Journal of South American Earth Sciences 21 (2006) 337–354

www.elsevier.com/locate/jsames

Tectonic correlations of pre-Mesozoic crust from the northern

termination of the Colombian Andes, Caribbean region
a,*,1 a,1 b
Agustin Cardona Molina , Umberto G. Cordani , William D. MacDonald
a
University of São Paulo, Brazil. Rua do Lago 562, CEP 05508-080, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
b
State University of New York, Binghamton, NY 13902, USA

Received 1 October 2004; accepted 1 December 2005

Abstract

Reconnaissance zircon U/Pb SHRIMP, Ar–Ar, and Sm–Nd geochronology, petrological, and geochemical data were obtained from
selected localities of two pre-Mesozoic metamorphic belts from the northern termination of the Colombian Andes in the Caribbean
region. The older Proterozoic belt, with protoliths formed in a rift- or backarc-related environment, was metamorphosed at 6–8 kb
and 760–810 °C during Late Mesoproterozoic times. This belt correlates with other high-grade metamorphic domains of the Andean
realm that formed a Grenvillian-related collisional belt linked to the formation of Rodinia. The younger belt was formed over a conti-
nental arc at <530–450 Ma in a Gondwanide position and metamorphosed at 5–8 kb and 500–550 °C, probably during the Late Paleo-
zoic–Triassic, as part of the terranes that docked with northwestern South America during the formation of Pangea. A Mesozoic Ar–Ar
tectonothermal evolution can be related to regional magmatic events, whereas Late Cretaceous–Paleocene structural trends are related to
the accretion of the allocthonous Caribbean subduction metamorphic belts. Lithotectonic correlations with other circum-Caribbean and
southern North American pre-Jurassic domains show the existence of different terrane dispersal patterns that can be related to Pangea’s
breakup and Caribbean tectonics.
Ó 2006 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Keywords: Geochronology; Geochemistry; Metamorphism; Correlations; Caribbean; Rodinia; Pangea

Resumen

Análisis geocronológicos, petrológicos y geoquı́micos fueron realizados en dos cinturones metamórficos Pre-Mesozoicos, localizados
en la terminación de los Andes Colombianos. Los resultados indican la existencia de un cinturón Mesoproterozoico tardı́o, con protol-
itos formados en un ambiente de rift o backarc, y metamorfoseados en condiciones de 6–8 kb y 760–810 °C. Este cinturón es correlac-
ionable con otros dominios metamórficos localizados en los Andes Colombianos, que en conjunto forman un cinturón Grenvilliano,
relacionado con la formación de Rodinia. El otro cinturón harı́a parte de un arco magmático continental formado en la margen de
Gondwana a <530–450 Ma, y serı́a metamorfoseado en condiciones de 5–8 kb y 500–550 °C posiblemente durante el Permo-Triasico.
Este evento estarı́a relacionado con la acreción de terrenos en la margen continental Suramericana, durante la formación de Pangea.
La evolución tectono-termal registrada por la geocronologia Ar–Ar muestra un evento del Mesozoico Médio relacionado con actividad
magmática regional, y otro Cretácico tardı́o, asociado a la acreción de los cinturones metamórficos de la placa del Caribe. Las correlac-
iones geológicas con otros domı́nios Pré-Mesozoicos del Caribe y del sur de Norte América, muestran la existencia de procesos de dis-
persión de terrenos, relacionados con la separación de Pangea y la evolución Meso-Cenozoica del Caribe.
Ó 2006 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

*
1. Introduction
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: cardonaa@stri.org (A.C. Molina).
1
Present address: Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Balboa, The pre-Mesozoic tectonic evolution of the northern
Ancon, Republic of Panama. Andes is recorded in various tectonostratigraphic terranes

0895-9811/$ - see front matter Ó 2006 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

doi:10.1016/j.jsames.2006.07.009
338 A.C. Molina et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 21 (2006) 337–354
Fig. 1. Pre-Mesozoic terrane and crust exposures from the Northern
Andes (soft gray). Northernmost Andean massifs are also included: (1)
Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, (2) Guajira Serranias. L-A, Loja-
Amotape; T, Tahamı́; CH, Chibcha; M-C, Merida-Caparo; C-T, Cauca-
gua-Tinaco. Amazon Craton is hatched.
(Fig. 1) that were accreted to the continent in Proterozoic
to Mesozoic times (Restrepo and Toussaint, 1988; Bellizzia
and Pimentel, 1994; Litherland et al., 1994). These terranes
bear some of the effects of tectonic interactions recorded in
eastern North America and western South America from
Late Proterozoic to Late Paleozoic times during the devel-
opment of the Rodinia, Gondwana, and Pangea supercon-
tinents (Rowley and Pindell, 1989; Restrepo-Pace et al.,
1997; Keppie and Ramos, 1999). The northern termination
of the Andes was affected by complex Meso-Cenozoic
crustal redistributions of the pre-Mesozoic crust, associat-
ed with the development of the Caribbean plate since the
breakup of Pangea.
The present study provides new petrological, geochro-
nological, and geochemical data from representative out-
crops of the pre-Mesozoic basement domains of isolated
massifs in the northern termination of the Colombian
Andes in the Caribbean region (Fig. 1). These new
results, combined with other available data, permit the
recognition of the tectonic development of two metamor-
phic belts of Proterozoic and Paleozoic ages and corre-
lates them in a terrane perspective. Insights into
patterns of Meso-Cenozoic terrane dispersion emerge
from the distribution of these and correlated crustal
domains in the Caribbean realm.
The next sections provide more details regarding the
regional tectonic framework and geology of the two main
metamorphic belts that characterized the composite pre-
Mesozoic domain from the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta
and Guajira massifs, incorporating new petrological, geo-
chemical, and geochronological data from selected locali-
ties of the different units.
2. Geological setting
The northern termination of the Andean chain in
Colombia is characterized by several isolated massifs
(Fig. 1). This configuration is related to the multiple plate
boundaries and associated Meso-Cenozoic escape and
transpressive tectonics that accompanied Andean terrane
accretionary events and the NE migration of the Caribbean
Plate in an oblique regime (Pindell, 1994; Colletta et al.,
1997; Taboada et al., 2000).
The massifs (Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta and several
smaller serranias of the Guajira Peninsula, Figs. 2 and 3)
are composed of three correlatable lithotectonic belts
(Alvarez, 1971; MacDonald et al., 1971; Tschanz et al.,
1974), which from NW to SE include (1) Cretaceous low-
grade volcanosedimentary metamorphic rocks, with inter-
calated mafic and ultramafic plutonic rocks, related to a
subduction front formed as part of the allocthonous Carib-
bean plate arc domains (MacDonald et al., 1971; Pindell,
1994; Ave Lallement, 1997); (2) a composite pre-Mesozoic
domain, with Proterozoic high-grade rocks and a younger
amphibolite facies belt, considered as lateral extensions of
the two main continental crustal terranes that constitute
the basement of the Eastern and Central cordilleras
of the Colombian Andes (Alvarez, 1971; Toussaint,
1993); and (3) an undeformed to weakly deformed belt of
Mesozoic sedimentary rocks, with the same depositional
patterns as the autocthonous South American margin
(MacDonald, 1965).
3. Analytical techniques
3.1. Geochemistry
Fourteen whole-rock samples were analyzed for major
elements, trace elements, and rare earth elements (REE)
by XRF and ICP-OES in the chemical laboratory of the
Geoscience Institute of the University of São Paulo. The
obtained data appear in Table 1.
Sample preparation included pressed powder pellets and
fused glass discs for major and trace element determination
and dissolution and cationic exchange column separations
for REE. X-ray flourescence analyses were done in a wave-
length-dispersive Philips PW 2400 XRF spectrometer, and
ICP-OES occurred within the sequential spectrometer
ARL 3410 equipped with an ultrasonic CETAC Inc. nebu-
lizer, model U-5000AT, and follows the procedures pre-
sented by Mori et al. (1999) and Navarro et al. (2002).
Amphibole and plagioclase mineral pairs from three
samples were analyzed with the electronic microprobe
JEOL JXA-8600 from the same institute; results appear
in Table 2. Additional amphibole grain separates from
the same samples also were analyzed in the same micro-
probe and are available on request. The sample current
was 20 nA, and 15 kV was the accelerating voltage, with
a beam diameter of 5 nm. Analyses were done on core,
border, and intermediate areas of the grains. Amphibole
 A.C. Molina et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 21 (2006) 337–354 339

Fig. 2. Geological map of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta modified after Tschanz et al. (1974) including sampled areas. 1, Dibulla gneiss; 2, anorthosite
(Los Mangos granulite); 3, Sevilla Complex.

Fig. 3. Geological map of the Guajira Peninsula, modified after Alvarez (1971), including sampled areas. Samples for geochronology: 1, A99; 2, Jojon-1;
3, Siap 1; 4, A83, A91; 5, A95.

compositions were calculated following IMAA (Leake
et al., 1997) with the AMPH program (Yavafuz, 1999)
and the free Internet amphibole calculation spreadsheet
for Excel (http://www.abdn.ac.uk/geology/profiles/analysis/
software/amphibole-names.xls). Metamorphic conditions
were defined by comparing the results from different
empirical and experimental amphibole and amphibole-pla-
gioglase thermobarometers, after Fershater (1990), Ham-
marston and Zen (1986), Hollister et al. (1987), Johnson
and Rutherford (1989), Schmidt (1992), and Holland and
Blundy (1994) for the high-grade rocks. The procedures
of Plyusnina (1982) and Fershater (1990) were taken into
Table 1

340
Major and trace element data from the studied samples
Sample A46 A49 A54 A58 A60 A53 A56 A59 Jojon-1 A81 A82 A83 A88 A91 A97
Unit Dibulla Dibulla Dibulla Dibulla Dibulla Dibulla Dibulla Dibulla Jojoncito Macuira Macuira Macuira Macuira Macuira Macuira
gneiss gneiss gneiss gneiss gneiss gneiss gneiss gneiss gneiss Formation Formation Formation Formation Formation Formation
Rock Felsic Felsic Felsic Felsic Felsic Mafic Mafic Mafic Gneiss Schist Schist Schist Schist Schist Schist
SiO2 71.58 71.65 74.68 75.66 71.87 46.82 46.72 46.03 72.45 59.07 51.84 57.68 50.83 51.12 48.85
Al2O3 12.25 12.68 12.24 11.59 12.25 14.73 15.27 15.29 12.58 15.88 17.05 17.5 15.93 17.9 15.57
MnO 0.043 0.056 0.026 0.031 0.055 0.216 0.194 0.175 0.033 0.112 0.144 0.101 0.165 0.128 0.209
MgO 0.28 12.68 0.21 0.35 0.39 6.89 6.92 7.45 0.1 3.38 5.46 2.98 6.84 4.7 6.75
CaO 1.24 1.15 0.9 0.91 1.12 7.32 7.29 9.03 0.84 6.58 7.62 6.46 10.84 7.67 10.19
Na2O 2.33 2.42 2.78 2.71 2.31 3.12 2.88 2.95 2.52 4.21 4.54 4.92 3.4 4.95 2.97

A.C. Molina et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 21 (2006) 337–354
K2 O 5.62 5.74 5.12 4.7 5.65 1.86 2.49 2.31 5.9 0.82 1.03 0.81 0.86 0.72 0.41
TiO2 0.476 0.48 0.251 0.277 0.512 1.228 1.23 1.532 0.333 0.709 0.866 0.673 0.32 1.384 0.694
P2O5 0.086 0.093 0.046 0.05 0.102 0.251 0.228 0.287 0.038 0.153 0.427 0.246 0.268 0.698 0.01
Fe2O3 3.48 3.63 2.15 1.75 3.86 13.82 12.63 12.56 3.47 7.09 8.59 6.49 8.07 8.24 12.83
LOI 0.4 0.5 0.39 0.45 0.42 2.15 3.5 1.1 0.3 1.04 1.5 1.01 1.38 1.53 0.61
Total 97.79 98.79 98.79 98.48 98.54 99.22 99.35 98.71 98.56 99.04 99.07 98.87 98.9 99.04 99.09
Ba 506 620 634 580 593 494 448 348 1013 1012 979 583 879 582 143
Ce 117 163 112 75 151 70 136 86 116 53 33 36 105 63 17
Cl <237 386 <237 <237 <237 1304 584 860 253 517 472 <237 <237 <237 <237
Co 38 51 55 48 39 45 45 59 77 61 49 26 39 32 47
Cr 17 17 <4 18 7 244 298 332 11 119 118 62 131 163 61
Cu 3 3 4 7 2 15 17 51 3 7 7 4 5 38 8
F 328 1036 <214 469 768 5272 6053 8380 <214 437 273 <214 <214 350 300
Ga 21 22 19 16 21 22 19 19 21 17 17 19 15 19 17
La 62 85 60 38 69 34 50 32 63 21 21 <19 60 32 <19
Nb 17 27 7 10 22 10 11 10 10 4 4 3 1 8 2
Nd 48 88 58 19 83 46 46 46 46 26 21 8 57 28 20
Ni 3 4 7 7 4 80 96 122 3 53 56 27 61 77 39
Pb 18 45 40 37 31 21 13 27 30 24 15 16 13 14 16
Rb 237 301 153 118 266 80 122 96 172 7 6 5 6 5 2
S <30 <30 <30 <30 <30 163 49 122 <30 <30 <30 <30 <30 <30 <30
Sc 5 7 3 <3 6 30 27 30 4 20 18 17 32 21 44
Sr 73 80 78 91 84 155 128 141 105 1016 999 775 866 1076 250
Th <2 51 7 <2 28 3 <2 <2 8 <2 <2 <2 <2 <2 <2
U 2 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 <2 <2 <2 <2 <2 3
V 16 17 <6 6 13 201 156 198 <6 98 92 114 130 144 285
Y 80 111 33 9 97 50 71 66 41 24 22 14 18 17 20
Zn 59 74 40 28 74 238 248 166 66 104 106 74 94 85 133
Zr 466 507 275 281 490 136 141 154 448 101 98 96 44 107 39
Hf 14 16 8.7 5.98 16 2.28 2.8 2.7 3 3.1 N.D. 2.9 1.8 3.1 1.2
La 65.5 86.4 76 65.5 79.3 30.4 56.2 35.1 63.3 9.78 N.D. 17.5 65.8 34.6 5.6
Ce 126 178 143 126 170 64.4 134 82.3 123 21.6 N.D. 33.3 116 67.9 13.1
Nd 59.6 85.6 56.7 59.6 78.8 31.6 58.9 45 56 13.5 N.D. 16.8 46.7 33.7 9.21
Sm 13.7 19.4 9.97 13.7 17.3 7.02 11.7 10.3 11.2 3.19 N.D. 3.22 6.15 5.87 2.45
Eu 1.71 2.04 1.52 1.71 1.79 1.52 1.77 2.04 1.52 1.15 N.D. 1.3 1.65 1.9 0.87
Gd 14.3 20.3 8.69 14.3 17.6 8.04 11.2 11.3 10.5 3.32 N.D. 3.05 4.69 5.02 3.2
Dy 15.7 22.6 7.59 15.7 19.7 9.23 12.8 12.5 9.36 3.83 N.D. 2.83 3.64 3.66 3.75
Er 9.47 12.9 4.03 9.47 11.4 5.44 7.56 7.24 4.62 1.9 N.D. 1.9 1.84 1.78 2.32
Yb 7.84 10.5 3.12 7.84 9.89 4.99 7.64 6.62 3.44 1.63 N.D. 1.63 1.48 1.41 2.02
Lu 1.08 1.43 0.47 1.08 1.37 0.75 1.11 0.97 0.49 0.25 N.D. 0.25 0.22 0.21 0.31
Table 2
Representative electronic microprobe chemical data and amphibole-plagioclase chemical calculation
Amphibole A59-1-C A59-1-R A59-2-C A-59-2-R A59-3-C A59-3-R A59-4-C A59-4-R A59-5-C A59-5-R A59-6-R A69-6-R A59-7-C A59-7-R A59-8-C A59-8-R
SiO2 42.45 42.37 42.19 41.59 41.50 41.55 42.45 41.41 41.05 41.63 41.17 41.51 41.27 41.37 41.50 41.44
TiO2 1.62 1.40 1.69 1.63 1.73 1.97 1.76 1.66 1.81 1.95 1.65 1.50 2.13 1.43 1.75 2.00
Al2O3 11.29 11.26 11.68 11.19 11.74 11.75 11.77 12.08 11.94 12.00 11.86 12.06 12.08 12.41 11.86 11.50
FeO 16.45 16.42 16.20 16.06 15.70 15.70 15.26 15.12 15.76 15.52 15.92 15.70 15.79 15.57 16.36 15.51
MnO 0.27 0.28 0.22 0.29 0.21 0.247 0.24 0.28 0.18 0.26 0.23 0.22 0.27 0.25 0.26 0.31
MgO 11.17 11.06 11.04 11.37 11.23 11.43 11.38 10.96 10.99 11.06 11.15 11.06 10.82 10.97 11.12 11.19
CaO 10.79 11.02 10.77 11.03 10.97 11.08 11.28 11.20 11.14 10.95 10.82 11.26 11.03 11.19 10.80 10.86
Na2O 1.90 1.81 1.85 2.02 1.94 2.07 1.85 1.96 2.05 2.07 2.07 1.97 1.92 1.99 1.99 1.95
K2O 1.57 1.56 1.54 1.51 1.63 1.59 1.58 1.69 1.66 1.58 1.66 1.62 1.75 1.62 1.66 1.57

A.C. Molina et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 21 (2006) 337–354
F 1.64 1.25 1.09 1.47 1.36 1.60 0.93 1.15 1.67 1.64 1.33 1.11 1.34 1.55 1.54 1.51
Cl 0.15 0.17 1.09 0.15 0.18 0.193 0.20 0.23 0.18 0.21 0.16 0.19 0.18 0.19 0.20 0.19
Total 99.30 98.65 98.44 98.29 98.19 98.73 98.51 97.73 98.43 98.59 98.02 98.20 98.58 98.54 99.05 98.03
Si 6.55 6.48 6.55 6.39 6.52 6.44 6.50 6.47 6.49 6.50 6.50 6.37 6.33 6.47 6.46 6.47
Al 2.02 2.00 2.02 2.02 2.06 2.04 2.01 2.23 2.05 2.05 2.05 2.20 2.18 2.23 2.04 2.04
Ti 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.23 0.12 0.12 0.24
Fe2+ 1.94 1.74 1.94 1.92 1.84 1.94 1.80 1.88 1.79 1.99 1.99 1.61 1.94 1.88 1.81 1.93
Fe3+ 0.15 0.32 0.15 0.17 0.16 0.03 0.15 0.10 0.19 0.00 0.00 0.34 0.00 0.10 0.28 0.04
Mg 2.56 2.53 2.56 2.55 2.61 2.58 2.54 2.35 2.36 2.60 2.60 2.55 2.30 2.35 2.58 2.59
Ca 1.67 1.82 1.67 1.84 1.70 1.85 1.83 1.86 1.86 1.70 1.70 1.83 1.82 1.86 1.69 1.69
Na 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.60 0.31 0.61 0.30 0.31 0.61 0.61 0.61 0.30 0.30 0.31 0.31 0.31
K 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20
F 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.50 0.50 0.00 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.49 0.49 0.50 0.50 0.50
Total 16.00 16.00 16.00 16.30 16.02 16.31 15.45 16.02 16.17 16.27 16.27 16.01 15.79 16.02 15.99 16.01

Plagioclase A59-1-C A59-1-R A59-2-C A-59-2-R A59-3-C A59-3-R A59-4-C A59-4-R A59-5-C A59-5-R A59-6-C A69-6-R A59-7-C A59-7-R A59-8-C A59-8-R
SiO2 60.642 61.425 59.870 59.584 59.270 60.179 58.872 59.686 59.112 59.563 59.092 59.874 60.391 60.496 59.604 60.154
Al2O3 24.281 24.390 25.153 24.695 25.374 25.216 25.100 25.055 25.275 25.089 25.106 25.083 24.797 24.743 24.828 24.281
CaO 5.885 5.805 7.024 6.515 7.112 6.691 6.758 6.694 6.921 6.994 7.075 6.661 6.175 6.239 6.930 6.233
Na2O 7.786 8.180 7.425 7.934 7.341 7.750 7.444 7.682 7.583 7.489 7.380 7.573 7.924 7.845 7.526 7.779
K2O 0.429 0.086 0.194 0.194 0.264 0.071 0.263 0.185 0.073 0.203 0.235 0.105 0.094 0.230 0.277 0.158
Total 99.023 99.886 99.666 98.922 99.361 99.907 98.437 99.302 98.964 99.338 98.888 99.296 99.381 99.553 99.165 98.605
Si 10.88 10.91 10.74 10.69 10.63 10.72 10.70 10.71 10.64 10.66 10.56 10.73 10.80 10.81 10.71 10.83
Al 5.13 5.11 5.24 5.29 5.36 5.29 5.29 5.30 5.36 5.34 5.34 5.30 5.23 5.21 5.25 5.15
Ca 1.13 1.11 1.26 1.34 1.37 1.28 1.30 1.29 1.34 1.34 1.37 1.28 1.18 1.19 1.33 1.20
Na 2.71 2.82 2.77 2.57 2.55 2.68 2.58 2.67 2.65 2.60 2.58 2.63 2.75 2.72 2.62 2.72
K 0.10 0.02 0.05 0.07 0.06 0.02 0.06 0.04 0.02 0.05 0.05 0.02 0.02 0.05 0.06 0.04
Total 19.95 19.96 20.05 19.96 19.97 19.98 19.92 20.00 20.01 19.98 19.89 19.95 19.97 19.98 19.98 19.93
Ab 69 71 68 64 64 67 66 67 66 65 64 67 70 69 65 69
An 29 28 31 34 34 32 33 32 33 34 34 33 30 30 33 30
Or 2 0 1 2 2 0 2 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 2 1

Amphibole A28-1-C A28-1-R A28-2-C A28-2-R A28-3-C A28-3-R A28-3-I A28-3-I A28-3-I A28-4-C A28-B-4 A28-5-C A28-5-R A28-6-C A28-6-R
SiO2 42.228 42.300 44.253 43.273 43.886 51.682 44.273 42.175 44.008 44.087 44.148 44.708 44.599 42.033 42.944
TiO2 0.698 0.852 0.510 0.592 0.602 0.040 0.356 0.671 0.605 0.515 0.679 0.646 0.589 0.602 0.731
Al2O3 13.787 12.621 10.637 10.877 11.304 3.304 10.949 12.791 10.201 10.574 10.742 10.196 10.190 13.944 13.155

341
(continued on next page)
 342
Table 2 (continued)
Amphibole A28-1-C A28-1-R A28-2-C A28-2-R A28-3-C A28-3-R A28-3-I A28-3-I A28-3-I A28-4-C A28-B-4 A28-5-C A28-5-R A28-6-C A28-6-R
FeO 15.884 16.465 15.595 15.380 16.559 14.139 15.706 16.462 15.888 15.913 15.716 15.651 15.628 15.703 15.661
MnO 0.304 0.247 0.291 0.277 0.332 0.343 0.291 0.272 0.346 0.344 0.323 0.281 0.335 0.289 0.350
MgO 9.823 10.096 11.082 10.733 9.991 13.982 10.916 9.989 10.831 10.924 10.955 11.460 11.299 9.901 10.346
CaO 11.443 11.697 11.491 11.101 11.429 12.148 11.413 11.409 11.232 11.562 11.379 11.596 11.469 11.329 11.431

A.C. Molina et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 21 (2006) 337–354
Na2O 1.322 1.183 1.063 1.003 0.968 0.202 1.185 1.170 0.886 0.989 1.126 1.012 1.040 1.237 1.215
K2O 1.034 0.904 0.643 0.733 0.801 0.101 0.800 0.880 0.662 0.636 0.700 0.646 0.600 1.020 0.885
F 0.122 0.154 0.052 0.068 0.000 0.000 0.009 0.006 0.129 0.000 0.024 0.118 0.102 0.000 0.000
Cl 0.000 0.023 0.001 0.050 0.000 0.000 0.013 0.002 0.015 0.032 0.021 0.015 0.007 0.015 0.011
Total 96.646 96.542 95.622 94.087 95.872 95.941 95910 95.827 94.803 95.577 95.815 96.33 95.857 96.075 96.73
Si 6.297 6.332 6.614 6.569 6.582 7.586 6.608 6.328 6.636 6.601 6.592 6.633 6.645 6.277 6.358
Al 0.078 0.096 0.057 0.068 0.068 0.004 0.040 0.076 0.069 0.058 0.076 0.072 0.066 0.068 0.081
Ti 2.423 2.227 1.874 1.946 1.998 0.572 1.926 2.262 1.813 1.866 1.890 1.783 1.789 2.454 2.295
Fe2+ 0.593 0.650 0.673 0.732 0.596 0.350 0.633 0.754 0.762 0.697 0.674 0.707 0.712 0.680 0.685
Fe3+ 1.388 1.411 1.276 1.220 1.481 1.385 1.327 1.312 1.241 1.295 1.288 1.235 1.235 1.281 1.253
Mg 0.038 0.031 0.037 0.036 0.042 0.043 0.037 0.035 0.044 0.044 0.041 0.035 0.042 0.037 0.044
Ca 2.184 2.253 2.469 2.429 2.234 3.060 2.429 2.234 2.435 2.439 2.439 2.535 2.510 2.204 2.283
Na 1.828 1.876 1.840 1.805 1.836 1.910 1.825 1.834 1.815 1.855 1.820 1.843 1.831 1.812 1.813
K 0.382 0.343 0.308 0.295 0.281 0.057 0.343 0.340 0.259 0.287 0.326 0.291 0.300 0.358 0.349
Total 15.210 15.219 15.148 15.101 15.118 14.968 15.168 15.174 15.074 15.142 15.146 15.134 15.131 15.171 15.162

Plagioclase A28-1-C A28-1-R A28-2-C A28-2-R A28-3-C A28-3-R A28-4-C A28-4-R A28-5-C A28-5-R A28-6-C A28-6-R A28-7-C A28-7-R A28-8-C
SiO2 61.834 57.936 60.961 59.191 60.086 61.543 62.107 59.66 58.772 60.384 61.452 60.042 60.872 60.28 61.236
Al2O3 24.187 24.865 23.956 24.799 24.696 23.656 23.47 24.664 24.948 24.907 24.035 24.917 24.323 24.285 23.679
CaO 5.44 6.845 5.567 6.236 6.233 4.955 4.802 6.344 6.772 6.546 5.45 5.889 5.464 5.25 5.274
Na2O 8.281 7.277 8.325 7.584 8.013 8.376 8.663 7.558 7.475 7.697 8.332 7.768 8.297 7.936 8.42
K2O 0.11 0.101 0.089 0.22 0.092 0.287 0.095 0.353 0.096 0.112 0.135 0.389 0.142 0.419 0.106
Total 99.949 97.738 98.993 98.366 99.225 99.056 99.16 98.784 98.212 99.815 99.609 99.267 99.141 98.369 98.832
Si 10.969 10.620 10.935 10.729 10.778 11.021 11.083 10.761 10.668 10.766 10.953 10.770 10.897 10.887 10.993
Al 5.056 5.372 5.064 5.297 5.220 4.992 4.936 5.243 5.337 5.233 5.049 5.267 5.131 5.169 5.010
Ca 1.034 1.344 1.070 1.211 1.198 0.951 0.918 1.226 1.317 1.250 1.041 1.132 1.048 1.016 1.014
Na 2.848 2.586 2.895 2.665 2.786 2.908 2.997 2.643 2.631 2.660 2.879 2.701 2.880 2.779 2.930
K 0.025 0.024 0.020 0.051 0.021 0.066 0.022 0.081 0.022 0.025 0.031 0.089 0.032 0.097 0.024
Total 19.940 19.999 19.991 19.981 20.016 19.970 19.959 19.980 19.990 19.960 19.977 19.992 19.993 19.966 19.979
Ab 26 34 27 31 30 24 23 31 33 32 26 29 26 26 26
Na 73 65 73 68 70 74 76 67 66 68 73 69 73 71 74
Or 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 1 2 1 2 1

Amphibole A91-1-C A91-1-R A91-2-C A91-3-C A91-3-R A91-5-C A91-5-R A91-6-C A91-6-R A91-7-R
SiO2 41.090 40.644 49.880 42.128 42.717 40.231 42.830 40.525 39.887 52.580
TiO2 0.674 0.565 0.161 0.463 0.542 0.596 0.438 0.399 0.616 0.039
Al2O3 14.907 14.213 4.939 13.677 11.869 14.800 11.771 14.363 14.149 2.744
FeO 16.400 17.820 12.877 16.040 16.594 17.237 16.564 17.428 17.802 11.354
MnO 0.307 0.311 0.344 0.314 0.260 0.290 0.327 0.256 0.238 0.304
MgO 8.952 8.795 14.555 9.887 10.206 8.981 10.211 8.952 8.729 16.227
CaO 11.167 11.112 11.703 11.182 11.243 11.133 11.217 11.182 11.011 11.917
Na2O 1.695 1.680 0.802 1.506 1.439 1.568 1.484 1.578 1.593 0.458
K2O 0.634 0.681 1.121 0.438 0.329 0.630 0.286 0.714 0.648 0.061
F 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.081 0.125 0.000 0.115 0.000 0.016
Cl 0.009 0.014 0.000 0.028 0.014 0.000 0.003 0.000 0.004 0.002
Total 95.835 95.835 95.381 95.662 95.296 95.591 95.130 95.512 94.677 95.701
Si 6.177 6.137 7.320 6.294 6.426 6.069 6.446 6.134 6.091 7.613
Al 0.076 0.064 0.018 0.052 0.061 0.068 0.050 0.045 0.071 0.004
Ti 2.641 2.529 0.854 2.408 2.104 2.631 2.088 2.562 2.546 0.468

A.C. Molina et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 21 (2006) 337–354
Fe2+ 0.642 0.850 0.351 0.800 0.816 0.916 0.817 0.852 0.928 0.460
Fe3+ 1.420 1.400 1.229 1.203 1.271 1.259 1.268 1.354 1.345 0.914
Mg 2.006 1.980 3.185 2.202 2.289 2.020 2.291 2.020 1.987 3.503
Ca 1.798 1.798 1.840 1.790 1.812 1.799 1.809 1.813 1.801 1.849
Na 0.494 0.492 0.228 0.436 0.420 0.459 0.433 0.463 0.472 0.129
K 0.122 0.131 0.210 0.083 0.063 0.121 0.055 0.138 0.126 0.011
Total 15.375 15.381 15.235 15.270 15.261 15.342 15.255 15.381 15.369 14.951

Plagioclase A91-1-C A91-1-R A91-2-C A91-3-C A91-3-R A91-5-C A91-5-R A-91-6-C A-91-6-R A-91-7-R
SiO2 70.554 61.836 60.996 61.654 61.034 60.928 61.148 62.628 61.337 61.103
Al2O3 17.757 23.043 23.884 23.048 23.790 24.100 23.144 22.262 23.806 23.406
CaO 3.719 4.569 5.343 4.676 5.383 5.483 4.681 3.540 5.174 5.329
Na2O 6.793 8.765 8.152 8.436 8.248 8.228 8.585 9.222 8.315 8.218
K2O 0.043 0.069 0.066 0.208 0.113 0.097 0.048 0.265 0.102 0.094
Total 98.902 98.438 98.522 98.210 98.706 98.947 97.764 98.167 98.937 98.319
Si 12.331 11.126 10.973 11.123 10.975 10.931 11.082 11.290 11.001 11.027
Al 3.657 4.886 5.064 4.900 5.041 5.095 4.943 4.730 5.032 4.978
Ca 0.696 0.881 1.030 0.904 1.037 1.054 0.909 0.684 0.994 1.030
Na 2.302 3.058 2.843 2.951 2.875 2.862 3.016 3.223 2.891 2.875
K 0.010 0.016 0.015 0.048 0.026 0.022 0.011 0.061 0.023 0.022
Total 18.996 19.967 19.924 19.926 19.955 19.964 19.961 19.987 19.941 19.932
Ab 23 22 26 23 26 27 23 17 25 26
An 77 77 73 76 73 73 77 81 74 73
Or 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 2 1 1
Labels includes sample number: c, core; r, rim; i, intermediate. A49 (Dibulla gneiss), A28 (Sevilla Complex), A91 (Macuira Formation).

343
344 A.C. Molina et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 21 (2006) 337–354

consideration in analyzing the lower-grade greenschist-am- 1998). Pooled dates calculated herein are weighted mean
206
phibolite rocks. Holland and Blundy’s (1994) thermometer Pb/238U dates (inverse-variance weighted at two-sigma
was not employed for the greenschist and amphibolite level and rounded to the nearest million year), following
facies rocks, because it overestimates temperature values correction for common Pb based on measured 204Pb. The
(John et al., 1999). The results represent probable intervals analytical results appear in conventional diagrams in
of P–T conditions, considering the differences in their inter- Fig. 8a and b and Table 3.
nal errors and calibrations. Two Sm–Nd whole-rock analyses at the Center of Geo-
chronological Research of the University of São Paulo
3.2. Geochronology: radiometric methods (CPGeo-USP) follow the procedures described by Sato
et al. (1995). Isotopic ratios of 143Nd/144Nd were obtained
U–Pb determinations from 25 single zircon crystals from in a multicollector mass spectrometer with analytical preci-
two samples were carried out with the sensitive high reso- sion of 0.014% (2r). Experimental error for the
147
lution ion microprobe (SHRIMP II) of the Chinese Acad- Sm/144Nd ratios is on the order of 0.5%. La Jolla and
emy of Geological Sciences. Zircons were hand picked and BCR-1 standards yield, respectively, 143Nd/144Nd =
mounted on epoxy resin for the isotopic measurements. 0.511849 ± 0.000025 (1r) and 0.512662 ± 0.000027 (1r)
Because of effects, such as the differential yield of metal during the analysis period. Single-stage Sm–Nd TDM model
and oxide species between elements during sputtering, inter- ages were calculated following De Paolo (1988) and appear
element ratios are calibrated with a standard when the in Table 4.
ratios are known by isotope dilution thermal ionization
mass spectrometry (IDTIMS). Details of analytical proce-
dures, including calibration methods, are fully presented Table 4
by Stern (1998). 206Pb/238U ratios have an error component Sm-Nd analytical data from the studied samples
(typically 1.5–2.0%) from calibration of the measurements Sample Rock type Unit 147
Sm/ 143
Nd/ TDm €(0)
144 144
using the standard zircons. U abundance and U/Pb ratios # Nd Nd
were calibrated against 238 ppm U, 572 Ma fragments of A95 Muscovite Macuira 0.16161 0.512111 1.45 10.28
the single crystal SL13 zircon standard. All errors also take schist Formation
into account nonlinear fluctuations in ion counting rates Siap-1 Granodiorite Siapana 0.1327 0.512260 1.46 7.37
granodiorite
beyond that expected from counting statistics (e.g., Stern,

Table 3
Zircon U/Pb SHRIMP analytical data from analyzed samples
206 232 206
Analysis % Pbc ppm ppm Th/ ppm Measured % err Measured % 207r/235 % 206r/ % err Pb/238U ±
238 206
U Th U Pb* 238/206 207/206 err err 238 err corr Age
A-19. Paragneiss
1 0.81 160 42 0.27 24.8 5.550 2.7 0.0750 1.5 1.682 4.2 0.1787 2.7 0.63 1060 26
2 0.02 807 5 0.01 116 5.990 1.9 0.07350 1.2 1.689 2.3 0.1670 1.9 0.85 995 18
3 0.27 260 65 0.26 43.4 5.150 2.0 0.0795 1.9 2.060 3.1 0.1936 2.0 0.66 1141 21
4 1.05 113 70 0.63 23.1 4.212 2.1 0.0869 1.5 2.53 4.5 0.2349 2.1 0.47 1360 26
5 1.47 269 87 0.34 20.1 11.520 2.0 0.0616 1.9 0.589 6.6 0.0855 2.1 0.31 529 10
6 0.97 135 97 0.74 25.3 4.582 2.1 0.0840 1.7 2.261 4.1 0.2161 2.1 0.51 1261 24
7 0.62 150 89 0.61 22.6 5.72 0 2.1 0.0774 1.5 1.730 3.8 0.1736 2.1 0.55 1032 20
8 1.61 165 43 0.27 14.4 9.85 0 2.1 0.0670 2.7 0.744 7.7 0.0999 2.2 0.28 614 13
9 0.49 212 92 0.45 30.1 6.070 2.0 0.0713 1.4 1.521 3.4 0.1640 2.0 0.59 979 18
10 0.53 323 28 0.09 33.6 8.270 2.3 0.0713 1.3 1.109 3.3 0.1203 2.3 0.70 732 16
11 0.57 140 50 0.37 24.2 4.960 2.1 0.0810 1.4 2.105 3.0 0.2004 2.1 0.69 1177 22
12 2.03 74 56 0.79 12.7 4.980 2.2 0.0914 3.6 2.02 8.6 0.1969 2.3 0.27 1158 25
13 0.06 29 10 0.35 3.96 6.200 2.7 0.0844 3.4 1.862 4.4 0.1611 2.7 0.61 963 24
14 0.36 184 80 0.45 33.4 4.744 2.0 0.08343 1.2 2.327 2.9 0.2100 2.0 0.70 1229 23
15 0.53 439 101 0.24 56.7 6.660 1.9 0.07137 0.99 1.379 2.7 0.1494 1.9 0.73 898 16

Siap-1. Granodiorite
1 1 408 79 0.2 60 6.890 2.4 0.0840 2.4 1. 4693 4.0 0.1434 2.4 0.59 864 19
2 0 438 42 0.1 85 4.416 2.0 0.0880 1.3 2. 7144 2.4 0.2262 2.0 0.84 1.315 24
3 1 597 208 0.4 14 36.320 2.1 0.0511 1.9 0. 1643 5.7 0.0273 2.1 0.37 173.5 4
4 2 389 173 0.5 9 38.590 2.2 0.0515 2.3 0. 1305 10.2 0.0255 2.2 0.21 162.0 4
5 0 2330 764 0.3 56 35.720 2.0 0.0486 1.0 0. 1820 2.5 0.0279 2.0 0.82 177.7 4
7 0 326 98 0.3 41 6.870 2.0 0.0697 0.93 1. 3720 2.3 0.1453 2.1 0.89 875 17
8 1 759 146 0.2 17 38.210 2.1 0.0509 1.6 0. 1680 3.8 0.0260 2.1 0.54 165.7 3
9 0 664 206 0.3 14 39.840 2.2 0.0512 1.8 0. 1695 3.6 0.0250 2.1 0.59 159.3 3
10 0 139 87 0.7 9 13.650 2.2 0.0573 2.2 0. 5554 3.4 0.0731 2.2 0.65 454.6 9.7
206
Ratios and Pb/238Pb are corrected after measured Pb204.
 A.C. Molina et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 21 (2006) 337–354
Ar–Ar laser step-heating analyses on four micas (3 bio-
tites and 1 muscovite) and five amphiboles were carried out
following the standard procedures of the Ar–Ar laboratory
of CPGeo-USP (Vasconcelos et al., 2002). Several grains of
each sample were irradiated in the nuclear reactor IEA-R1
of the Brazilian Institute of Nuclear Research (IPEN),
together with Fish Canyon sanidine standards. Three of
the irradiated grains for each of the samples then were
selected for Ar–Ar analyses. During the successive incre-
mental heating steps, the released gas was purified in an
ultravacuum system, and the 40Ar/39Ar ratios were mea-
sured in a high sensibility mass spectrometer MAP-215-
50. The Ar–Ar age spectra of the analyzed samples appear
in Fig. 6, and the complete analytical data are available on
request.
For all radiometric data, the decay constants employed
are from Steiger and Jager (1977). The U–Pb were calculat-
ed using the Isoplot/Ex 2.1 program of Ludwig (2002).
Ar–Ar analytical data are available on request.
4. Proterozoic belt
High-grade metamorphic rocks of Proterozoic age from
the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta and Guajira regions
have been recognized since the early 1970s (MacDonald
and Hurley, 1969; Banks, 1975; Tschanz et al., 1974) and
related to a correlated fragmented belt widespread in the
Eastern Colombian Andes (Toussaint, 1993; Cordani
et al., 2005).
In the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta region (Fig. 2),
banded high-grade Proterozoic metamorphic rocks of
granulite facies and associated metamorphosed anorthosi-
tic bodies are grouped within Los Mangos granulites
(Tschanz et al., 1969). The NE segment of this unit is
named the Dibulla gneiss (MacDonald and Hurley,
1969). It is a centimetric to decametric banded metamor-
phic rock, with local nebulitic structures. Two types of fel-
sic quartz–feldespathic bands are common. The first shows
a strong lineation fabric, with ribbon and ameboid
mesoperthitic feldspar (plagioclase 10–20%, K-feldspar
30–40%) with mirmekitic texture, quartz (30–50%), and
brown biotite (0–5%), as well as zircon, monazite, and
opaques as mineral accessories. The other band lacks
mineral fabric and is more K-feldspar rich; it presents
graphic textures, as well as embayed and corroded grains,
that are common on rocks affected by partial fusion
(Sawyer, 1999). The mafic amphibolite bands exhibit
brown amphibole and biotite, defining a clear mineral lin-
eation with quartz and elongated plagioclase and minor
opaques.
Amphibole and plagioglase chemistry from an amphib-
olite sample were analyzed. The amphiboles are calcic and
show no chemical zonation; plagioclase is andesine (An28–
32). Comparative amphibole and amphibole-plagioclase
thermobarometry (see ‘‘Analytical Techniques’’ for the cal-
ibrations used) yields P–T conditions of 6–7.6 kb and tem-
peratures of 760–810 °C, the latter based on Holland and
345
Blundy’s (1994) calibration. The metamorphic conditions
are characteristic of an amphibolite–granulite facies transi-
tion, close to the dry melting of biotite (Bucher and Frey,
1994; Johannes and Holtz, 1996) and compatible with the
observed (nebulitic) structures and textures of the different
felsic bands, which are similar to the high-temperature
deformation and partial fusion evidence provided by
Sawyer (1999) and Passchier and Trouw (1996).
Due to their metamorphic character, the interpretation
of the obtained geochemical data is based on immobile ele-
ments (Wilson, 1989), whereas the variable thickness of the
metamorphic bands may be related to an inherited strati-
graphic character from the protolith (Passchier et al.,
1990).
The five analyzed quartz-feldspathic bands (Table 1)
show high SiO2 values of 71–75% and high K2O/Na2O
(2.4). The REE elements from four of the anisotropic
bands (Fig. 5a) are enriched (RREE > 312 ppm) and show
strongly negative slopes (La/YbN = 5.19–15.76) and a well-
defined Eu anomaly. These patterns are typical of the
upper continental crust and indicate extensive intracrustal
differentiation (Taylor and Mclennan, 1985). A massive fel-
sic rock shows lower REE values (RREE > 136,46), is
depleted in HREE, and exhibits a positive Eu anomaly,
which might suggest a cumulatic origin (Cullers and Graf,
1984; Sawyer, 1987). Three amphibolites from the mafic
bands show Cr concentrations > 100 ppm and Cr/Ni
ratios > 1, which suggest a magmatic origin for the proto-
liths (Walker et al., 1960; Leake, 1964). The REE are high,
with RREE > 163, a negative slope (La/Yb)N = 3.4–5.6,
and a flat HREE pattern (Fig. 5b). These patterns, com-
bined with the Y, Sc, Zr, Ni, and Cr values, are similar
to the continental tholeiitic basalts and suggest that the
magmas could have formed at shallow depths in the spinel
or plagioclase stability field (Pearce, 1982; Wilson, 1989).
The Nb/La ratio (0.25–0.33) and relative Nb and Ti nega-
tive anomalies may be related to an enriched mantle with
some crustal contamination (Culshaw and Dostal, 1997;
Li et al., 2000). According to these geochemical patterns,
the association with recycled upper continental crust rocks
(associated felsic bands), and the Ti–V discrimination
diagram (not included; after Shervais, 1982), the tectonic
setting for the amphibolites is considered to have been a rift
or backarc basin.
An anorthosite body that shows an intrusive relation to
Los Mangos granulite, located SW of the Dibulla gneiss,
was also sampled. This rock shows a weak mineral linea-
tion and granoblastic and polygonal textures. Plagioclase
(An40) represents 85–98%, and mafic minerals are totally
replaced by epidote, chlorite, biotite, and amphibole and
related to a later hydrothermal event. Both plagioclase
textures and andesine composition suggest they metamor-
phosed at high-grade conditions, probably in the granulite
facies (Kruhl and Huntenmann, 1991; Ashwall, 1993).
In the Guajira region (Fig. 3), Proterozoic rocks are
included in the Jojoncito gneiss, with associated metasedi-
mentary and amphibolitic rocks (Alvarez, 1967; Banks,
346 A.C. Molina et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 21 (2006) 337–354
1975). The Jojoncito gneiss is a quartz-feldspathic rock
with strong mineral lineation, composed of quartz (32–
50%), mesoperthitic K-feldspar (29–40%), plagioclase
(An10–20), biotite less than 1%, and zircon, monazite, and
opaque minerals as accessories. Its textural characteristics
are similar to those found in the Dibulla gneiss. The main
geochemical patterns (Table 1) and REE trend of one ana-
lyzed sample shows the same upper crustal pattern found
on the Dibulla gneiss (Fig. 5a), which suggests the presence
of a similar, highly evolved crustal signature.
New and available geochronological data from the
gneissic rocks of these two regions is presented in Cordani
et al. (2005) and summarized here. Both the Dibulla and
Jojoncito gneisses show a metasedimentary character, with
a few magmatic-related Mesoproterozoic sources, of
between 1.55 and 1.25 Ga. They seem to have been affected
by two metamorphic events at approximately 1.14 and
1.0 Ga. These patterns limit basin formation to the range
1.25–1.14 Ga. Sm–Nd crustal residence ages from both
regions are between 1.5 and 1.9 Ga and suggest that the
protoliths for the paragneisess are a mix of juvenile Meso-
proterozoic and older rocks (Restrepo-Pace et al., 1997;
Ordoñez et al., 1999).
Two Ar–Ar ages from one biotite and an amphibole
of an anorthosite sample associated with Los Mangos
granulite were obtained during this work. The biotite
yields irregular spectra (Fig. 6a and b) with plateaus in
the intermediate stages between 50 and 70 Ma. The
amphibole shows a more complex spectra. Both biotite
and amphibole replace higher grade minerals and formed
in a superimposed hydrothermal event. The variability of
the spectra may be related to the hydrothermal origin of
the minerals, and the constrained Paleocene ages are sim-
ilar to the age of magmatic plutons in the region
(Tschanz et al., 1974).
5. Paleozoic belt
Amphibolite facies metamorphic rocks are exposed in
both the Sierra Nevada and Guajira regions, NW of the
high-grade Proterozoic rocks. The units are named Sevilla
Complex and Macuira Formation (MacDonald, 1965;
Tschanz et al., 1974), respectively (Figs. 2 and 3). The main
lithology includes paragneisses, amphibolites, amphibole-
biotite schists, and mica schists. A superimposed mylonitic
fabric in the greenschist facies is common, with some low-
strain zones preserving the former higher grade metamor-
phism. These rocks are intruded by Late Jurassic granitoids
and undeformed Eocene granitoids (MacDonald, 1965;
Lockwood, 1966; Alvarez, 1967; Tschanz et al., 1969).
Geological relations with Proterozoic rocks are tectonic
and, in the Santa Marta region, have been related to syn-
tectonic granitoids (Tschanz et al., 1974).
Samples from amphibole-biotite and muscovite schist
from the low-strain zones, a mylonitic garnet paragneiss,
and an undeformed Jurassic granitoid related to the two
units were analyzed. Amphibole-plagioclase thermobarom-
etry from two amphibole-biotite schist samples of the Sevil-
la Complex and Macuira Formation was undertaken. The
Sevilla Complex amphiboles are mainly magnesiohorn-
blende and actinolite, with variable Si and Al contents.
Calculated pressures are in the range of 5–8 kb (Fig. 4),
as shown by Plyusnina’s (1982) and Fershater’s (1990) cal-
ibrations. Temperature is more precise, with values
between 490 and 550 °C in Plyusnina’s (1982) and Spear’s
(1980) calibrations, as a consequence of the more restricted
plagioclase composition (An26–An33). The Macuira schist
contains magnesiohornblende and tschermackite amphibo-
les, with plagioclase varying between An17–An33 and the
same thermobarometrical pattern using both calibrations,
with pressures of 6–9 kb and temperatures of 500–550 °C
(Fig. 4). Actinolite is observed as small blebs in the cores
of some crystals.
The variability in calculated pressures is probably relat-
ed to disequilibrium associated with continued amphibole
crystallization (Villa et al., 2000; Bellot et al., 2003),
whereas the actinolite blebs are related to the Ca-amphi-
bole miscibility gap common in middle-pressure metaba-
sites (Begı́n and Carmichael, 1992). Together, they may
be related to a prograde metamorphism toward amphibo-
lite facies of the intermediate pressure baric type. Local ret-
rograde greenschist evidence appears in some rims that
show amphiboles with actinolite compositions, as well as
the presence of chlorite.
Geochemical data from the Macuira Formation was
interpreted following the same criteria used for the Dibulla
gneiss. Five amphibole schist samples from the Macuira
Formation (Table 1) show silica contents of 48–59% and
low MgO and TiO2 values. They follow a general calc-alka-
line trend in the AFM diagram (not included) and corre-
spond to andesite basalts and andesites. The REE
patterns have negative slopes, with strong LREE enrich-
ment [(La/Yb)N ratios of 1.7–38 and (La/Sm)N of 1.3–
6.1], low HREE and Y values, and an almost lack of Eu
anomaly (Fig. 5c). The low HREE and Y values, together
with the high Cr and Ni values (>26 ppm) and high Sr
(250–1076 ppm) suggest plagioclase fusion in the source
Fig. 4. Amphibole-plagioclase thermobarometer of Plyusnina (1982).
 A.C. Molina et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 21 (2006) 337–354
Fig. 5. REE geochemical data normalized to chondrite (C1). (a) Quartz-
feldespathic rocks from the Dibulla (romba) and Jojoncito gneises (cross),
(b) amphibolite bands from the Dibulla gneiss, (c) amphibole schists from
the Sevilla Complex.
and a restite with garnet, amphibole, and clinopyroxene
(Martin, 1999). The LREE enrichment correlates with the
increase in SiO2, and the decrease in MgO can be related
to fractional crystallization of pyroxene, titanite, and prob-
ably hornblende (Wilson, 1989).
Such distinctive chemical trends, including the REE pat-
tern, presence of negative Nb and Ti anomalies, and
HFSE/REE ratio, suggest calc-alkaline series rocks or even
adakites, formed in subduction-related environments of
continental magmatic arcs (Pearce, 1982; Cullers and Graf,
347
1984; Wilson, 1989; Defant and Drummond, 1990; Tats-
umi and Eggins, 1995).
5.1. Geochronology
Previous geochronological data from these units include
amphibole and mica K–Ar Jurassic and Eocene ages of
metamorphic rocks and cross-cutting intrusives (MacDon-
ald, 1965; Lockwood, 1966; Alvarez, 1967; Tschanz et al.,
1974). For this work, 25 U–Pb SHRIMP zircon analyses
were obtained from a mylonitized garnetiferous paragneiss
(garnets broken and partially replaced by mylonitic fabric)
of the Sevilla Complex (15) and an undeformed Siapana
granodiorite that intrudes the Macuira Formation (10).
Ar–Ar step-heating ages were obtained on 4 amphiboles,
2 biotites, and 1 muscovite from five schist samples of the
Macuira Formation (4) and Sevilla Complex (1), as well
as 1 biotite from the granodiorite analyzed for U/Pb.
Fig. 7a shows conventional U–Pb concordia diagram
for zircons from a paragneiss of the Sevilla Complex
(A19). The analyzed zircons show variable and rounded
shapes, which may be related to a sedimentary provenance.
Th/U ratios of most of the analyzed zircons are >0.2 (Table
3), suggesting that the source for the sediments included
many magmatic rocks (Beloussova et al., 2002).
238
U/206Pb ages are widespread along the concordia from
500 to 1400 Ma (Table 3). Six zircons show Proterozoic
ages between 1380 and 1120 Ma, with two grains showing
a 1244 ± 23 Ma age and three older than 1185 ± 25 Ma.
The other six zircons show 920–1080 Ma ages. Younger
Neoproterozoic and Cambrian concordant ages are also
present, with values of 529 ± 10 Ma, 614 ± 13 Ma, and
732 ± 16 Ma. These data are related to the sedimentary
sources, constraining a maximum Cambrian age for the
deposition of the sedimentary protolith of the paragneiss.
Fig. 7b shows U/Pb data from 10 equant and prismatic
zircons with well-developed faces from the Siapana grano-
diorite (Siap 1). The cathodoluminescence images show
oscillatory zoning patterns typical of magmatic zircons,
as well as older cores with strong luminescence. Five zircon
crystals with oscillatory zoning plot within the concordia
with a weighted 206Pb/238U age of 167 ± 9.4 Ma. The cores
from three grains yield older concordant ages of
870 ± 25 Ma, 1311 ± 26 Ma, and 456 ± 9.7 Ma, and the
remaining two show evidence of ancient Pb-loss. The Th/
U ratios of all zircons are >0.2, typical of magmatic zircons
(Beloussova et al., 2002). A Sm–Nd analysis from this
granitoid sample yields CNd calculated for a 167 Ma crys-
tallization age of 5.90 and TDM = 1.45. Moreover, a
muscovite schist sample from the Macuira Formation
shows a TDM Sm–Nd model age of 1.47. These data, when
combined with the presence of inherited zircons, clearly
point to a crustal contribution for the magma genesis
and the relevance of the regional Proterozoic ages.
Three biotite grains from the same sample of the Siapana
granodiorite yield well-defined and coherent plateau ages
around 156 Ma (Fig. 7c). Such Jurassic ages are related
348 A.C. Molina et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 21 (2006) 337–354

to cooling at temperatures of 300 ± 50 °C, indicating that
the relatively rapid cooling may be related to an emplace-
ment into upper crustal levels.
Three amphibole and three biotite grains from an
amphibolitic schist of the Sevilla Complex (A28) show evi-
dence of a two-stage Ar–Ar thermal evolution (Fig. 6d and
e). The amphiboles define plateau and pseudoplateau ages
in the intermediate steps between 180 and 185 Ma, as well
as some complex spectra with older apparent ages around
220–230 Ma. In contrast, the biotite grains show a staircase
pattern, forming plateau and pseudoplateau early Tertiary
ages. Such patterns indicate the presence of an important
Triassic–Jurassic thermal event, recorded by partial argon
loss in the amphiboles, and a second Paleocene perturba-
tion that attained temperatures of 300–350 °C, releasing
Ar from the biotites.
The amphibole grains from the Macuira Formation
amphibole schist samples (A-83 and A-91, Fig. 7f and h)
show a staircase pattern between 100 and 220 Ma, with lat-
er steps yielding apparent ages of 160 and 220 Ma. In con-
trast, amphibole A-99 shows plateau and pseudoplateau
ages between 150 and 160 Ma (Fig. 7i). Biotite from sample
A-83 (Fig. 7g) also shows a younger staircase pattern, with
one of the grains indicating a plateau age of 79.0 ± 05 Ma.
However, a muscovite from micaschist sample A-95
(Fig. 7j) of the Macuira Formation shows irregular spectra
with staircase patterns and late step apparent ages near
160 Ma.

Fig. 6. 40Ar–39Ar age spectra. Experimental temperatures increase from left to right. Each analysis corresponds to three grains of the same sample. (a)
Amphibole from anorthosite (A77) of Los Mangos granulite, (b) biotite from anorthosite (A77) of Los Mangos granulite, (c) biotite from Siapana
granodiorite (Siap 1), (d) amphibole from schist of the Sevilla Complex (A28), (e) biotite from schist of the Sevilla Complex (A28), (f) amphibole from
schist of the Macuira Formation (A83), (g) biotite from schist of the Macuira Formation (A83), (h) amphibole from schist of the Macuira Formation
(A91), (i) amphibole from schist of the Macuira Formation (A99), and (j) muscovite from schist of the Macuira Formation.
 A.C. Molina et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 21 (2006) 337–354 349

6. Tectonic implications and correlations

Two correlated pre-Mesozoic metamorphic belts char-

Fig. 7. Conventional zircon U/Pb concordia plot from a paragneiss of the
(a) Sevilla Complex and (b) Siapana granodiorite.
Ar–Ar staircase patterns indicate partial argon loss
caused by thermal events, whereas older ages from the
high-temperature stages of the spectra are considered min-
imum ages for the original formation of the minerals
(McDougall and Harrison, 1999). Collectively, these data
suggest the presence of possible Triassic–Jurassic and
Paleocene thermal perturbations.
acterize the basement of the northern termination of the
Colombian Andes: an older one including the Dibulla
and Jojoncito gneisses, and a younger one including the
Sevilla and Macuira schists.
Within the older belt, the field relations (mafic and felsic
bands) and geochemical patterns can be related to volca-
nosedimentary protoliths formed in a continental rift or
backarc environment. The presence of anorthosite bodies
may be related to this type of continental extensional envi-
ronment (Ashwall, 1993). Petrographic textures of the dif-
ferent rocks and amphibole-plagioclase thermobarometry
indicate that these rocks metamorphosed in amphibolite–
granulite conditions and were accompanied by partial
fusion.
The temporal constraints and tectonic interpretations
from these Proterozoic basement units presented by Corda-
ni et al. (2005), when integrated with the data presented
here, show Mesoproterozoic zircon sources that can be
related to the SW Amazon Craton margin. The available
age data indicate that original rift or backarc basin forma-
tion may have taken place at 1.25–1.16 Ga (younger detri-
tal and metamorphic zircons); a first regional
metamorphism followed at approximately 1.14 in a former
Cordilleran orogen with associated arc magmatism, and a
major continental collision event followed at 1.0 Ga, pro-
ducing high-grade regional metamorphism. Similar tempo-
ral and metamorphic characteristics occur in the other
Proterozoic exposures from the Eastern Colombian Andes
and within the Chibcha terrane and paraauthoctonous
Garzon Massif (Cordani et al., 2005; Restrepo-Pace
et al., 1997; Ordoñez et al., 1999; Ordoñez, 2001; Fig. 8),
which suggests these domains and other similar fragments
from the Southern Andes and Mexico (Wasteneys et al.,
1995; Keppie and Ortega-Gutierrez, 1999; Ruiz et al.,
1999; Solari et al., 2003; Loewy et al., 2004) were part
of a larger Mesoproterozoic Grenvillian collisional belt

Fig. 8. (a) Permo-Triassic and (b) actual distribution of Pre-Mesozoic terranes and crustal exposures from the Northern Andes, Central America, and
Caribbean, including geographic localities discussed in text. Modified from Stewart et al. (1999) and Elı́as-Herrera and Ortega-Gutiérrez (2002). Terranes:
LA, Loja-Amotape; T, Tahamı́; Ch, Chibcha; M-C, Merida Caparo; C-T, Caucagua-Tinaco; Co, Chortis; Y-M, Yucatán-Maya; O, Oaxaquia; M,
Mixteca; S, Socorro Complex. Localities: (1) Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, (2) Guajira Massif, (3) Paraguana Peninsula, (4) Toas Island, (5) Perija, (6)
Bonaire. Amazon Craton is hatched.
350 A.C. Molina et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 21 (2006) 337–354
(Cordani et al., 2005) related to Rodinia formation and the
juxtaposition of the western Amazonian Craton with Laur-
entia (Hoffman, 1991).
The lower-grade metamorphic belt that includes the
Sevilla Complex and Macuira Formation shows continen-
tal arc geochemical affinities for the protoliths and thermo-
barometrical features of Barrovian-type progressive
amphibolite facies metamorphism. This kind of metamor-
phism affecting continental arc protoliths is typical of a col-
lisional tectonic environment (Best, 2003). The detrital
zircon ages of 530 Ma from a paragneiss of the Sevilla
Complex and the Ordovician inherited zircons from the
Jurassic Siapana granodiorite that intrudes the Macuira
Formation provide a maximum original age for the proto-
liths. The Mesoproterozoic Grenville sources are similar to
those from the older domain. Neoproterozoic and Cambri-
an ages of zircons can be related to Gondwanan sources
and indicate a South American position for this domain
during its original early Paleozoic formation. The Ar–Ar
Late Jurassic thermal resting ages (160 Ma) are similar
to the crystallization age of the Siapana granodiorite.
Moreover, correlatable regional thermal and magmatic
events are recorded in the basement rocks of the Eastern
Andean domain of Colombia and Venezuela (Espejo
et al., 1980).
The metamorphic conditions from the amphibole schist
indicates temperatures of 490–550 °C, and Ar–Ar amphi-
bole closure temperatures vary between 450 and 550 °C
as a function of its composition (McDougall and Harrison,
1999), with magnesiohornblende and actinolite closure
temperatures considered to be approximately 500 °C
(Dahl, 1996). Therefore, the older minimum ages of 210–
230 Ma yielded by some amphiboles may be linked to cool-
ing from the main regional metamorphic event and are sim-
ilar to metamorphic cooling ages found in both Venezuela
and central Colombia (Cordani et al., 1985).
The Gondwanan affinity, the apparent older Triassic
cooling ages, and the lithostratigraphic and geochronolog-
ical similarities suggest a possible correlation with the
Paleozoic evolution of the Merida Andes of Venezuela
(Lockwood, 1966; Burkley, 1976; Marechal, 1983; Cordani
et al., 1985) that ends with a Late Paleozoic collisional
event related to the formation of Pangea (for a review,
see Aleman and Ramos, 2000).
Permian–Triassic ages have been found in granitoids
from the Paraguana Peninsula in the Caribbean region of
Venezuela (Martin, 1968), where geologic relations similar
to those of the Guajira Peninsula are common. Similar
magmatic ages and a Late Paleozoic deformational event
are also present in the eastern Colombian Andes, Perija
region, and Toas Island in the northern end of Lake Mar-
acaibo (Espejo et al., 1980; Gonzalez de Juana et al., 1980;
Dasch, 1982; Toussaint, 1993), which suggests this tectonic
event was regionally widespread in the northernmost seg-
ment of the northern Andes.
The apparent lack of Jurassic thermal and magmatic
events in the Tahami terrane from the Central Colombian
Cordillera prevents lateral correlation of this metamor-
phic belt with the Santa Marta and Guajira units
(Toussaint, 1993, 1994). Jurassic magmatism correlatable
with the Jojoncito granodiorite is well represented region-
ally in plutonic and volcanic units in the studied regions
(Tschanz et al., 1974; MacDonald and Opdyke, 1972),
as well as in the nearby northeastern Colombian Andean
region (Dasch, 1982; Steinitz and Maze, 1984; Dorr et al.,
1995); thus, these two regions may have been related to
the authocthonous South American continent in the
Jurassic, where this event is widespread (Aspden et al.,
1987).
The Cambrian–Ordovician ages found in the paragneis-
ses and Jurassic granitoid are similar to ages found in the
Caucagua-Tinaco terrane from the Cordillera de la Costa
of Venezuela (Ave Lallement and Sisson, 1993; Ertan
et al., 1995; Seyler et al., 1998). This terrane probably
has been displaced along the continental margin from a
western position compatible with the Colombian massifs
(Ave Lallement and Sisson, 1993) and implies the existence
of an important Early Paleozoic domain in northernmost
South America.
Relations between the Proterozoic and the younger
metamorphic belt are considered tectonic and related to
Permian granitoids (Tschanz et al., 1974). The presence
of Mesoproterozoic sources for the Sevilla Complex and
Macuira Formation, similar to those from the Dibulla
and Jojoncito gneisses and other Grenvillian exposures of
the Colombian Andes reported by Cordani et al. (2005),
suggest the proximity of these belts. According to regional
paleogeography (Pindell, 1985; Rowley and Pindell, 1989),
a Late Paleozoic–Triassic docking event associated with
the formation of Pangea is feasible.
The Meso-Cenozoic tectonic evolution of NW South
America also is recorded in these fragments. The typical
Mid- and Late-Jurassic magmatic and tectonothermal
activity related to active convergence and Pangea disrup-
tion found on the northwestern Andes (Aspden et al.,
1987; Pindell, 1994) is seen directly in the younger belt, in
cross-cutting intrusive rocks, the Ar–Ar thermal evolution
of the metamorphic rocks, and the previously available
K–Ar ages (MacDonald, 1964; Lockwood, 1966; Tschanz
et al., 1974).
The Cretaceous–Paleocene biotite ages from the low-
strain zone schists of the younger Sevilla and Macuira
metamorphic belts are older than the reported 48 Ma
K–Ar ages from regional granitoids (Lockwood, 1966;
Tschanz et al., 1974) and may be related to a thermal per-
turbation of the greenschist deformational event that
formed high-strain mylonite zones in other parts of the
amphibolite facies belt. Moreover, they are temporally
compatible with the second metamorphic event in the
Cretaceous metamorphic rocks in tectonic contact with
the Sevilla Complex and Macuira Formation (MacDonald,
1965; MacDonald et al., 1971; Tschanz et al., 1974) and
could be related to the accretion of the allocthonous
Caribbean-related metamorphic belts.
 A.C. Molina et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 21 (2006) 337–354
Terrane disruption and dispersal mechanisms are linked
to the evolution of rift and convergent tectonic regions
(Gibbons, 1994; Howell, 1995). Within Pangean tectonic
reconstructions, northern South America and southern
Mexico pre-Mesozoic terranes are juxtaposed and/or over-
lap (Rowley and Pindell, 1989; Dickinson and Lawton,
2001), and Permian-related orogenic events are common
in both regions (Marechal, 1983; Malone et al., 2002;
Weber and Cameron, 2003). From the lithostratigraphic
record of the northernmost Andean massifs, terrane dis-
persal associated with Pangea disruption can be inferred
from the possible correlation of some studied rocks with
Proterozoic Oaxaquia and Socorro complex rocks, as well
as the similar Jurassic thermal and magmatic record found
in Mexico and Cuba (Renne et al., 1989; Alaniz-Alvarez
et al., 1996; Ruiz et al., 1999; Keppie et al., 2004). Dispersal
patterns related to the Meso-Cenozoic oblique migration of
the Caribbean plate (Pindell, 1994) are envisaged from the
presence of allocthonous domains in the Cordillera de la
Costa of Venezuela (Caucagua-Tinaco belt; Ave Lallement
and Sisson, 1993; Ertan et al., 1995; Seyler et al., 1998) and
the Eocene conglomerates from the leeward Antilles (Priem
et al., 1986). Such allocthonous terranes present some Pro-
terozoic and Early Paleozoic ages similar to those reported
for the Santa Marta and Guajira massifs.
This active continental margin dispersal pattern also
appears in paleomagnetic data on Jurassic rocks, strati-
graphic comparisons of more recent displacements along
recognized faults, and recent GPS measurements from this
region (MacDonald and Opdyke, 1972; Tschanz et al.,
1974; Thery, 1982; Trenkamp et al., 2002).
Acknowledgements
The authors appreciate support received from the Bra-
zilian Ministry of Science and Technology (PRONEX
41.96.0899.00) and São Paulo State Foundation of Re-
search (FAPESP 00/09695-1 and 01/08940-5). Lyu Dunyi
is acknowledged for providing SHRIMP facilities at the
Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences. The staff of the
Center of the Geochronological Research (CP-Geo) and
Geochemical Laboratories of the University of São Paulo
is acknowledged for laboratory assistance. Field support
by Andres Bustamante, Pablo Castro, and Daiver Pinto
was crucial. Discussions with Cesar Vinasco were very useful
for elaborating the manuscript. Constructive comments and
suggestions by André Steenken and an anonymous journal
referee improved the final version of the manuscript.
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