ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS

1
CODE: EEB 231

ELECTRICAL PRINCIPLES 1

CODE: EEB 211

Molefhi B. O. C. [Mr]
 Delivery & Assessments
Weekly Lectures – [Molefhi] – Seven (7) Encounters
Smaller Groups Weekly Tutorials – [Molefhi + TAs]
Smaller Groups Laboratory Work – [Lecturers -TBA]
Consultations – [Molefhi, Other Lectures & TAs]
 Tests x 2 - [1]
 Lab Work x 2 - [1]
CA less than 50% - no exam
 Assignments x 2 - [1] EEB 211 - discontinues

 Final Exam - [Structured Questions] – A choice from at least

five]
 Final Assessment
 Half - Semester Breakdown
Fundamentals of Nodal Voltage Analysis
Electricity Mesh Current Analysis
Resistance & Conductance Star - Delta Transformation
Electrical Energy & Power Delta - Star Conversion
Ohm’s Law Superposition Theorem
Equivalent Resistance Norton’s Theorem
Kirchhoff’s Current Law Maximum Power Transfer
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law Theorem
Voltage Divider Rule Electrostatics
Current Divider Rule Capacitance & Capacitors
Thevenin’s Theorem Transients in DC Circuits
Millman’s Theorem Energy Stored in a Capacitor
WHAT IS ELECTRICITY..???
WHAT IS ELECTRIC CURRENT….???
According to Atomic Theory:
Electricity is the transfer of charge.
According to the Electron Theory:
Electricity is the drift of electrons in a conductor.
According to its application:
Electricity is the most refined form or source of energy available for
numerous applications. It is broadly used in cooking, transportation,
heating, lighting, driving machinery and tools.
Others:
Electric current is the rate of transfer of electric charge
 Structure of an Atom
• The nucleus of an Atom consists of
proton, neutrons and electrons
• Electrons are in an orbiteer
Electrons
arrangement around the protons &
neutrons
• The overall mass of the atom is made Electron Electrons
of the mass of the proton and neutron
• The mass of electrons is so Protons
insignificant that it is usually not Neutrons
considered (~1840 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠)less than
proton Electrons Electrons

 Protons have a positive charge

 Neutrons have no charge Electrons

 Electrons have a negative charge

Structure of an Atom
 Electrical charge per electron is quantified
to be 1.602x10-19 Coulombs
• When an atom has a deficiency in in
electrons its said to be positively charged
• When an atom has an excess of electrons
its said to be negatively
• Electrons are always in continuous
movement and transfer in an effort to
create an equilibrium,
• The movement of electrons is
accompanied by the production of energy
• This process of movement of electrons is
termed the transfer of charge
• The amount of charge transferred per
given time or the rate of transfer of charge
is called electric current
 Electric Charge - Electric Current

• Electric Charge is the quantity

Electric current as the rate of transfer
measure of electrons of charge is expressed as:
𝑸
𝑸 = 𝑰𝒕 [𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 ∗ 𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆] 𝑰=
𝒕
[Coulombs per Sec]
Units for charge - Coulombs [C] [Amperes]
• Electricity is the flow of electric
current in a circuit
• Electric current is the flow of
electrons in a given time.
• At times called the rate of transfer
of an electric charge
 Voltage / Potential Difference
Conversion of any form of energy to electric
or electric energy to any form is
accomplished through the movement of 𝒃
charge. 𝑾
𝑽𝒂𝒃 =
Voltage is the pressure applied to drive a 𝑸
𝒂
charge from the excess point to the
deficient point
Voltage is always defined by polarity points • A change in electric potential (Voltage)
The polarity points indicate the points of between two points in an electric circuit
excess or deficiency in energy levels is called a potential difference.
[𝐸 𝑜𝑟 𝑉] [Volts]
Point [a] is a point of higher energy level,
while [b] is at a lower energy level point, so • The electromotive force (e.m.f.)
provided by a source of energy such as
𝑽𝒂𝒃 indicates voltage drop between the a battery or a generator is measured in
two points or an energy transfer between volts. [𝐸 𝑜𝑟 𝑉] [Volts]
points [a] and [b] in the form of voltage and • Voltage Drop is the potential difference
charge measured across the terminals of a
resistor
 Electric Circuit
An electrical circuit is a closed loop
consisting of an electrical source, a load
and interconnectors
Source L
o
The source is usually a voltage or current type, conductors
a
intended to provide current through the circuit
d
A voltage source may be a battery, generator, etc

A load is representative of any appliance or

device that needs current to accomplish The property to resist the flow of
activities. Load is always represented by a current is resistance. This is distributed
resistor along the length of material
For ease of calculations the resistance
Interconnectors (conductors) are used to
of conducting material is always
convey the electrical power in the form of
assumed to be lumped (concentrated) at
current flow
a point along the length of the circuit
Interconnectors may inhibit (resist) or ease
(induce) the flow of current
 Electrical Resistance
o Resistance is the property of a material
𝐋 R – resistance
to restrict the flow of current in an electric R∝
𝐀 L – Length of the
circuit
conductor
o The Resistance R offered by a conductor A – Cross sectional
or insulator is dependant on the area
following:
𝐿
 Depends on the type of material 𝑅 = 𝜌 [Ohms, Ω]
𝐴
 Varies directly as its length 𝜌 – specific resistance of the material or
 Varies inversely as the cross sectional resistivity
area 𝐴𝑅 Ω𝑚2
𝜌= = [Ohm-m, Ω-m]
 Affected by the temperature and other 𝐿 𝑚
environmental factors

Study Types of Conductors and

Insulators
 Example #:
A copper material of volume 10𝑐𝑚3with a resistivity of 1.7 ∗ 10−7 Ω − 𝑚 is used to
manufacture a 100m long copper conductor. Compute:
a. the resistance of the conductor per metre
b. the total resistance of the conductor
 Temperature Effect on Resistance
The change in temperature of the conducting medium or its ambient environmental factors
will results in a change in resistance represented by the following expression:

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑏𝑦:
𝑹𝒕 = 𝑹𝟎 (𝟏 + 𝜶𝒕)

𝑹𝒐 − 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 or material temp at 00 𝐶

𝑹𝒕 − 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 at certain temp
𝒕 − 𝑛𝑒𝑤 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑹𝒕−𝑹𝟎 ∆𝑹
𝜶 − 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝜶= =
𝑹𝒐∗𝒕 𝑹𝒐∗𝒕

The value ∆𝑅 = 𝑹𝒕 − 𝑹𝟎 is an increase in resistance depends:

 directly on the initial resistance
 directly on the rise in temperature
 on the nature of the material of the conducting medium
As a results the effect of rise in ambient temperature:
• will increase the resistance of conductors
• will partially increase the resistance of certain alloys
will decrease the resistance of electrolytes, insulators (glass, paper, mica, rubber)
 CONDUCTANCE AND CONDUCTIVITY
Conductance is the reciprocal of resistance, i.e. since resistance hinders the flow of current
through a medium, conductor alloys the flow. Therefore:
• is the property of a material to allow sooth flow of current in a circuit is called conductance
• conductance is a measure of the medium to allow the flow of current, mathematically
represented as: 𝟏 𝑨 𝟏 𝑨 𝑨
𝑮 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑮 = = ∗ = 𝝈 ∗ − [𝑆𝑖𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠 𝑺]
𝑹 𝝆𝒍 𝝆 𝒍 𝒍
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑏𝑦:
𝝈 − 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝝈 − 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦
1 𝟏 𝑨 𝑨
Since 𝐺 = [Siemens] 𝑮= ∗ =𝝈∗
𝑅 𝝆 𝒍 𝒍
𝐺 ∗ 𝐿 𝑆𝑖𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠 ∗ 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠 𝒍
𝛿= = 𝝈 = 𝑮 − [𝑆𝑖𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑺/𝒎]
𝐴 𝑆𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 − 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠 𝑨
Examples of good conductors include: water, metals (aluminium, copper, silver, iron,
lead, etc) acids and salt solutions
NB:
READ MORE ON RESISTIVITY, TEMPERATURE COEFFICENTS, INFERED ZERO
RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE
 Conductance cont.…….
 Study and derive equation for equivalent
conductance in series connection
 Study and derive equation for equivalent
conductance in parallel connection
 Study and derive equation for equivalent
conductance in series-parallel arrangement
 Study and explain the effect of temperature on
the conductance of materials
 Study illustrations and colour codings in
resistances
 Example #:
Assume a conductor with a specific resistance of 10.3µΩ at 𝑂𝑜 𝐶. If the
wire has a diameter of 0.0274cm and resistance is 4 Ω at 𝑂𝑜 C and
𝑜
assuming the material has a temperature coefficient of 0.0038 per 𝐶,
compute:
a. The length of the conductor
b. The resistance of the wire at 100𝑜 C
EQUIVALENT RESISTANCE
 OHM’S LAW
Simple DC Circuit
According to a rule discovered in 1826 by George Ohm,
𝑪𝑶𝑵𝑵𝑬𝑪𝑻𝑰𝑶𝑵/𝑾𝑰𝑹𝑰𝑵𝑮 𝑫𝑰𝑨𝑮𝑹𝑨𝑴 when switch closed the current that flows is directly
Battery 𝑷𝑯𝒀𝑺𝑰𝑪𝑨𝑳 𝑬𝑳𝑬𝑴𝑬𝑵𝑻𝑺 proportional to the applied voltage.
𝐼𝛼𝑉
Source The ratio of the voltage to current is a constant (physical
Switch
Lamp conditions , i.e. temperature non-varying)
𝑉
Load = 𝐶𝑂𝑁𝑆𝑇𝐴𝑁𝑇
Wire/Conductor/Connector 𝐼
The constant is the resistance of the conducting material
or load, i.e;
𝑪𝑰𝑹𝑪𝑼𝑰𝑻 𝑫𝑰𝑨𝑮𝑹𝑨𝑴
(𝑺𝒀𝑴𝑩𝑶𝑳𝑰𝑪 𝑹𝑬𝑷𝑹𝑬𝑺𝑬𝑵𝑻𝑨𝑻𝑰𝑶𝑵)
𝑉
=𝑅
Current 𝑰 𝐼
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
Switch
𝑽 − 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 [𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 − 𝑉]
Source Lamp 𝑰 − 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡 [𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠 − 𝐴]
𝑽 Battery 𝑹 − 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 [𝑂ℎ𝑚𝑠 − Ω]
Conductor 𝑹
Resistance Across any element through the path of current:
𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹 − 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 − [𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 − 𝑉]
Conductors create a path for current flow
Power produced by the source𝑃𝑜 = 𝑉 ∗ 𝐼
Switch closes circuit to form a closed loop
Power consumed by load 𝑃𝑐 = 𝐼2 ∗ 𝑅
 Example #:
A 3kΩ resistor is connected to a 12V battery through a switch. Calculate the current
flowing in the circuit when the switch is closed.

𝑉 = 12𝑉
𝑅 = 3000Ω
𝑉 12
𝐼= = = 4𝑚𝐴
𝐼 =? 𝑅 3000

An electric heater draws a current of 20A when the voltage across it is 240V, Find the
resistance of the heater.

𝑉 = 240𝑉
𝐼 = 20𝐴 𝑉 240
𝑅= = = 12Ω
𝑅 =? 𝐼 20
 Energy & Power
Electrical Energy is the amount of work done to maintain a current of 1A
through a resistance of 1Ω for a time interval of 1 second.

𝑬 = 𝑾 = 𝐼 2 ∗ 𝑅 ∗ 𝑡 [𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠 − 𝑱]
= 𝑰∗𝑰∗𝑹∗𝑡
= 𝐕 ∗ 𝑰 ∗ 𝑡 = 𝑉𝐼𝑡
= 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 ∗ 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑉 2 ∗𝑡 𝑉
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠 – 𝐽 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑉 = 𝐼 ∗ 𝑅 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼 =
𝑅 𝑅
Prefixes are used to express higher values of electrical energy: kilojoules [kJ],
Mega joules [MJ], Gigajoules [GJ], etc.

 For large values of electrical energy the expressions: Wh, kWh, MWh, GWh, nWh, TWh

Where by - 1Wh = ….Joules

 Energy & Power
𝑰
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝐕 ∗ 𝑰 ∗ 𝑡
𝑽 𝑽
𝑰= 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝐕 ∗ 𝑸
𝑹

𝑉2
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = ∗𝑡
Electrical power is the rate of doing work or the
𝑅
rate of conversion of electrical energy

𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

𝑄𝑉 𝐼 2 𝑅𝑡
𝑃= 𝑃= = 𝐼 2 𝑅 = 𝑉𝐼 [𝐽/𝑠]
𝑡 𝑡

[𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠, 𝑘𝑊, 𝑀𝑊, 𝐺𝑊, 𝑇𝑊]

𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 − 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑

𝑃 = 𝐼2 ∗ 𝑅 − 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑

 Example #:
A 600W, 300V electric heater is operated 4hrs per day in a residential during the
three winter months of May, June and July. Find:
a. The current rating for the heater IN Amperes
b. The resistance of the heater in Ohms
c. The amount of energy in Joules and kWh converted by the heater during the
winter period

Solution
 Simple Series Connection
R1 When a voltage source is applied across the terminals
R2 of the (ab) and the circuit closed current will flow
through all resistors.
R1 R2
a b

𝐼 +
a V - b
When two or more
conductor/wires/connectors with varying
resistances are connected end to end – o Total current drawn from the source as per
𝑽 𝑽
it is a series connection Ohm’s law will be 𝑰 = =
𝑹𝑬 𝑹𝟏 +𝑹𝟐
The equivalent resistance between any o The voltage drop across the resistors: 𝑽𝟏
two points in a circuit is given as the = 𝑰𝑹𝟏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑽𝟐 = 𝑰𝑹𝟐
single representative resistance
measured between those two points. o The sum of the voltage drops equals the applied
𝑹𝑬 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 voltage: 𝑽 = 𝑽𝟏 +𝑽𝟐

𝑹𝑬 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝑹𝒏 o Total current drawn from the source as per

𝑉 𝑉
Ohm’s law will be 𝐼 = =
If 𝑹𝟏 = 2Ω and 𝑹𝟐=8Ω, then 𝑅𝐸 𝑅1 +𝑅2

𝑹𝑬 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 = 𝟐 + 𝟖 = 𝟏𝟎Ω
 Rules of a Series Circuit
When circuit energised and switch closed
Voltage Divider Rule
R1 𝐼 R2
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒: 𝑽 = 𝑽𝟏 +𝑽𝟐
𝑉 = 𝐼 ∗ 𝑅𝐸
𝐼 +
a V - b 𝑉1 = 𝐼𝑅1
 The same current flows through all elements of the 𝑉2 = 𝐼𝑅2
circuit: 𝐼
𝑉
 Resistances are additive – to get equivalent 𝑉1 = 𝐼𝑅1 = ∗ 𝑅1
resistance 𝑹𝑬 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐
𝑅𝐸
 Powers are additive – total power drawn equals sum 𝑹𝟏
of powers dissipated on elements 𝑃 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑽 ∗ − 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑅1
𝑹𝑬
 Applied voltage equals sum of the individual voltage
drops 𝑽 = 𝑽𝟏 +𝑽𝟐 𝑹𝟐
 Varying resistors have individual varying voltage
𝑽𝟐 = 𝑽 ∗ − 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑅2
𝑹𝑬
drops
 Voltage drops are additive 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑖 𝑤ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒
 A break (open circuit) at any element renders whole 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑅𝑢𝑙𝑒 [𝑽𝑫𝑹]
circuit out of power
 Example #:
If a 0.1kW, 200V load connected in series with an unknown resistance
is energised from a 240V. Determine:
a. the rated current of the motor
b. The value of the resistor in series
c. The resistance of the load
d. Maximum power drawn from the source
 Simple Parallel Circuit
When two or resistors are connected such that If a voltage source 𝑽 is connected across
their common ends are connected to same terminals 𝑥𝑦, a current 𝑰 will be drawn
terminals the connection is called parallel from source
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
𝒙 𝑰 𝐼= 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 =
𝑅𝐸 𝑅1 𝑅2

𝑉 = 𝑉1 = 𝑉2
𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2
RE 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
𝑽 𝑰𝟐 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
𝑉 𝑉1 𝑉1 = +
= + 𝑅𝐸 𝑅1 𝑅2
𝐈𝟏 𝑅𝐸 𝑅1 𝑅2
1 1 1
𝒚 = + 𝐺𝐸 = 𝐺1 + 𝐺2
𝑅𝐸 𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑹𝟏𝑹𝟐
𝑹𝑬 = 𝑹𝟏𝟐 = 𝑷𝟏 = 𝑰𝟏 𝟐 𝑹𝟏
o Conductance are additive 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐
o Same voltage across all resistors 𝑷𝟐 = 𝑰𝟐 𝟐 𝑹𝟐
o Different current through individual resistors
o Branch currents are additive 𝑷 = 𝑽𝑰 = 𝑷𝟏 + 𝑷𝟐 = 𝑰𝟏 𝟐 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 𝟐 𝑹𝟐
o Powers are additive
 Example #:
A residential unit supplied with electrical power at 240V has the following loads:
1. Six 100W exterior lights (operates only 10 hrs in a day)
2. Twenty 60W interior lights (operates only 8 hrs in a day)
3. Four 2kW air conditioners (operates only 6 hrs in a day)
4. A refrigerator drawing 10A (operates only 24 hrs in a day)
5. A 1.2kW TV (operates only 6 hrs in a day)
6. A 3kW geyser which operates only 3hours in a day

Determine:
a.The total power drawn from the service lines
b.The daily energy consumed [Joules]
c.The monthly cost of energy consumed assuming 80Thebe per kWh
d.The percentage monthly cost of lighting load
e.The value of current drawn by the geyser

Solution:
 Compute total power per device type – rating multiplied by quantity
 Cumulate the sums of individual loads – total power drawn
 Multiply the different loads by their duration of operation
 Add the individual values of energy – daily energy
 Ensure the daily energy is in kWh and multiply by the tariff factor –
monthly energy costs
 Series Parallel Circuit
R1 R2 𝑹𝑬 = 𝑹𝟏𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑𝟒 + 𝑹𝟓𝟔 + 𝑹𝟕
𝒂
R4 Where by:
R3
𝑹𝟏𝟐 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐
𝑹𝟑𝒙𝑹𝟒
𝑹𝟑𝟒 =
R5 R6 𝑹𝟑 + 𝑹𝟒
𝑹𝟓𝒙𝑹𝟔
𝒃 R7 𝑹𝟓𝟔 =
𝑹𝟓 + 𝑹𝟔

𝑉1 = 𝐼 ∗ 𝑅1 𝑉2 = 𝐼 ∗ 𝑅2

𝑰 = 𝑰𝟏 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑉12 = 𝐼 ∗ 𝑅12
𝑰𝟑
𝑽𝟑 = 𝐼3 ∗ 𝑅3 𝑽𝟒 = 𝐼4 ∗ 𝑅4
𝑰𝟒
𝑽𝟑𝟒 = 𝐼3 ∗ 𝑅3 = 𝐼4 ∗ 𝑅4
𝑰 𝑽𝟓 = 𝐼5 ∗ 𝑅5 𝑽𝟔 = 𝐼6 ∗ 𝑅6
𝑽𝟓𝟔 = 𝐼5 ∗ 𝑅5 = 𝐼6 ∗ 𝑅6
𝑰𝟓
𝑽𝟕 = 𝐼 ∗ 𝑅7
𝑰𝟔
𝑽 = 𝑽𝟏𝟐 + 𝑽𝟑𝟒 + 𝑽𝟓𝟔 + 𝑽𝟕
𝑰𝟕 = 𝑰
 Example #:
On circuit below assume 𝑅1 = 𝑅5 = 4Ω, 𝑅2 = 6Ω, 𝑅3 = 𝑅6 = 2Ω, 𝐺456 = 0.8𝑆 and 𝑉1
= 12𝑉. Determine:
a. 𝑅𝐸
b. V
c. 𝑅4
d. 𝐼5
e. 𝑉3
 Summary of Formulae
n/n Series Circuit Parallel Circuit

1 𝑹𝑬 = 𝑹 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑 +. . . . +𝑹𝒏 𝑮𝑬 = 𝑮 = 𝑮𝟏 = 𝑮𝟐 = 𝑮𝟑 … . = 𝑮𝒏

2 𝑽 𝑰 =𝑽∗𝑮
𝑰=
𝑹
3 𝑰 = 𝑰𝟏 = 𝑰𝟐 = 𝑰𝟑 … . = 𝑰𝒏 𝑰 = 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 + 𝑰𝟑 +. . . . +𝑰𝒏

4 𝑽 = 𝑽𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐 + 𝑽𝟑 +. . . . +𝑽𝒏 𝑽 = 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑽𝟐 = 𝑽𝟑 … . = 𝑽𝒏
𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝟑 𝑽𝒏 𝑰𝟏 𝑰𝟐 𝑰𝟑 𝑰𝒏
𝑰= = = …= 𝑽= = = …=
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 𝑹𝒏 𝑮𝟏 𝑮𝟐 𝑮𝟑 𝑮𝒏
5 𝑽𝟏 =
𝑽∗𝑹𝟏
, 𝑽𝟐 =
𝑽∗𝑹𝟐
, 𝑽𝒏 =
𝑽∗𝑹𝒏
𝑰𝟏 =
𝑰∗𝑮𝟏
, 𝑰𝟐 =
𝑰∗𝑮𝟐
, 𝑰𝒏 =
𝑰∗𝑮𝒏
𝑹𝑬 𝑹𝑬 𝑹𝑬 𝑹𝑬 𝑹𝑬 𝑹𝑬

6 𝑷 = 𝑷𝟏 + 𝑷𝟐 + ⋯ . 𝑷𝒏 𝑷 = 𝑷𝟏 + 𝑷𝟐 + ⋯ . 𝑷𝒏
 Symbols, Abbreviation, Units & Prefixes
To ensure uniformity and consistency in Science and Technology the International System of Units
(SI Units) has been adopted and approved generally by countries to ensure a common metric
system
The SI Units have been jointly prepared by the National Bureau of Standards (USA) and the National
Physical Laboratory (UK) and approved by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures.

1. A full point must be used in a multi-word symbol, such as: e.m.f., p.d., m.m.f., etc
2. A full point must be omitted after a unit symbol, e.g: 6mA, 10µF, etc
3. A unit symbol is the same both for singular and plural designation, e.g: 5A, 10V, 8kg, 1A,
1kg, etc
4. A prefix can only be applied to a numerator not a denominator, e.g: km/s. kN/m, not N/sq.mm
5. Only one multiplying prefix can be applied to a unit, e.g: 2 MW (Mega Watts) not 2 kkW (kilo-
kilo Watts)
6. A solidus (/) denotes division: J/kg, m/s
7. Abbreviations forms such as a.c. and d.c. must be only used a s adjectives, e.g: d.c.
generator, a.c. circuit
8. In a compound units-symbol, the product of two units is preferable when indicated by a dot,
e.g: N·m
9. The dot used in (9) above my be omitted if there is no risk of confusing with other unit
symbols: Nm, mA, mN
 Basic SI Units
Quantity Unit Symbol
Length metre m
Mass kilogram kg
Time Seconds s
Electric Current Ampere A
Luminous Intensity candela cd
Temperature Kelvin K
0
Degrees Celcius C
Amount of Substance mole mol

Multiples and Sub-multiples for Resistance

Prefix Meaning of Prefix Abbreviation of Prefix Value of Prefix
Centi- One Hundredth cΩ 10−2
Milli- One thousandth mΩ 10−3
Micro- One Millionth µΩ 10−6
Kilo- One Thousand kΩ 103
Mega- One Million MΩ 106
n/n Term Definition/Name Quantity Symbol Units Unit Symbol

1 Electric Charge Q Coulombs C

2 Electric Current 𝐼 Amperes A

3 Resistance R Ohms Ω

4 Potential Difference V Volts V

5 Voltage V Volts V

6 Resistivity 𝜌 Ohm-m Ω-m

7 Direct Current I Amperes A

8 Electrical Power P Watts 𝑊

9 Conductance G Siemens S

10 Specific Conductance δ Siemens per metre 𝑆ൗ

𝑚

11 Electrical Energy 𝐸 𝑜𝑟 𝑊 Joules or kWh 𝐽 𝑜𝑟 𝑘𝑊ℎ

12 Specific Resistance 𝜌 Ohm-m Ω-m

13 Electro-motive Force E Volts V

14 Current Density 𝐽 Ampere per sq. metre 𝐴ൗ

𝑚2

15 Conductivity δ Siemens per metre 𝑆ൗ

𝑚

16 Angular Velocity 𝜔 radian per second 𝑟Τ

𝑠

17 Voltage Drop V Volts V