (distribution
S.
substation). When it comes to the less difficult situations, by including
IREQ, Po Canada 2 2012, 2013 1, -.
werstreampilot
these two EV aggregators, which can acquire useable energy from EVs
NYSERDA, Jump USA 16 2016, 2012, 5, 80, 8, and transfer it to different loads located in the lateral portions, this
SmartMaui, BlueB 2017, 2012, 13, 9, 6, 3,
ird School Bus V2G, 2015, 2016, 5, 15, -, 6,
US Air Force, NRG NA, 2013, 2, 1, -, 50,
Evgo-UCSD, KIA 2012, 2009, 2
Motors, Hyundai 2014, 2015,
Technical Center NA, 2015,
Inc., NREL 2017, 2014.
Integrate/living lab,
US DoD-Fort Carson,
Grid on wheels, Fiat-
Chrysler V2G,
Clinton Global
Initiative School Bus
Demo, Distribution
System V2G, UCLA
WinSmartEV,
Massachusetts
Electric School Bus
Pilot, INVENT,
Torrance V2G
School Bus
Fig. 7. Battery charger configuration.

9
M.A. Hannan et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 339 (2022) 130587

illustrated in Fig. 10 (Ammous et al., 2017).

7. V2G control scheme

7.1. Autonomous distributed V2G

The electricity grid’s supply and demand imbalance may be noticed

by the frequency variation measured at the house outlet (Ota et al.,
2007). As a result, V2G power is (Pv2G ) controlled with droop charac­
teristics against frequency deviation, as shown in Fig. 11 (Ota et al.,
2011):
{ }
KV2G Δf (|KV2G Δf | ≤ Pmax )
PV2G = (3)
Pmax (Pmax < |KV2G Δf |)

where is maximum V2G gain. SOCmin , SOClow , SOChigh , SOCmax , and are
designed as the SOC is balanced around 50% as shown in Fig. 12 (Ota
Fig. 8. V2G estimated global market value share.
et al., 2011).
The specifications of the home outlet restrict the maximum V2G
power, and V2G gain is determined by a tradeoff between the load
frequency control (LFC) effect and the battery SoC fluctuation range. To
prevent overcharging, a high-power charging (discharging) should not
be conducted if the SoC is almost full (almost empty) (over-discharge). It
is essential to know if the SoC is full or empty during long-term V2G
cycles, as a mean value of the frequency deviation is not always zero,
and there is a loss of battery capacity during these cycles. In light of
these characteristics, a balancing control is implemented in the form of
the following equation, with the assumption that correct SOC estimate is
achieved (Ota et al., 2010):
{ ( )n }
SOC − SOClow(high)
KV2G = Kmax 1 − (4)
SOCmax(min) − SOClow(high)

7.2. MPC control scheme of bidirectional AC-DC converter

The graphic illustrates the model predictive control (MPC) algo­

rithm’s proposed control method, indicated by the arrows in Fig. 13.
First, the bidirectional ac-dc converter is turned on using the dc bus
voltage to indicate when the energy storage device (an EV battery) is
fully charged and is shut off when the dc bus voltage drops Vdc . Inverter
mode is used when the load state is less than the threshold level, whereas
correction mode is used when the load status is higher than the threshold
→
level. In rectifier mode, the three-phase input grid current. i g (K) is
→
monitored and the future value of this current i g (K +1) is projected
using Equation (5) for each of the converter’s eight potential switching
vectors s and g. The future value of the three-phase input grid current
→ →
i g (K +1) = i p rec (K +1) is compared with the reference current
→
i ref rec (K +1) of the rectifier mode using the cost function in Equation
(5).
⃒ ⃒
⃒→ → ⃒
→e = ⃒⃒ i ref (K + 1) − i p (K + 1)⃒⃒ (5)

Fig. 9. Flowchart for operating the system with V2G technology and deter­ The reference current of ac-dc conversion in rectifier mode,
mining its reliability indices over a year. →
i ref rec (K +1) is computed using the PI controller with 3-Phase input grid
vector g, v, and s and dc bus voltage. The alternating-current-to-direct-
project has demonstrated how EVs may help the power grid. When current converter’s switching states are utilized to determine the most
equipment on the feeder fails, the cars will supply the rest of the load, cost-effective switch settings in the following time period. Optimal
but if feeder B fails, the EVs will be able to supply the rest of the load. switching states in inverter mode are selected to minimize the cost
When the feeder c is out of operation, the residential loads connected to function and forecast the grid current using Equation (6).
lines c and d will be isolated. In contrast, when the feeder d is out of ( ) { }
service, the loads connected to lines c and d will be out of service as well. →
i g (K + 1) = 1 −
RS TS →
i g (K) +
TS →
v g (K) − →
v conv (K) (6)
In order to measure each value and overall changes in the system, the LS LS
reliability indices are measured once again. The methodology used to
calculate the reliability indices when implementing V2G technology is
shown in Fig. 9. The delivery system that incorporates aggregators is

10
M.A. Hannan et al.
Fig. 10. Configuration of a distribution system with EV aggregators.
Fig. 11. V2G control with droop against frequency deviation.
Fig. 12. Battery SOC balance control.
7.3. V2G converter topology
The two-way ac-dc converter architecture shown in Fig. 14 is used
for both V2G and G2V applications of EVs. There are two modes of
operation for this bidirectional ac-dc converter. This first method em­
ploys a rectifier to transform ac power to dc, and it also acts as a cure
that allows power transfer from the ac grid to the battery of an electric
vehicle. This type of grid connection is known as the inverter mode, and
in this mode, power flows from the EV battery to the three-phase grid,
which is then utilized to drive the ac-dc converter as a voltage source
inverter (Vadi et al., 2019). The study proposed by (Garcés Quílez et al.,
2018) demonstrated that, in V2G applications, the battery system could
be used to support the grid services. In contrast, the battery is still in the
11
Journal of Cleaner Production 339 (2022) 130587
vehicle. To make a battery system economically viable for V2G/G2V
applications, an effective power-electronics converter should be selected
as well. An advanced control strategy should support this converter.
7.3.1. Operating principle
The MPC system is based on the idea that the converter has a finite
number of potential switching states. In order to find the appropriate
switching state to apply to the converter switch, a selection criterion
must be constructed using a cost function that analyzes the error be­
tween actual and expected values. Then there’s the state that makes the
most fun for the least amount of money. The switching signals Sa , Sb , and
Sc determine the three-phase grid-connected bidirectional ac-dc con­
verter has the ability to transfer states quickly and effectively. One
possible switching state is 1 (switch on), whereas the other is 0. (Switch
→
off). The bidirectional ac-dc converter’s switching vector, S can be
represented in the following way.
→ 2
S = (Sa + →
ω Sb + → (7)
2
ω Sc )
3
where, →ω = ej2π/3 The output voltage space vector conv v G from the
two-way ac-dc converter is dependent on phase to neutral voltages, for
both the corrective and inverter mode (vao , vbo and vco ) as follows,
2
→ = (vao + →
ω vbo + → (8)
2
ν conv ω vco )
3
This voltage space vector output →ν conv may likewise be linked with
→
the dc bus voltage Vdc and the switching vector S as,
→
→
ν conv = S × Vdc (9)
7.4. Bi-directional charger system topology and control
A three-phase full-bridge charger is also implemented in the test grid
to accurately represent the charging behavior of EVs in the event of
voltage instability in distribution grids (Yilmaz, M. and Krein, P.T.J.I.t.o.
P.E., 2012a). These chargers have been chosen because they have good
qualities: a power supply devoid of harmonics has excellent power factor
and is ripple-less, resulting in a steady dc voltage that is stable regardless
of whether there is a load or supply disruption (da Silva and Santiago,
2019). On the other hand, these chargers are more expensive than
half-bridge-style chargers since they contain more components (Su et al.,
2012a). Fig. 15 illustrates the design of a three-level bidirectional con­
verter. In order to simulate a dc-dc conversion system, a non-isolated
bi-directional buck-boost converter is employed (Ameen and Suresh,
2018). The conversion devices constitute a two-way EVC charger. A
primary charger with a power output of 22 kW is designed (level 2 –
anticipated for private and public plants). Controlling ac-dc requires
managing four major subsystems: a voltage-dependent regulator, a
current-dependent regulator, a phase-locked loop, and a measurement
subsystem. In addition, it requires using a PLL to generate a pulse-width
modulated (PWM) signal. Similarly, distributed generators (DGs) can
assist low voltage ride-through (LVRT) by maintaining grid stability and
M.A. Hannan et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 339 (2022) 130587

Fig. 13. MPC control technique for a bidirectional ac-dc converter in an electric vehicle for V2G.

Fig. 14. Topology of a three-phase bidirectional ac-dc converter.

staying connected to the grid during LVRT disturbances (Al-Shetwi
et al., 2018).
7.5. The bidirectional power charger’s controller design of V2G
solicitations Id, lq reference. In frameworks that do not have coordinate
power estimation, the active power (P) and reactive power (Q) current
needs are automatically modified in the Q reference outline to keep the
and P capacity equal. However, using this strategy might lead to con­
stant errors on the political stage (Hoque et al., 2017).

There are two possible options for giving controllers with the current

12
M.A. Hannan et al.
Fig. 15. Topology of bi-directional EV charger.
Fig. 16. The converter controller design with regulators.
7.5.1. Power regulator
It is a type of electrical circuit that maintains a constant direct cur­
rent regardless of stack current, temperature, or ac line voltage varia­
tions. In addition, it’s committed to maintaining the same voltage level.
There are two types of forwarding support diagrams, which are illus­
trated in Fig. 16. One utilizes critical assistance, while the other includes
negative feedback. It might make use of an electromechanical device or
electrical components. Contrary to appearances, it may be used to
regulate at least one ac or dc voltage. There may be a voltage difference
between the transmitting and receiving ends of a segment, such as a
transmission or distribution line. If a system can produce constant
voltage throughout an extensive range of circumstances, then voltage
control is applied. If a system is permitted to produce a continuous
voltage throughout a large range of circumstances, then voltage control
is applied. The model of the power regulator is explained as follows.
Id = 2/3[cos θcos(θ + 2π / 3)][ a b c] (10)
/ [ ( )]
2π
Id = 2 3 sin θ sin θ − [a b c] (11)
3
7.5.2. Current regulator
Voltage and reactive power regulation are critical aspects of the
13
Journal of Cleaner Production 339 (2022) 130587
control framework’s activity. This is a direct outcome of the topological
differences between circulation and transmission frameworks and the
evolution of various methods. For transmission and conveyance frame­
works, one-of-a-kind adaptable power management and voltage con­
sistency techniques are being planned (Goel et al., 2021). dq reference
frame will be changed into abc,
⎛ ⎞
∫t
dq = id × Kp e + Ki edt⎠
⎝ (12)
0
⎛
∫t
⎞
Sin cos = 2πωt × iq × ⎝Kp e + Kp e + Ki e dt⎠ (13)
0
They give to abc frame then control frequency, abc = ωt + (π /180)
7.5.3. Power quality control
Many harmonics are generated during the charging and discharging
processes of electric vehicles. One of the most popular methods for
addressing harmonic distortion is the active power filter (APF). The APF
is most commonly used for reactive power compensation and dynamic
harmonic reduction in V2G, as disguised in (Zeynali et al., 2020). Nor­
mally, APF in a V2G system is also used to provide an offset effect and
M.A. Hannan et al.
improve network power quality by placing the active filter in parallel
with the network’s active filter and actively compensating for harmonics
during charging and discharging times for electric cars, as proved by
(Mohamed and Hassan, 2018). In (Zhang et al., 2019), the authors have
been used a direct power control technique to create a good compen­
sating effect, making active filter control more acceptable and effective,
further simplifying the system structure and control algorithm,
increasing control efficiency, and improving power quality. An instan­
taneous power theory-derived control approach is used with an overall
dc voltage and power control loop structure, To regulate the switch tube
opening and shutting, voltage and current on the network side are key
factors, and the entire energy flow is then adjusted. Fig. 17 shows the
active filter for harmonic suppression control set up based on the V2G
system active filter principle diagram, the diagram of the active filter
using parallel bidirectional PWM converter three bridge arm switch
devices for IGBT (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor) and parallel
fly-wheel diode (Zhang et al., 2019). However, power quality issues such
as voltage imbalance and flicker need further investigation in terms of
V2G.
7.5.4. DSTATCOM ANFIS controller
Harmonics, reactive power issues, and other power quality issues can
result from the use of power devices or equipment that mimics fluctu­
ating demands (Alkahtani et al., 2020). Thus, in the case of V2G, some
power quality issues such as poor power factor, lower efficiency, heat
buildup in machines and misfires in devices with high sensitivity may
occur. Excessive current flowing through a neutral wire is caused by
unbalanced and nonlinear single-phase or three-phase loads. The neutral
line is also overloaded due to poor power quality. Due to an imbalanced
load, there was an imbalance in the voltage from the source. Harmonics
of lower order might be generated by imbalanced terminal parameters
or supraharmonics (Alfalahi et al., 2021). Power devices such as dy­
namic voltage restorer (DVR), DSTATCOM, and others are used to
address these quality concerns on the distribution side (Irfan et al.,
2021).
7.5.5. Frequency stability
When the V2G is considered a part of MG, one of the issues that need
to be considered is frequency stability. Compared with the traditional
Fig. 17. Schematic representation of the APF control structure based on the V2G system (Zhang et al., 2019).
14
Journal of Cleaner Production 339 (2022) 130587
power grid, the MG is a weak power grid with smaller inertia. The low
inertia in the system can lead to severe frequency deviations (Meesen­
burg et al., 2020). To solve this issue, the authors in (Rao et al., 2021)
proposed a frequency control strategy for multi-MG with V2G based on
the improved robust model predictive control. The simulation results
show that the proposed control method can better suppress the fre­
quency fluctuation with a faster response speed. Moreover, regulating
the frequency is done in In (Dinkhah and He, 2020) using the virtual
inertia method. The virtual inertia is implemented for frequency regu­
lation, as explained in equation (14). Implementation of virtual inertia is
done by frequency control.
p* − p ( )
Hω = − α × Dω (ω − ω* ) − β × kd ω − ωg (14)
ω
Where H is the inertia of the system. ωg is the grid frequency, P* is the
reference power, P is the power in line, ω is the angular frequency, Dω is
the droop coefficient and the Kd is the damping coefficient. α is the co­
efficient determined for the droop control and β is the coefficient of
damping part of the equation.
8. Benefits of V2G systems
The V2G concept can improve the performance of the electricity grid
in areas such as efficiency, stability, and reliability. A V2G-capable
vehicle offers reactive power support, active power regulation,
tracking of variable renewable energy sources, load balancing, and
current harmonic filtering. These technologies can enable ancillary
services, such as voltage and frequency control and spinning reserve
(Ahmadian et al., 2017). As energy sources that are by nature sporadic,
they make the network unstable, which means that more energy needs
to be stored. The storage capacity made available via V2G can absorb a
spike in consumption, preventing an outage from occurring. It can also
offset the disruptions inherent in energy transfer when production
switches between sources (Bibak and Tekiner-Moğulkoç, 2021). It is
important to understand that many cars are capable of supporting V2G
(vehicle to grid) capabilities. The concept involves a grid power
connection, communication with the grid operator and appropriate
measurement. An effective transaction involves a considerable
M.A. Hannan et al.
Fig. 18. A V2G system’s components and power flow (Yilmaz, M. and Krein, P.T., 2012).
interchange of information (Kempton and Tomić, 2005a). In contrast to
bidirectional V2G, unidirectional V2G requires minimal hardware re­
quirements and thus can be started as an early stage of a wider
deployment, ease of connectivity, and tendency to decrease battery
deterioration. An illustration of a V2G system’s components and power
flow is shown in Fig. 18.
8.1. Ancillary services
Ancillary services are necessary to guarantee grid resilience, balance
supply and demand, and transfer electricity from the seller to the buyer.
A bidirectional V2G concept holds the potential to return more of the
resources that are now available: the ability to regulate both voltage and
frequency quickly, to distribute the load more efficiently, and to
15
Journal of Cleaner Production 339 (2022) 130587
conserve energy strategically. Aggregators must combine PEVs to
deliver a larger, more attractive load to utilities (White and Zhang,
2011).
8.2. Frequency and voltage regulation
Regulation services are a viable early step for V2G because of their
substantial market value and, as a result, a low burden on the vehicle’s
onboard energy storage system (De Los Ríos et al., 2012). Active power
market participants use frequency management to maintain the balance
between supply and demand (Wu, D. et al., 2011). At the moment,
frequency control is done mostly by cycling big generators (Wu, C. et al.,
2011). V2G energy storage could be a possible alternative for regulating
frequency, since fast-charging and fast-discharging batteries for PEV
M.A. Hannan et al.
(power-electronics vehicles) result in battery capacity being released
quickly (Kempton and Tomić, 2005a). Reactive power is regulated
through voltage control, which balances supply and demand. In order to
respond swiftly to regulating signals, PEVs are equipped with control
functions that are independent of each other (Kempton et al., 2001).
Battery chargers equipped with voltage controls might include them as
an integrated feature. By appropriately choosing the current phase
angle, the charger can compensate for inductive or capacitive reactive
power that has been generated (Wu et al., 2012). When the grid voltage
falls below a certain level, car charging may cease; charging may resume
when it rises over that level (Clement-Nyns et al., 2011). If a significant
number of PEVs are connected, it could lead to voltage instability (Lopes
et al., 2009). It is also possible to implement reactive power regulation at
the local level (Driesen et al., 2010).
Frequency distribution systems use primary, secondary, and tertiary
control to keep the system’s frequency constant (Galus et al., 2010).
With the use of an electric battery charger, an electric vehicle may
ensure regulation. To make this necessary, the battery should be utilized
to regulate the grid’s supply. Rather than putting the vehicle into
discharge mode, which drains the battery and then recharges it, the
vehicle can be paused and then resumed (De Melo et al., 2017). The
frequencies are set based on bids for the secondary and tertiary fre­
quencies. When there is an increase in demand for regulation, the least
expensive option is used first. This can be advantageous for PEVs, as
charging a cheaper fee for regulation results in a profit (Andersson et al.,
2010). It is predicted that primary control will give the highest value for
V2G. As far as V2G is concerned, primary control is projected to deliver
the most significant benefit (Oudalov et al., 2006).
While also reviewing business models and possible income sources,
Kempton and Tomic studied V2G (vehicle to grid) assistance and how it
may be used to regulate grids. The profitability of PEVs varies signifi­
cantly depending on the market price, the electrical connections’ power
capacity, as well as the energy capacity of the PEV battery are important
considerations. It was determined that a car with a regulating power of
10–15 kW would have annual expenses of $3777–$4000 in the United
States. Tomic and Kempton (Tomić and Kempton, 2007) also discovered
that the net profits in four distinct ancillary service sectors in the United
States range from $90 to $2400 per year, with each car supplying
2.9–6.2 kW of regulation down. Brooks illustrated the range of yearly
V2G benefits for use in California: between $3038 and $5038 per year
(Brooks, 2002). Vehicle fleets are interesting for a few reasons. Ac­
cording to estimates, an annual net profit of $7000 to $70,000 is pro­
vided for each 100-vehicle Think City fleet. For the 252 Toyota RAV4
fleet, which is debated in the net income range, the figures range from
24,000 USD to 270,000 USD. In this study, the authors estimated a fleet
of 250 vehicles operating in the New England regulation services market
(De Los Ríos et al., 2012). According to their estimations, an EV/PHEV
may earn $ 700–900 per annum by providing regulatory downgrade
services, reducing the ownership cost by a 5–7% lifetime. Further, by
offering regulatory services up and down, the EV/PHEV may earn
$1250–$1400 per year, reducing ownership expenses by 9–11%. The
cost-savings of an electric car fleet can be substantial for a power system.
According to the results of a simulation study done in Texas, assuming a
fleet with a 15% PEV power demand, the power system could potentially
save over $200 per car each year (Sioshansi and Denholm, 2010).
Detailed system components and power are shown in Fig. 17 [89].
Frequency regulation studies conducted in Europe indicate a profit
margin of between 0 and 9600 Euros per car per year. In (Larsen et al.,
2008), car earnings in Denmark have been found to be approximately
72–1920 € per vehicle on the basis of control measures set secondary and
tertiary. According to a study conducted in Portugal, the net annual
income of a vehicle that generates 3.5 kW of regulatory services may be
around 240 Euros. (Camus et al., 2011). Andersson et al. (Andersson
et al., 2010), conducted that, PEDs (mostly electric vehicles) were
studied in both Germany and Sweden, as well as being included into
several schedules: primary, secondary, and tertiary frequency
16
Journal of Cleaner Production 339 (2022) 130587
controllers. In Germany, the highest average profits that could be made
were around 360 to 9600 euros per car. There was no profit to be found
in the regulation of the Swedish market. Dallinger et al. (2011), devel­
oped a novel methodology for assessing the economic effect of mobility
limitations in the uncertain German market. Negative secondary control
has been demonstrated to be the most economically advantageous for
EVs since it offers the greatest option for charging negative regulatory
reserves with low-cost energy.
9. V2G impacts, potentials, and limitations
In V2G systems, EVs are often considered dynamic distributed energy
sources that provide complementary functions to the grid. Numerous
researches have shown this concept’s excellence and demonstrated it is
the preferable choice for the future power system model described
earlier. This has been done many times before in order to manage the
electrical grid better. A wide range of technologies, including battery
storage systems, pumped hydroelectric storage, and flywheels, are used
(CSP). The developing V2G sector is in direct competition with the
already established V2G industries. It is frequently regarded as a more
economically feasible and cost-effective alternative to V2G, particularly
when it comes to pumped-hydroelectric storage. When it comes to en­
ergy storage, city public service (CPS) is more efficient and can store
energy for a longer period of time than EV batteries (Mullan et al.,
2012).
According to empirical research, the CPS energy storage module as
peak demand and regulatory support is viral. Abu Dhabi, UAE, has just
finished construction of a new CSP power plant with a capacity of 100
MW. Due to the projections by the International Energy Agency, CPS and
other renewable energy sources are anticipated to expand their pene­
tration of the electrical system (IEA). Because of this, to put together a
clear picture of the economics of EVs for V2G transactions, we must
carry out in-depth research of the many types of energy storage devices,
which may or may not include EVSEs (Lipu et al., 2019).
The V2G models have been shown to be a helpful remedy for the
energy industry. The primary reason for the global adoption of electric
vehicles is to eliminate the need for fossil fuels to power conventional
internal combustion engines. The introduction of V2G transactions is a
signal for EV-related infrastructure upgrades to support this new type of
use in the power market. Additionally, recent technological advance­
ments comprise bidirectional power converters, more sophisticated
connectivity, and smart meters. Since most of the future electric vehicles
(EVs) that can generate electricity through V2G contracts have not yet
been launched, their owners will also have to decide if they wish to
participate in the new contracts. Manufacturers will either have to
develop the EV in two versions (a regular EV and an EV that can also be
used to power V2G) or develop a single model with two different op­
tions. The latter option will cost an additional sum of money (Hannan
et al., 2020). This is a challenging strategy because it might result in
reduced market share. Studies and investigations are necessary to close
this uncertainty gap while also offering a viable choice for both manu­
facturers and/or customers prior to energy market participants.
The majority of recent studies have focused on the deregulation of
the electric market, in which power prices fluctuate based on electricity
generators (for example, Generation Companies) or market participants
(e.g. energy brokers). Numerous studies have shown that these price
fluctuations (bidding) can help lower the costs for energy storage sys­
tems or power transmission infrastructures (Rotering and Ilic, 2010).
Because of the results in this example, it has been proven that V2G
transactions are economically viable and technically possible when it
comes to EV scheduling. Studies on various energy markets are
becoming increasingly essential as the world moves toward worldwide
adoption of EV technology and full utilization of its potential. For
example, Foley et al. (2013) use an example from the Republic of Ireland
to examine and describe the impact of EV charging in the single
wholesale electricity market operation. While an EV fleet will affect each
M.A. Hannan et al.
of the many energy markets, there are important distinctions between
the markets, including deregulated and regulated (monopoly) markets.
We predict that there will be a notable increase in the number of EVs by
the year 2020 and through to 2030. The V2G technology will likewise
mature under the same prediction. Numerous nations will embrace this
technology, yet their power markets currently operate differently. For
example, the electrical market in the Republic of Korea is controlled,
whereas the US is somewhat deregulated. The preliminary comparative
analyses that focus on the overall effect and viability of the EV-grid
interface at different energy market conditions are nonetheless criti­
cally essential but have thus far remained under the radar.
The earlier results show that, much like dynamic distributed energy
sources, EV adoption will be included in the same way in the virtual
power plant (VPP). This functionality may be developed given other
functionalities, such as virtual STATCOM (Mitra et al., 2011). An
in-depth investigation should determine if renewable energy sources,
notably wind and solar, should be incorporated. Research in these areas
is essential for determining the benefits of the smart grid and for
improving the reciprocal relationship between the two systems. In the
grid, the availability of V2G services will accelerate the transition of the
power system to a more efficient virtual power grid.
10. Issues and challenges of existing V2G system
10.1. V2G dispatch from the standpoint of the electrical grid
Concerning energy-generating infrastructure, the current evidence
shows that an acceptable V2G power supply strategy may help minimize
the need for new energy while simultaneously decreasing the demand
for further infrastructure investment. This is a significant problem that
must be overcome if EVs are to be able to control and schedule their
stored energy. One of the biggest problems with this project is sched­
uling all the V2G units and all other electric power production units.
Higher capacity units are used to satisfy fundamental load requirements
in the energy system, while lesser capacity units are employed to
manage peak demand. As a result, V2G seeks to lower the grid’s
dependence on expensive generation units while simultaneously
reducing the use of reactive power compensation devices dependent on
grid load conditions, the presence of renewable energy, establishing
pricing for V2G units requires having both the appropriate active and
reactive power requirements as well as the needed number of V2G de­
vices. There are two distinct approaches to resolving the issue. The first
form of a grid-connected electric vehicle is linked to the grid, other
power production units, and other EV charging points connected to the
grid. To enhance the performance of each EV, a sophisticated control
algorithm is utilized (Saber and Venayagamoorthy, 2009). This tech­
nique, however, complicates the problem, as the answer is evaluated
from the grid’s standpoint but not from the perspective of the users. The
second option is to create an intermediary system, in other words, an
aggregator connecting the power grid to the various plug-in vehicle
groups (Ortega-Vazquez et al., 2012). To ensure proper power distri­
bution across regions, this aggregator system may combine all the EVs in
a specific region into a single utility that adheres to unified dispatch on
the power grid. The grid doesn’t have to know the particular specifics of
each EV status. Instead, it has to provide dispatch signals to each
aggregator, which are then interpreted depending on algorithms. This
intermediary system manages the electric vehicles without any other
organization (like an EV charging network) managing them. Addition­
ally, EVs using aggregated storage as well as renewable energy resources
working together in the power grid to decrease charging implications for
the distribution system are proposed (Ota et al., 2014).
10.1.1. V2G-based intelligent charging and discharging
While the benefit to the immediate parties, i.e., those with direct
stakes in the transaction was minimal, there was concern that power
providers and service facilities may gain control over EV power supply
17
Journal of Cleaner Production 339 (2022) 130587
by being granted regulatory control. It should also be noted that the V2G
communication capabilities of each EV are not covered in the study. It is
common for V2G to be used to define several different connected EVs. As
a result, each type of EV should have an intelligent charging/discharging
management strategy designed for it. It is anticipated that the inter­
mediate system will provide enough energy to power the electric vehi­
cles while also providing electricity to the grid, depending on the needs
of the grid (De Los Ríos et al., 2012). It isn’t easy to carry out these
supplementary services and charging behaviors randomly, without
consideration for the current and future state of the vehicle. According
to the research, EVs have a high potential for being a practical car for
daily travel with similar driving patterns (Dietz et al., 2011). Proposed
improvements may cut consumer energy bills by as much as 68%.
Another area to investigate will be the possible impact of V2G in the
context of electric vehicle batteries. However, future research will focus
on how various charging strategies influence the cost of energy and the
driving habits of an unprecedented number of EVs. A practical appli­
cation was presented by Hutson and his team, who offered a method for
managing the potential energy storage on plug-in hybrid vehicles and
electric vehicles (Hutson et al., 2008). The optimal binary particle shaft
technique estimates the appropriate charging/discharging times within
one day and represents real-world price variations using the price curve
from the California ISO database.
10.1.2. The battery’s impacts on V2G
Thus, according to what has been previously mentioned, EV owners
may benefit from energy feedback to the grid by utilizing V2G. However,
profit is made by dealing with the wear and tear resulting from having to
use V2G technology, such as battery depletion and deterioration. The
continuous charging and discharging of batteries can shorten their
lifespan and reduce their capabilities (Al-Ogaili et al., 2021b). As a
result, it is critical to perform research on the influence of V2G on bat­
tery life. The impact of V2G services on battery deterioration is exam­
ined in terms of its sensitivity to battery capacity, charging regimens,
and depth of discharge (DOD) (Bishop et al., 2013). Minimizing the
degradation effect by restricting the time length of the electric vehicle’s
connection and the depth of discharge. The economics of different V2G
offers are provided, along with a model of the collective power of EVs
depending on their driving habits (Agarwal et al., 2014). Estimating
battery wear and loss in various V2G activities and profitability is per­
formed. A study is also conducted on the cost of everyday EV usage for
lengthy periods. While EV drivers have their batteries in reactive power
adjustment mode. In this regard, Kisacikoglu and his team in (Kisaci­
koglu et al., 2010) have been doing research to understand how the
battery can affect electrical devices. Even when the batteries do not need
to produce power, it has been proved in simulated results that reactive
power compensation is possible, with no negative impact on battery
capacity. There is currently no model that accurately measures the
impact of V2G on battery life. Thus, an additional analysis should be
undertaken to evaluate if employing reactive power compensation at a
higher power level has a negative impact on the battery.
10.1.3. V2G bidirectional charger
To implement the second-generation plug-in hybrid electric vehicle
program, bidirectional intelligent chargers must be established between
the power grid and the automobiles. The bidirectional chargers, which
only provide electricity to electric cars while generating the lowest
possible harmonic current, can send back excess electricity to the grid.
When a two-way charger is constructed, bidirectional dc-dc converters
and two-way ac-dc converters are often seen in circuit design. Bidirec­
tional ac-dc converter eliminates any unexpected frequency components
prior to converting the alternating current to direct current. A bidirec­
tional DC-DC converter is employed to provide an appropriate charging
voltage. In some situations, the output voltage of an ac-dc converter will
not be equal to the charging voltage of a dc energy storage unit. Once the
converter is set to drain the battery, the operation is reversed. Lixin Tang
M.A. Hannan et al.
and Gui-Jia Su describe a low-cost automobile charger that utilizes
primary traction and auxiliary motors. A charging circuit is not required
by a less expensive, smaller, and more compact charger, which reduces
total costs, weight, and volume (Chen et al., 2016). A charging system
that includes a motor controller to help manage the charger. One level of
battery charging was to be provided by an ac-dc/dc-dc combination with
bidirectional dc-dc converters, while a pulse charging controller was
employed for the second level. Simulation experiments indicate that the
proposed method can considerably reduce harmonic waves (Jaganathan
and Gao, 2009). The University of Central Florida (UCF) electrical en­
gineering graduate student Young-Joo Lee developed a bidirectional
integrated ac-dc and dc-dc charger model with the aim of minimizing
the number of large current inductance and current sensors while still
providing fault current capacity. However, this modified circuit design
method is less efficient than the unmodified circuit design system (Lee
et al., 2009). An improved ac-dc control approach is presented instead of
the standard PI controller, which can substantially increase performance
in the presence of background noise (Zhou et al., 2009). PWM converters
can be difficult to maintain since voltage efficiency might vary signifi­
cantly. In this case, it’s an extra advantage of the PWM control, as it
adjusts to address this problem.
10.1.4. Privacy issues
The privacy challenges in the V2G network are the following:
a) The vehicle’s identity and its location information should be un­
traceable by the aggregator. The identity of the vehicle may be
compromised (Ghosh et al., 2013), as the aggregator retrieves the
vehicle’s information and can misuse it by passing the information to
an adversary. The aggregator or operator can also keep track of
vehicle-specific information, such as the location of the charging
station and how long a vehicle has been at that charging station. The
timing patterns of the owner of the vehicle can also be traced if the
vehicle frequently charges or discharges at a specific charging
station.
b) Protect the privacy of the vehicle’s other preferences. Revealing the
vehicle owner’s selection of performing charge or discharge opera­
tions and the SoC of each vehicle’s battery (current battery status and
percentage of battery the vehicle owner wishes to charge or
discharge) leak private information to the aggregator. An adversary
can retrieve this information and store user history. User history can
reveal information about when the vehicle owner frequently moves
from one location to another on a daily basis, where do they go on the
weekends, how far they travel in a day, which parking lot they use
most often, and which bank they frequent most often (Huang et al.,
2021).
10.2. V2G challenges
The adoption of V2G will significantly increase the benefits and
versatility of the power grid. However, this is a novel form of technology
that has not been perfected. In order to embrace V2G, a number of
economic, technological, and societal problems must be confronted.
10.2.1. Battery degradation
Over time, the number of times a battery is charged and discharged
affects the battery’s capacity. The battery’s internal resistance will grow
as a result of its reversible chemical reaction, reducing the battery’s
useable capacity (Nieuwenhout et al., 2011). When batteries age, the
pace at which their voltage and their DOD decreases are the primary
determining factors. V2G is a technology that allows for two-way
communication. EVs have to charge and release more battery cycles,
which are likely to lead to faster battery deterioration. The viability of
V2G deployment is evaluated in economic and technological consider­
ations (Peterson et al., 2010a). The data reveals that quick-charging and
discharging the battery produces increased degradation over time and
18
Journal of Cleaner Production 339 (2022) 130587
therefore suggests that the implementation of V2G (value-add gasoline
charging) must be prevented.
The equivalent series resistance (ESR) of a battery is a metric that is
used to estimate its life cycle. As the amount of time spent fully charging
and discharging the battery rises, the greater the rise in battery ESR and
the faster the frequency of charging and discharging. Studies demon­
strate that the ESR battery increases at the low battery and severe bat­
tery charging status (SoC) (Mali and Tripathi, 2021). To minimize the
rate of growth in ESR, it is necessary to keep the battery SoC in the in­
termediate ranges (Yilmaz, M. and Krein, P.T., 2012). Another critical
aspect in reducing battery deterioration is the DOD of the battery. To
achieve battery longevity, the DOD should not be beyond 60% (Millner,
2010). As a result, the optimal battery consumption range is between
30% and 90% SOC. Battery life should also be considered while imple­
menting V2G technology. The technique of V2G management and bat­
tery wear is designed to avoid the misuse of EV batteries (López et al.,
2015). It is essential to balance financial and technological consider­
ations to obtain the most benefits from the relationship between energy
users and the power supply and technological considerations.
10.2.2. High investment cost
The considerable investment cost necessary to update the power
infrastructure is another obstacle to the V2G deployment. The large
investment cost necessary to update the power infrastructure is another
obstacle to the V2G deployment. Each electric vehicle that connects to
the V2G network will be required to have a bidirectional battery charger
(How et al., 2019). A bidirectional battery charger includes a compli­
cated controller and high-voltage cable with a stringent security
requirement. Additionally, the V2G technology may also be associated
with increased energy loss, leading to financial disadvantage. When
charging and discharging often, these processes yield energy conver­
sions, and these activities necessitate more conversion losses. A sub­
stantial energy loss for the grid may occur in the many energy
conversions between the charging and discharging processes of an
extensive fleet of EVs (Dehaghani and Williamson, 2012).
10.2.3. Social barriers
The participation of a significant number of EVs is a critical need for
the successful deployment of V2G. Despite these potential benefits, V2G
technology has had difficulty getting wide adoption due to the social
barrier. In most situations, EV owners will ensure that their vehicle’s
battery has a guaranteed level of energy stored for emergency usage and
unexpected journeys (Fasugba and Krein, 2011). V2G requires partici­
pants to contribute stored battery energy to the grid, which increases
range anxiety among EV owners (Yuan et al., 2015). The absence of a
charging station exacerbates the already dire circumstances. A carefully
planned EV charging network is required to eliminate societal obstacles
to V2G adoption. Moreover, controlling V2G vehicles using V2G man­
agement takes the vehicle’s electrical system into consideration. When
the EV’s state of charge falls below a certain percentage, V2G commu­
nication must be disabled (Bashash and Fathy, 2013). A survey data
approach for determining the probability values of V2G service provi­
sion is presented in (Zagrajek, 2021) and found that the values of the
probabilities of V2G services are not high, which should induce future
operators of V2G services to offer a beneficial product for the customer.
This is done to guarantee that the EV battery has enough energy to last
for the duration of a typical driving day.
11. Conclusions and recommendations
In this article, the influence of V2G technologies on distributed sys­
tems and the needs, benefits, difficulties, and solutions for V2G in­
terfaces of both individual PEVs and vehicle fleets were discussed. A
range of different systems that utilize various types of power flow,
including unidirectional and bidirectional power flow, as well as indi­
vidual and aggregated designs, were analyzed. The V2G concept holds
M.A. Hannan et al.
enormous potential to increase the technological capabilities of the grid
in the areas of efficiency, reliability, dependability, and generation
dispatch. Nowadays, battery deterioration is a major problem that
should be considered when thinking about EV charging and discharging
coordination. V2G has a few noticeable economic and practical benefits,
and its implementation methods can be classified into four categories to
accommodate various situations. Four different technologies have hel­
ped facilitate the future of mobility: The charging and discharging
technologies are intelligent as well as power electronics technologies. In
addition, it is vital that smart grid integration, efficiency, and low cost
are developed as V2G’s growth strategy since it will allow for the
combination of smart grid systems with the trend toward intelligence
and informationization. Based on the review results, several critical and
specific recommendations for the advancement and future research di­
rection of V2G technical development are summarized as follows:
• In the smart grid construction, designate V2G strategic plan,
strengthen the basic research on V2G, and consider more equipment
and operational conditions.
• Further work is required in V2G modelling, capacity forecasting,
behavior in steady-state, transient, and dynamic processes, in addi­
tion to other work in related disciplines.
• Considering the social aspects of implementing the electrified
transportation system, especially the V2G system, and focusing on
motivating the EVs’ drivers to participate in the V2G system are
recommended.
• All EV chargers are operating in V2G mode at the moment of voltage
dip occurrence, so detection part and appropriate control adaptation
and transition are neglected, which needs further investigation.
• The effect of the charging mode of the EVs on the system’s reliability
could be taken into consideration in future development.
• There is currently no model that accurately measures the impact of
V2G on battery life. Thus, additional analysis should be undertaken
to evaluate if employing reactive power compensation at a higher
power level has a negative impact on the battery.
• The highlighted issues and challenges need to be resolved to satisfy
the high-voltage, high-power and high-frequency operating
specifications.
• It is critical to create effective charging scheduling algorithms for
efficient V2G applications to maximize system operation.
• In V2G systems, smart charging reduces system costs. While the
financial benefits of using EVs as a distributed storage system for
absorbing excess renewable energy are evident, smart chargers have
yet to be given a thorough economic justification; this is an issue that
merits additional exploration.
These recommendations may play an essential role in the develop­
ment and implementation of sophisticated V2G control systems. It may
also offer researchers and manufacturers a comprehensive concept of the
V2G control technique and applications to understand how to support
future V2G production. In summary, this research can give academics
and manufacturers a road forward for developing V2G systems in the
future.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
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