Digitalbandpassmodulationtechniques PSKFSK

See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.
net/publication/343452908
DIGITAL BANDPASS MODULATION TECHNIQUES: Phase & Frequency Shift

Keying
Chapter · August 2020
CITATIONS READS
0 4,425
1 author:
Gazi Sultan
California State University, Channel Islands
5 PUBLICATIONS 2 CITATIONS
SEE PROFILE
Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:
The Projective Funnel View project
All content following this page was uploaded by Gazi Sultan on 05 August 2020.
The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

DIGITAL BANDPASS MODULATION TECHNIQUES: Phase & Frequency Shift Keying
From: Chapter 2 of Digital Frequency Synthesis Technique to Implement A Novel Frequency—
Hopping Spread—Spectrum Modulator
Author: Gazi Sultan

From: Chapter 2 of Digital Frequency Synthesis Technique to Implement A Novel Frequency—Hopping Spread—Spectrum Modulator
Author: Gazi Sultan
Synopsis: The primary focus of this chapter is the theoretical background of digital-bandpass modulation. Conventional
methods of modulating a high-frequency carrier-wave based on a digital data stream at the transmission side are discussed
extensively in this chapter. Customary methods of generating BPSK, DBPSK, QPSK, DQPSK, BFSK modulated waves,
along with their analytical forms and individual performance, are considered throughout the chapter. Several MATLAB
codes are presented in order to illustrate and examine the desired time-domain wave-shapes of the modulated waves. Clear
distinction is made between coherent and noncoherent modulation schemes. This chapter gives an insight on the final wave-
shape of the modulated waves so that they can be compared with the simulation results of the novel modulators once
implemented in the digital domain using the DDFS architecture. Much of the literature presented in the chapter are based on
Hamidian (2012) and Hamidian (2016).
Chapter Index:
2.DIGITAL BANDPASS MODULATION ............................................................................................................................... 1
Digital Modulation........................................................................................................................................................ 1
Hierarchy and Classification of Digital Modulation Techniques ........................................................................ 2
Choice of Digital Modulation Scheme ................................................................................................................ 3
Bandwidth and power efficiencies ................................................................................................................ 3
Other factors ................................................................................................................................................. 4
Digital Bandpass Modulation Technique Basics ........................................................................................................... 4
Mathematical Representation of Digitally Modulated Signals ...................................................................................... 5
Phase Shift Keying (PSK) Modulation ......................................................................................................................... 6
Coherent Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK) modulation .................................................................................. 7
Noncoherent Differential Binary Phase Shift Keying (DBPSK)
Modulation ......................................................................................................................................................... 10
Differentially encoded binary PSK modulation ............................................................................................ 10
Generation of DBPSK signals....................................................................................................................... 11
Coherent Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK) Modulation .......................................................................... 12
Coherent Offset QPSK (OQPSK) Modulation .................................................................................................... 17
𝜋⁄4 Shifted Differential QPSK Modulation ....................................................................................................... 18
Performance of PSK Modulation Schemes ......................................................................................................... 21
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) Modulation .................................................................................................................. 23
Orthogonal Binary Frequency Shift Keying (BFSK) Modulation ....................................................................... 25
Continuous—Phase FSK (CPFSK) Waves ......................................................................................................... 28
Performance of FSK Modulation Schemes ......................................................................................................... 30
Comparison of FSK and PSK Systems ......................................................................................................................... 30
Discussion..................................................................................................................................................................... 31
Appendix A: MATLab Functions/Scripts for Digital Modulation Schemes.................................................................. 32
This chapter mainly focuses on the theory behind digital bandpass modulation. Several theoretical and
practical methods of digital bandpass modulation and demodulation techniques are presented in the chapter.
Primarily, the focus of the chapter is on the conventional methods of modulating digital data stream at the
transmission side. Since the main aim of this work is to design novel digital modulators, much emphasis is given on
the modulation techniques than on the demodulation techniques. Nonetheless, receiver burden, complexity, and
performance, as related to the chosen modulation scheme, must also be taken into consideration when designing
digital modulators. Most of the texts presented in this chapter are found in open literature and have been taken
from various sources; namely Hamidian (2012) and Hamidian (2016). Other sources are mentioned in the reference
section of the thesis for the readers’ convenience.
Digital Modulation
Digital data are in the form of stream of binary data, forming a sequence of 0s and 1s. These streams of bits
might be the result of analog-to-digital conversion from an analog source, such as voice. However, the goal of a
communication system is to transmit these data over a given communication channel in a reliable manner.
Moreover, the binary data stream must be transmitted in a way that matches the characteristics of the channel.
Signals need to be generated to associate them with the binary data stream from the transmitting-end. The
receiving-end of the communication system must be able to retrieve the binary stream from such signals. On the
1
Author: Gazi Sultan
transmitting side, the process of mapping the digital data sequence to such signals for transmission through a
communication channel is called digital modulation or digital signaling. Such a process converts the digital symbols
into waveforms that are compatible with the characteristics of the channel.
In baseband pulse transmission, an information-bearing data stream is represented in the form of a

discrete pulse-amplitude modulated (PAM) signal and is usually transmitted directly over a low-pass channel.
Similarly, in baseband modulation, such data stream is represented using shaped pulses. However, for bandpass
modulation, the pulses modulate a sinusoid called a carrier-wave or simply, a carrier. In radio transmission and
wireless communication, the modulated sinusoidal carrier-wave is converted to an electromagnetic (EM) wave so
that it can propagate to the desired destination (receiver). The transmission of such an EM wave through space is
achieved with the use of antennas. Apart from the application, the antenna size also depends on the wavelength, 𝜆,
of the carrier-wave and for cellular telephones, the size is typically given as λ ⁄ 4. The wavelength, for free space
propagation, is given as λ = c/f, where c is the speed of light in vacuum and 𝑓 is the frequency of the EM sinusoidal
carrier-wave. Therefore, if a low frequency baseband signal is modulated to a high-frequency carrier, having, say,
𝑓 = 1800 MHz, the equivalent antenna diameter required to transmit such signal would be about 4 cm. On the
other hand, transmission at lower frequencies alone will result in impractical antenna sizes. This is one reason why,
for radio and wireless transmission, bandpass modulation is an essential step.
Even though the EM radio-frequency wave is in the analog form, the modulation is performed using digital
data that modulate the analog carrier-wave. Modern mobile communication systems use digital-modulation
techniques due to their cost effectiveness when compared to full-analog modulation and transmission systems.
Advantages of digital modulation include better noise immunity, robustness to channel impairments, and easier
multiplexing of signals. Furthermore, digital modulation schemes, such as spread-spectrum modulation, can be used
to minimize the effects of interference.
Hierarchy and Classification of Digital Modulation Techniques

Based on whether the receiving end is equipped with a phase-recovery circuitry or not, digital modulation
can be classified into coherent and noncoherent techniques. At the receiving end of a system employing a coherent
modulation technique, it is essential for the oscillator supplying the locally generated carrier-wave (local-oscillator,
LO) to be synchronized (in frequency and phase) to the oscillator supplying the original carrier-wave (LO of the
transmitter) to modulate the incoming data stream at the transmitter. If the data stream at the transmitter is
modulated in a way that requires the receiver to exploit to the knowledge of the carrier’s phase to demodulate the
signals, the process of demodulating and eventually detecting the signal is called coherent detection. On the other
hand, if the data stream is modulated in a way that allows to employ demodulators to operate without the
knowledge of the absolute value of the incoming signal’s phase, then the process of demodulation followed by the
detection is called noncoherent detection. Some noncoherent detectors use phase information of the prior
transmitted signal as a phase reference for detecting the current data and thus, the transmitter should modulate
the data in a way that facilitates such detection.
Digital modulation techniques can also be classified as linear and nonlinear modulation techniques. In linear
digital modulation technique, the principle of superposition is applied when mapping the digital sequence to
successive waveforms. In nonlinear techniques, such superposition principles are not applied. The amplitude of the
transmitted signal varies linearly with the modulating digital signal in a linear modulation system.
Another classification of digital modulation technique is based on how the envelope of the carrier behaves
with respect to the data that modulates the carrier. Constant-envelope modulation scheme is a scheme where no
signal is modulated on the amplitude of the carrier. Constant envelope modulation can be linear or nonlinear.
However, linear modulation schemes, in general, do not have constant envelopes.
Finally, another way to classify digital modulation scheme is whether the transmitter transmits the signal
sequences with or without memory. When a modulator maps a digital information sequence into an analog
2
Author: Gazi Sultan
counterpart under the constraint that an analog signal waveform, at any time interval, depends on one or more
previously transmitted waveforms, the resultant modulation is known as the memory-based modulation technique.
Alternatively, when mapping is performed without such restrictions, the resultant modulation is known as the
memoryless modulation technique.
Choice of Digital Modulation Scheme

There are several factors that can have influence the choice of a digital modulation scheme. An important
goal of a passband data transmission system is to implement an optimum receiver that minimizes the average
probability of bit/symbol error in the presence of Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN). For mobile radio, where
multipath-fading distorts the amplitude of the modulated carrier, modulation goals are also focused to counter the
effects of multipath fading and time-delay spread. Regardless of which modulation scheme is chosen, a digital
modulation scheme should be able to provide low bit-error-rates (BER) at low received signal-to-noise ratios (SNR),
perform well in multipath and fading conditions, occupy minimum bandwidth, and should be cost-effective when it
comes to implementation.
Bandwidth and power efficiencies. When it comes to the context of wireless communications, two
attributes may be identified as major resources categories of the wireless electromagnetic medium: frequency
spectrum and power. The performance of any modulation scheme is usually quantified in terms of its power-
efficiency and bandwidth-efficiency. The capability of a modulation technique to maintain the fidelity of the digital
message at low-power levels is defined as its power-efficiency. The power-efficiency of a modulation scheme, 𝜂p , is
often expressed as the ratio of the transmitted signal energy per bit to noise power spectral density (𝐸b ⁄𝑁0 )
required at the receiver input for a particular probability of error. Power-efficiency of a modulation scheme is also
defined as the number of bits per thermal noise unit (TNEU), where TNEU refers to the amount of signal-energy
identical to the variance of the complex-valued AWGN samples recorded at the receiver (Akhtman & Hanzo, 2009).
Bandwidth-efficiency describes the ability of the modulation scheme to incorporate data within a limited
bandwidth. One of the primary objectives of a spectrally-efficient modulation scheme is to maximize the bandwidth-
efficiency while the second objective is to achieve the bandwidth-efficiency at a minimal expenditure of average
SNR in a channel disturbed by AWGN. For a data rate denoted by 𝑅b bits per seconds and the bandwidth occupied
by the modulated RF carrier-wave denoted by B, the bandwidth-efficiency is given as:
𝑅b
𝜂B = bits/s/Hz 2.1
𝐵
There is a fundamental upper bound on the maximum achievable bandwidth efficiency as given by Shannon’s
channel coding theorem which states that for an arbitrarily small probability of error, the maximum possible
bandwidth-efficiency is limited by the noise in the channel and is given as (Shannon, 1948):
𝐶
𝜂Bmax = = log 2 (1 + SNR) 2.2
𝐵
where 𝐶 is the channel capacity (in bits per second) and SNR is the signal-to-noise ratio recorded at the receiver.
The Equation can be rewritten as:
𝐶 < 𝐵 log 2 (1 + SNR) 2.3
and describes the maximum capacity of a Gaussian channel and can be readily applied to fading channels.
In the design of a digital communication system, there is usually a tradeoff between bandwidth-efficiency
and power-efficiency. For example, adding error correcting coding to a data stream increases the bandwidth-
occupancy but consequently reduces the required received power for a specific BER and thus, trades bandwidth-
efficiency for power-efficiency. A modulation scheme of higher level (M-ary) decreases bandwidth-occupancy but
increases the required received power to properly detect the transmitted data stream and thus, trades power-
3
Author: Gazi Sultan
efficiency for bandwidth-efficiency. This is evident in Figure 2.1 which shows power and bandwidth efficiencies as
functions of the SNR recorded at the receiver for different channel types.
.
Figure 2.1. Power and bandwidth efficiencies as functions of the SNR recorded at the receiver. Reprinted from “Power Versus Bandwidth-
Efficiency in Wireless Communications: The Economic Perspective” by J. Akhtman & L. Hanzo, 2009.
Note: The power efficiency is quantified in terms of the number of bits per thermal noise energy unit (TNEU), which corresponds to the number
of bits communicated using a signal having the same power spectral density (PSD) as that of the AWGN recorded at the receiver.
𝑁f = frequency reuse cluster size.
Many researchers consider bandwidth efficiency as the chief efficiency criterion (Goldsmith & Chua, 1997)
and such an inclination can be found in standards such as High-Speed Packet Access (HSPA), IEEE 802.11n, 802.16,
and 3GPP LTE systems (Hanzo et al., 2008). On the other hand, a mass of spread-spectrum methods sacrifice the
bandwidth-efficiency for achieving better power-efficiency for increased robustness against interference (Akhtman
& Hanzo, 2009).
Other factors. Apart from power and bandwidth efficiencies, other factors also affect the choice of a digital
modulation scheme. For example, the performance of a modulation scheme in an interference environment is
important in a cellular-systems where interference tends to be a major issue. Receiver design complexity is also a
factor in deciding which scheme to use. For example, noncoherent systems provide reduced complexity at the
expense of increased probability of bit error. Constant-envelope modulation schemes ensure that distortion in the
amplitude of the modulated carrier-wave, due to multipath-fading, does not affect the demodulation and detection
of signals. Time-varying channel, which can cause impairments in detecting timing-jitter of a signal, is also a factor to
consider when choosing a modulation scheme.
Digital Bandpass Modulation Technique Basics
As mentioned earlier, digital bandpass modulation involves the conversion of digital information into
sinusoidal waveform. A sinusoidal carrier is given as 𝑠(𝑡) = 𝐴(𝑡) cos 𝜃(𝑡). 𝐴(𝑡) is the time varying amplitude and
𝜃(𝑡) is the time varying angle. Such a sinusoidal carrier has three features that can be used to distinguish it from
4
Author: Gazi Sultan
other sinusoids and they are: amplitude, frequency, and phase. The modulation process involves switching or keying
one of these features of a high-frequency sinusoidal carrier, in some fashion, in accordance with the incoming data.
Three basic digital modulation schemes are known as: amplitude-shift-keying (ASK), frequency-shift-keying (FSK), and
phase-shift-keying (PSK). Figure 2.2 shows the waveform for the three basic forms of signaling binary information. 𝑇b
is the bit-interval or bit-time, and is defined as the interval in which one bit of information is transmitted.
Figure 2.2. Waveform for three basic forms of signaling binary information: binary ASK, binary FSK with continuous-phase, and binary PSK.
Mathematical Representation of Digitally Modulated Signals
In an M-ary modulation scheme, any one of the M possible signals, 𝑠1 (𝑡), 𝑠2 (𝑡), . . . , 𝑠M (𝑡), is transmitted
during each signaling-interval denoted by a duration of 𝑇s . The message source emits one bit every 𝑇b seconds and
these bits comprise of the stream of binary data or message-signal, 𝑑(𝑡) or 𝑑𝑖 . The modulator basically groups the
incoming data stream 𝑑(𝑡) into 𝑘 bits, called symbols, every 𝑇s seconds. It then maps the 𝑀 = 2k possible messages
or symbols to 𝑀 possible sinusoidal signals as shown in Figure 2.3.
Figure 2.3. Block diagram of a memoryless digital modulator.
In a memoryless modulation scheme, the binary data stream is parsed into subsequences or symbols, each
of length 𝑘. Each of these symbols are then mapped into one of the predefined 𝑠m (𝑡) (1 ≤ 𝑚 ≤ 2k ) signals
regardless of the signal transmitted previously. In a modulation scheme with memory, the mapping occurs from the
set of the current 𝑘 bits and the past (𝐿 − 1) 𝑘 bits to the set of possible 𝑀 = 2k signals. Therefore, the transmitted
signal depends on the current 𝑘 bits and the previous 𝐿 − 1 blocks of 𝑘 bits. The modulator can be defined as a
finite state machine having 2(L−1)k states. Modulation technique with memory can be effectively represented by
Markov chains.
Regardless of modulation with memory or without memory, these signals are transmitted at every 𝑇s
seconds. Therefore, each second:
1
𝑅s = 2.4
𝑇s
symbols are transmitted. 𝑅s is called the signaling or symbol-rate. As each symbol and its corresponding modulated
signal convey 𝑘 bits of information, the bit interval 𝑇b is given as:
5
Author: Gazi Sultan
𝑇s 𝑇s
𝑇b = = 2.5
𝑘 log 2 𝑀
and the bit-rate is given as:
𝑅b = 𝑅s log 2 𝑀 = 𝑅s log 2 2𝑘 = 𝑘𝑅s 2.6
As mentioned earlier, with the 𝑘 bit vector, the modulator constructs a distinct signal 𝑠m (𝑡) of the duration 𝑇s ,
which is the same as the duration of the binary symbol itself. The signal 𝑠m (𝑡) is an energy signal and its energy is
given as:
𝑇s
2 2.7
𝐸m = ∫ 𝑠m (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
0
where 𝑚 = 1, 2, . . . , 𝑀. 𝑠m (𝑡) is real-valued and one such signal is transmitted every 𝑇s seconds. The signal chosen
for transmission depends on the incoming message or symbol and for “with-memory” modulation schemes, it also
depends on the signal transmitted in the preceding time slot. As discussed earlier, with a sinusoidal carrier-wave,
the features which could be altered by the modulator to distinguish one particular signal from another is a step
change in the amplitude, frequency, or phase of the wave. Two commonly used modulation techniques, PSK and
FSK, are discussed in detail below.
Phase Shift Keying (PSK) Modulation
PSK modulation is used in both, military and commercial communication systems. The general analytic
expression for the mth signal waveform in PSK modulation is given as:
2𝐸m
𝑠m (𝑡) = √ cos[2𝜋𝑓c 𝑡 + 𝜙m (𝑡)] , 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇s 2.8
𝑇s
𝑚 = 1, . . . , 𝑀, 𝑓c is the frequency of the RF carrier-wave, and 𝜙m (𝑡) has M discrete values and is usually given as:
2𝜋𝑚
𝜙m (𝑡) = , 𝑚 = 1, . . . , 𝑀 2.9
𝑀
For the simplest form of coherent PSK, also known as binary PSK (BPSK), 𝑀 = 2.
Before proceeding further, it must be mentioned that even though the carrier-wave is given in terms of a cosine-
wave, absolute phase references are made in terms of a sinewave. A conversion chart for the corresponding phase
values between each form of wave is given in Figure 2.4 for the convenience of the readers. Phase calculations, in
succeeding chapters, are usually made in terms of the sinewave unless explicitly mentioned.
6
Author: Gazi Sultan
.
Figure 2.4. Phase conversion between a sine and a cosine wave.
Coherent Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK) Modulation

In coherent memoryless binary phase shift keying (BPSK) scheme, the modulating data signal switches the
phase of the constant amplitude carrier signal between two absolute phase values which are 0 and 180 degrees
apart from the phase of the original unmodulated carrier-wave. Therefore, apart from being coherent and
memoryless, BPSK modulation is an example of linear and constant-envelope modulation. Such as system, where
𝑘 = 1 and 𝑇s = 𝑇b , uses only 𝑀 = 2k = 2 pair of antipodal signals given as 𝑠1 (𝑡) and 𝑠2 (𝑡) where:
2𝐸b
𝑠1 (𝑡) = √ cos[2𝜋𝑓c 𝑡], 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇b for binary 1 2.10
𝑇b
2𝐸b 2𝐸b
𝑠2 (𝑡) = √ cos[2𝜋𝑓c 𝑡 + 𝜋] = −√ cos[2𝜋𝑓c 𝑡] , 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇b for binary 0 2.11
𝑇b 𝑇b
and 𝐸b is the transmitted signal energy per bit or bit-energy and is given as:
1 2
𝐸b = 𝐴 𝑇 2.12
2 c b
where 𝐴c is the maximum amplitude of the sinusoidal carrier-wave. Since 𝑘 = 1, the transmitted signal energy per
bit is same as transmitted signal energy per symbol (symbol energy); i.e., 𝐸b = 𝐸m for BPSK. A point to note is that,
to ensure each transmitted bit contains an integral number of cycles of the carrier-wave during the modulation
process, the carrier frequency 𝑓c for such a modulation scheme is chosen to be equal to 𝜏⁄𝑇b where 𝜏 is some fixed
positive integer. The state diagram of a such coherent BPSK modulated waveform is shown in Figure 2.5.
7
Author: Gazi Sultan
.
Figure 2.5. Constellation diagram of BPSK signal.
Note: Angles are given with respect to phase difference between the signal and the unmodulated carrier-wave. Arrows indicate the path along
which the BPSK modulator can change the BPSK signal’s state.
Such a constellation diagram provides a graphical representation of the complex-envelope of each possible
symbol state where the x-axis represents the in-phase component and y-axis represents the quadrature-component
of the complex envelope. The generation of such BPSK wave or the BPSK modulation process is accomplished
through the use of analog-circuitry such as a polar non-return-to-zero (NRZ) level encoder and a product-modulator.
A typical BSPK modulator is shown in Figure 2.6.
.
Figure 2.6. Block diagram of a BPSK modulator.
Appendix A.1 shows the MATLAB code for a BPSK modulator where the message source provides the binary
bit stream [1 0 1 1 0]. Each bit has a duration of 𝑇b = 𝑇s = 1 s. Three full cycles of the carrier-wave are transmitted
at each bit-time, resulting in 𝑓c = 𝜏⁄𝑇b = 3⁄1 = 3 Hz. The simulation output of each stage of the modulator is
shown in Figure 2.7
8
Author: Gazi Sultan
.
Figure 2.7. MATLAB simulation output of a coherent BPSK modulator.
Note: 𝑇b = 𝑇s = 1 s, 𝜏 = 3, and 𝑓c = 3 Hz. The phase of the BPSK wave changes only when the value or state of the incoming bit changes. Thus,
the signal is coherent.
Every time the incoming message bit is 1, the BPSK wave switches to an absolute phase of 90 degree (with
respect to a sine-wave) or shifts to a phase difference of 0 degree (i.e., in-phase) with respect to the phase of the
unmodulated cosine-carrier. On the other hand, for message bit 0, the BPSK wave switches to an absolute phase of
270 degree or shifts to a phase difference of 180 degree with respect to the phase of the cosine carrier-wave. When
the same bit (symbol) is passed consecutively (For example, at time=3 s in Figure 2.7), the resulting phase shift
within the BPSK wave, during such data-boundary or data-transition point, is 0 degree. The phase changes only
when state or value of the incoming message bit changes; this is a prime attribute of a coherent signal. Every time
the message bit state changes from 0 to 1 or from 1 to 0, there is a phase shift of 180 degree with respect to the
initial phase as seen at time = 1 s, 2 s, and 4 s of the BPSK wave in Figure 2.7. Therefore, for a demodulator to
properly detect a particular transmitted and received bit, comparing the phase-change in the BPSK wave itself is not
sufficient because the information is not contained in the phase-shift within the BPSK wave. The information is
contained in the phase-shift of the coherent BPSK wave relative to the phase of the unmodulated carrier-wave at
the time of detection. As a result, the receiver or demodulator must have a copy of the original unmodulated
carrier-wave as a reference signal to properly demodulate the BPSK wave. The generated BPSK wave and its
detection is thus termed as coherent. One way to achieve the generation of such BPSK wave coherently is to set
𝑓c = 𝜏⁄𝑇b , where 𝜏 ∈ ℕ+ . This ensures that integral number of cycles are transmitted during each symbol or bit
time.
The BPSK transmitter discussed above has a local-oscillator that generates the sinusoidal wave used as the
carrier-wave. The receiver of such a coherent system has a local-oscillator that generates a sinusoidal wave that can
be used to demodulate the incoming signal. In an ideal case, these two oscillators have the same phase and
frequency. Synchronizing the phase between the two local oscillators is not easy and an offset in phase between the
two will introduce error when detecting the transmitted message bit. Coherent receivers can be designed to extract
the phase and frequency of the incoming modulated carrier. A Costas-loop or squaring-loop can also be used to
synthesize the carrier-wave’s phase and frequency from the received BPSK signal. However, such coherent receivers
are complicated and expensive to implement. On the other hand, a low-level pilot-carrier may be transmitted along
with the BPSK signal. This pilot-carrier can be generated from the unmodulated carrier-wave and its phase and
frequency can be recovered at the receiver using a phase-lock-loop.
9
Author: Gazi Sultan
Regardless of the type of receiver, the signal in a coherent PSK modulated wave should switch to unique
absolute phase values at the data-transition points. Furthermore, such a wave can only be demodulated with the aid
of a reference signal which must be properly synchronized in frequency and phase with the modulated PSK wave
itself. The next section discusses a modulation scheme that is used in a system that benefits from avoiding the error
associated with such phase or frequency offset, but does not require the any added complexity of carrier recovery
or transmitting a pilot-carrier signal.
Noncoherent Differential Binary Phase Shift Keying (DBPSK) Modulation

Differential binary phase shift keying (DBPSK) is a noncoherent form of PSK that does not require a
coherent reference signal (or a copy of the unmodulated carrier-wave) at the receiver. Differential encoding refers
to the process of encoding the binary data bits (i.e., modulating process) differentially. Differentially encoded or
modulated BPSK signal can be demodulated and detected using a technique called differentially-coherent detection.
Such a detection scheme is usually classified as noncoherent as it does not require a reference signal (unmodulated
carrier-wave) to be transmitted to (as a low-power pilot-signal) or generated at the receiver. There are cases
however, where differentially encoded BPSK signals are coherently detected. Nevertheless, the usual meaning of
DPSK means the differentially-coherent detection of differentially encoded PSK; which is viewed as a noncoherent or
pseudo-coherent version of PSK. Such a DBPSK scheme has the advantage of reduced receiver complexity when
compared to coherent BPSK system. On the other hand, its energy efficiency is lower by 3 dB when compared to
coherent BPSK system. However, when compared to noncoherent FSK for the same 𝜂p , DBPSK provides a gain of 3
dB (Haykin, 2001). Differential encoding of PSK waveform (transmission) is an example of modulation with memory.
In coherent BPSK, the message bit is expressed by the absolute phase value of each symbol. On the other hand, in a
DBPSK system (or any differential scheme), information is conveyed by establishing a certain phase of one
symbol relative to the phase for the previous symbol.
Differentially encoded binary PSK modulation. Due to the fact that the transmitted message bits in a DBPSK
scheme are detected by differentially examining the received waveform, the carrier-wave must be encoded in a
differential fashion prior to transmission. In differential encoding of BPSK, the transmission of a binary 1 or 0 is
manifested by the signals similarity or difference in phase when compared with the preceding signal. Thus, unlike
coherent PSK wave, where the information is contained in the absolute-phase at the data-transition points, the
information in a DPSK signal is contained in the relative phase shift of the modulated signal at the data-transition
points. To send the symbol or binary bit 1, the phase of the current signal waveform is advanced by 180 degree
while to send the symbol or binary bit 0, the phase of the current signal waveform is left unchanged. If the
transmission of a DBPSK signal equals √𝐸b ⁄2𝑇b cos[2𝜋𝑓c 𝑡] for 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇b , and 𝑠1 (𝑡) denotes the transmitted DPSK
signal for 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2𝑇b then, for the case where the incoming binary symbol is 0 at the transmitter input, for the
second part of the interval 𝑇b ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2𝑇b , 𝑠1 (𝑡) is defined as:
𝐸b
√ cos[2𝜋𝑓c 𝑡] , 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇b
2𝑇b
𝑠1 (𝑡) = 2.13a
𝐸b
√ cos[2𝜋𝑓c 𝑡] , 𝑇b ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2𝑇b
{ 2𝑇b
On the other hand, if symbol 1 is at the transmitter input for the second part of the interval, then the transmission
of 1 advances the carrier-wave phase by 180 degree and this defines the second symbol, 𝑠2 (𝑡) as:
10
Author: Gazi Sultan
𝐸b
√ cos[2𝜋𝑓c 𝑡] , 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇b
2𝑇b
𝑠2 (𝑡) = 2.13b
𝐸b
√ cos[2𝜋𝑓c 𝑡 + 𝜋] , 𝑇b ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2𝑇b
{ 2𝑇b
Generation of DBPSK signals. For a binary message data stream, 𝑑𝑖 , where 𝑖 is the sample time index, the
sequence of differentially coded bits, 𝑑𝑐𝑖 , can be generate in one of the two ways:
𝑑𝑐𝑖 = 𝑑𝑐𝑖−1 ⊕ 𝑑𝑖 2.14a
𝑑𝑐𝑖 = 𝑑𝑐𝑖−1 ⊕ 𝑑𝑖 2.14b
The DBPSK signal equations shown above (Equations 2.13a and 2.13b) use the second differential code-generation
Equation (Equation 2.14b). Table 2.1 shows how the differentially encoded messages are obtained using the second
differential code-generation equation. The last row shows the corresponding shift in phase as per the state of the
incoming bit. Figure 2.8 shows the timing-diagram of a typical DBPSK signal where a 1 is transmitted by adding 180
degree to the current phase and a 0 is transmitted by adding 0 degree to the current phase.
Table 2.1. Generation of DBPSK signals
Sample index, 𝑖 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Information message, 𝑑𝑖 X 1 1 0 1 0 1
Differentially encoded message, 𝑑𝑐𝑖−1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1
Corresponding phase shift, 𝜙𝑚 (𝑖) π π π 0 0 π π
Figure 2.8. Timing diagram of typical DBPSK waveform.

Note: At every 𝑇b second, the phase of the wave is shifted to a value relative to the previous phase instead of switching it to an absolute value.
The amount of phase-shift depends on the incoming bit. The phase changes regardless of whether there is a change in state of the incoming bit
or not; thus, the DBPSK wave is noncoherent.
Note that there is no absolute phase-values associated with a message bit state. For example, when 0 is
transmitted, the phase of the modulated carrier, at data transition, can either be 0 degree or 180 degree, depending
on the instantaneous phase-value due to the previously transmitted message bit at the data-boundary. Similarly,
when 1 is transmitted, the phase of the modulated carrier, at data boundary, can either be 0 degree or 180 degree,
again, depending on the phase-value due to the previously transmitted message bit. The block diagram of a BDPSK
modulator is shown in Figure 2.9. It consists of a logic circuit and a one-bit delay-register connected in a way so as to
convert the incoming binary data into a differentially-encoded sequence. The resulting sequence is then used to
modulate a carrier-wave of frequency 𝑓c and thus, generate the required DBPSK signal.
Regardless of binary or 𝑀-ary scheme, the basis of differentially-coherent detection of differentially-

encoded PSK is that the carrier phase during the previous signaling interval is used as a phase-reference for
demodulation. It is evident in Figure 2.8 that in a DPSK signal, the information regarding the transmitted bit is
11
Author: Gazi Sultan
contained in the phase difference between two successive signals. For example, a difference of 180 degree denotes
that a binary 1 was transmitted, whereas a phase difference of 0 degree
.
Figure 2.9. Block diagram of a DBPSK transmitter.
at 𝑇b seconds, means that a binary 0 was transmitted. The phase difference for a transmitted symbol in a DPSK
signal is unique to that symbol. In general, the noncoherent detection of DPSK signal involves calculating the
coordinates of the incoming signal by correlating it with the output of a local oscillator and then, measuring the
angle between the current received signal and the previously received signal (Sklar, 2001). The receiver is thus,
equipped with a storage capability in order to measure the relative phase difference between the waveforms
received during two successive bit intervals. At the receiver, when demodulating a particular received signal, the
“reference” signal is simply a delayed version of the previously received signal. Thus, the original reference signal
from the modulator is not required to be transmitted as a low-level pilot-carrier when differentially-coherent
detection is used to noncoherently demodulate and detect DPSK signals. Therefore, using DPSK system offers the
advantage of reduced receiver complexity. Another variant of DBPSK is symmetric differential binary phase shift
keying (SDBPSK) where the encoding scheme follows a 90-degree phase shift for transmitting 1 and a 270 (-90)
degree phase shift for transmitting 0.
Coherent Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK) Modulation

The efficiency of a BPSK system can be increased by using a constant-envelope modulation technique
known as Quadrature Phase or quadri-phase shift keying (QPSK) system, where a symbol at the modulation state
represents two bits instead of one. QPSK modulation technique transmits two bits per symbol and thus, each
transmitted symbol can represent binary dibits 00, 01, 10 or 11 instead of just 0 or 1. Therefore, in coherent or
memoryless QPSK modulation, the phase of the carrier takes on one of four equally spaced values, such as
0, 𝜋⁄2, 𝜋, and 3𝜋⁄2 or 𝜋⁄4, 3𝜋⁄4, 5𝜋⁄4, and 7𝜋⁄4. In any QPSK transmitter, 𝑘 = 2-𝑏𝑖𝑡s from the message
source, are grouped at a time and transmitted as one symbol. In other words, each symbol now contains two bits
and thus, there are 𝑀 = 𝑘 2 = 4 unique bit combination resulting in four unique symbols. Therefore, the carrier-
wave phase changes every symbol interval, 𝑇s = 𝑘𝑇b = 2𝑇b , where 𝑇b holds the usual meaning of single bit interval.
For the latter set of symbols, having phase values of: 𝜋⁄4, 3𝜋⁄4, 5𝜋⁄4, and 7𝜋⁄4 which are also referred to as:
𝜋⁄4, 3𝜋⁄4, −3𝜋 ⁄4, and −𝜋⁄4 , the transmitted signal is defined as:
2𝐸s 𝜋
𝑠m (𝑡) = {
√ cos [2𝜋𝑓c 𝑡 + (2𝑚 − 1) ] , 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇s 2.15
𝑇s 4
0, elsewhere
where 𝑚 = 1, . . . , 4 and 𝐸s = 𝐸m is the transmitted signal energy per symbol. Usually, the carrier frequency 𝑓c
equals 𝜏⁄𝑇s , where 𝜏 ∈ ℕ+ , to transmit integral number of cycles per symbol. Each possible absolute value of the
phase corresponds to a unique dibit as shown in Table 2.2 (consistent with Grey code).
12
Author: Gazi Sultan
Table 2.2. Signal-space characterization of coherent QPSK wave using the phase set: 𝜋⁄4, 3𝜋⁄4, 5𝜋⁄4, and 7𝜋⁄4
Phase shift of symbol from Transmitted

unmodulated carrier Absolute starting phase of QPSK symbol in
Input dibit
m 𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖−1
terms of a sinewave waveform, 𝑠m (𝑡), over 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤
π (Phase value at t = 0 s or data-boundary)
(2𝑚 − 1) 𝑇s , 𝜏 = 1
4
𝜋
1 10 ↔ 450 1350
4
3𝜋
2 00 ↔ 1350 2250
4
3𝜋 5𝜋
3 01 − = ↔ 2250 3150
4 4
𝜋 7𝜋
4 11 − = ↔ 3150 450
4 4
The QPSK Equation 2.15 can rewritten for the interval 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇s in the following way:
2𝐸s 𝜋 2𝐸s 𝜋
𝑠m (𝑡) = √ cos [(2𝑚 − 1) ] cos(2𝜋𝑓c 𝑡) − √ sin [(2𝑚 − 1) ] sin(2𝜋𝑓c 𝑡) 2.16
𝑇s 4 𝑇s 4
It is evident that the expansion contains two orthonormal basis functions which are a pair of quadrature carriers and
are given as:
2
Φ1 = √ cos(2𝜋𝑓c 𝑡) , 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇s 2.17a
𝑇s
2
Φ2 = √ sin(2𝜋𝑓c 𝑡) , 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇s 2.17b
𝑇s
The signal-space diagram of coherent QPSK system is shown in Figure 2.10. It has a two-dimensional signal
constellation and four message points whose phase angles increase in a counterclockwise direction, as shown in the
figure.
13
Author: Gazi Sultan
.
Figure 2.10. Signal-space constellation for coherent QPSK wave.
Note: Phase-angles given in terms of phase-shift angles as shown in Table 2.2.
Based on the discussion above, a block diagram of the QPSK modulator or coherent QPSK wave generator is
shown in Figure 2.11. The generation of coherent QPSK signal is as follows: the incoming unipolar binary data
sequence having a bit rate of 𝑅b , is transformed into bipolar form using the polar NRZ-level encoder. The polarized
bit stream is then split into even and odd bit stream, each having a bit rate of 𝑅s = 𝑅b ⁄2. The bit streams are
independently modulated by the orthonormal basis functions, Φ1 and Φ2 . These signals generate two different
BPSK signals and are summed to produce the desired QPSK signal.
.
Figure 2.11. Block diagram of a coherent QPSK transmitter.
Occasionally, a bandpass filter can be used at the output to prevent spill-over of signal energy into adjacent
channels and to suppress spurious signals generated during the modulation.
Appendix A.2 shows the MATLAB script code for a QPSK-wave generator based on the signal-space
constellation given in Table 2.2 and using 𝜏 = 2. In other words, two full-cycles of the carrier-wave are passed per
symbol (two bits). The output waveform generated after running the script using the data stream [0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0] is
given in Figure 2.12. The Figure shows the unmodulated-carrier, the in-phase BPSK waveform, the quadrature BPSK
waveform, and the desired QPSK waveform.
14
Author: Gazi Sultan
.
Figure 2.12. MATLAB simulation output of a coherent QPSK modulator.
Note: 𝑇s = 2𝑇b = 1 × 10−6 s, 𝜏 = 2, and 𝑓c = 2 MHz.
Figure 2.13 shows QPSK waveform output using the following data stream: [0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0].
.
Figure 2.13. QPSK waveform showing inconsistent phase difference every time the incoming symbol state changes to 11.
15
Author: Gazi Sultan
.
Figure 2.14. Coherent QPSK waveform showing consistent and unique amount of phase shift with respect to unmodulated-carrier (reference
signal) for each unique symbol state.
Note: Compare with Table 2.2.
The following observations can be made from Figures 2.10, 2.12, 2.13, and 2.14: Regardless of the phase of
the symbol before a transition, every symbol interval or 𝑇s seconds, the phase changes to an absolute value as
determined by column 3 in Table 2.2. As seen in Figure 2.13, at 𝑡 = 1 s when there is no change in the state of
symbol, there is no change in phase and thus, the generated signal in coherent. Furthermore, in the same figure, it is
evident that the information is not contained in the phase change of the coherent QPSK waveform between symbol
intervals. For example, every time the message dibit 11 is transmitted, the phase difference between the signal for
the previous symbol and the one for the symbol 11, at symbol-transition points, is not consistent. Therefore, the
wave is coherent and cannot be differentially demodulated/detected. Figure 2.14 shows that every time the symbol
01 is transmitted, the modulated QPSK signal is 225 degree out of phase from the unmodulated carrier-wave. Every
time 10 is transmitted, the modulated QPSK signal is 45 degree out of phase from the unmodulated carrier-wave.
Transmitting 00 results in a phase difference of 135 degree between the modulated QPSK wave and the
unmodulated carrier-wave. Finally, transmitting 11 results in a phase difference of 315 degree between the
modulate QPSK wave and the unmodulated carrier-wave.
It is evident that the carrier-wave phase in a conventional coherent QPSK signal changes by 180 degree
every time both the in-phase and quadrature components of the QPSK signal change signs. The carrier phase
changes by ±90 degree whenever there is a change in sign of the in-phase or quadrature component. These two
situations can be concerning when the QPSK signal is filtered during transmission; essentially forcing the QPSK signal
to lose its constant-envelope property. Due to an instantaneous 180-degree phase-shift in the conventional QPSK
signal, there is a significant amount of spectral regrowth resulting in lower spectral efficiency (Lee, 1998). Moreover,
in RF receivers, the weak RF signal is usually amplified by a low-noise amplifier (LNA) which are usually nonlinear
amplifier (NLA), to get the benefit of amplification efficiency (Bhattacharya, 2005). A constant-amplitude signal,
after amplification by a nonlinear amplifier, sustains its spectral properties. However, amplitude variation in the
signal itself along with filtering (pulse shaping) give rise to high-frequency components in the signal when NLAs are
used. When conventional coherent QPSK signals are pulse shaped, they lose the constant envelope attribute and
the signal envelope passes through zero for just an instant as seen in the signal-space constellation (see Figure
2.10). Nonlinear amplification, at the receiver end, brings back the filtered side lobes, and thus, to prevent such
spectral regrowth, coherent QPSK signals are amplified only using linear amplifiers, which are less efficient. The 180-
degree and 90-degree shift in the carrier-wave phase can result in changes of the envelope and eventually cause
error upon detection. Using linear amplifies give rise to loss in power-efficiency; a loss that a cellular receiver cannot
afford to have (Bhattacharya, 2005). It is obviously desirable to use the more efficient nonlinear amplifiers at the
receiver and/or to reduce the QPSK fluctuations at the transmitter side.
16
Author: Gazi Sultan
Coherent Offset QPSK (OQPSK) Modulation

The extent of fluctuations in a conventional QPSK signal can be reduced by using a modulation technique
called offset QPSK (OQPSK). In OQPSK, the in-phase and quadrature bit streams are offset in their comparative
alignment by one bit period (𝑇b ); essentially modifying the signal trajectories in such a way that the carrier-wave
amplitude does not go through or near zero as shown in the signal-space constellation diagram of Figure 2.15 (for
the phase set: 𝜋⁄4, 3𝜋⁄4, 5𝜋⁄4, and 7𝜋⁄4 ). As seen in the phase transition diagram, the phase transitions in
OQPSK modulated waveform are confined to ±90 degree, unlike that in conventional QPSK waveforms. Coherent
OQPSK modulated signals are similar to conventional coherent QPSK modulated signals. One way to generate the
OQPSK signal is to simply offset the even and odd bit stream bit-period (half-symbol period).
.
Figure 2.15. Signal-space characterization of coherent OQPSK wave.
Note: Using the phase set: 𝜋⁄4, 3𝜋⁄4, 5𝜋⁄4, and 7𝜋⁄4.
The two basis-functions to generate offset QPSK are defined as:
2
Φ1 = √ cos(2𝜋𝑓c 𝑡) , 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇s 2.18a
𝑇s
2 𝑇s 3𝑇s
Φ2 = √ sin(2𝜋𝑓c 𝑡), ≤𝑡≤ 2.18b
𝑇s 2 2
This misalignment of the in-phase and quadrature components prevents both components from changing their
state at the same time and thus, prevents 180-degree phase transitions. The lack of 180-degree jumps is traded off
for more frequent ±90-degree jumps. The spectral efficiency of a OQPSK system and conventional QPSK system are
the same (Ibnkahla, 2005). However, the reduced amplitude variations of OQPSK allows a more power-efficient NLA
to be used. Both, QPSK and OQPSK modulated waves must be detected coherently.
In many applications, like multipath faded environment in cellular-phone or satellite-television

transmission, coherent detections are not of much use because the quality of the coherently detected QPSK/OQPSK
signals become very poor. By differentially encoding the message dibits, QPSK signals can be detected in a
noncoherent fashion. The 𝜋⁄4 shifted differential QPSK (DQPSK) is one such differential modulation scheme and is
discussed in the next section. Before proceeding further, it is important to make a distinction between the terms:
𝜋⁄4-QPSK and 𝜋⁄4 shifted DQPSK. Some literatures use the term 𝜋⁄4-QPSK to refer to the conventional coherent
QPSK that uses the phase sets: 𝜋⁄4, 3𝜋⁄4, 5𝜋⁄4, and 7𝜋⁄4 instead of 0, 𝜋⁄2, 𝜋, and 3𝜋⁄2. However, in most
literatures and throughout this work, 𝜋⁄4-QPSK refers to the 𝜋⁄4 shifted differential QPSK or 𝜋⁄4 shifted DQPSK or
simply, 𝜋⁄4-DQPSK. Also, the modulation structure for 𝜋⁄4-QPSK and 𝜋⁄4-DQPSK systems are the same (Lee,
1998). Moreover, 𝜋⁄4-QPSK signals are usually differentially encoded and therefore, termed as 𝜋⁄4-DQPSK.
17
Author: Gazi Sultan
𝝅⁄𝟒 Shifted Differential QPSK Modulation

𝜋⁄4-DQPSK is another modulation scheme which belongs to the class of QPSK modulation. The information
in a 𝜋⁄4-DQPSK wave is contained in the relative phase shift of the modulated signal at the data-transition points or
message-boundaries rather than in the absolute phase values. An ordinary QPSK resides in either one of the two
commonly used constellations as shown in Figure 2.16.
.
Figure 2.16. Two commonly used signal-constellations for coherent QPSK wave.
Note: a) for phase set: 0, 𝜋⁄2, 𝜋, and 3𝜋⁄2 and b) for phase set: 𝜋⁄4, 3𝜋⁄4, 5𝜋⁄4, and 7𝜋⁄4.
In a 𝜋⁄4-DQPSK, the carrier-wave phases used for the transmission of successive symbols are alternately
selected from one of the two QPSK constellations shown in Figure 2.16. Therefore, there are eight possible phase-
states for a 𝜋⁄4-DQPSK modulated wave as shown in Figure 2.17. The arrow lines from each possible message point
define the phase transitions allowed in a 𝜋⁄4-shifted DQPSK. Note that the dibit labels are not present in the
constellation diagram because no unique absolute phase value is associated with a particular symbol/message state
in a DPSK system. However, this is not the case in coherent PSK systems (see Figures 2.10 and 2.15, where such
labels are present). In differential PSK schemes such as DQPSK, due to differential encoding, symbols are
represented as their relative changes in phase, rather than absolute phases.
.
Figure 2.17. Eight possible phase-states for the 𝜋⁄4-DQPSK modulator.
Figure 2.18 shows the block diagram of a 𝜋⁄4-DQPSK transmitter. The input bit stream, or the data bits, is
partitioned into two parallel data streams, 𝑑I,𝑖 and 𝑑Q,𝑖 , with a symbol rate that is half of the bit-rate of the incoming
18
Author: Gazi Sultan
bit stream. The signal mapping block maps the input data streams, 𝑑I,𝑖 and 𝑑Q,𝑖 , into two new data streams 𝐼𝑖 and
𝑄𝑖 .
Figure 2.18. Generic 𝜋⁄4-DQPSK transmitter. Adapted from “Wireless communications: principles and practice” by T. S. Rappaport, 2009.
as per the phase of the modulated signal during the 𝑖 th dibit interval. The expression of the two data streams can be
written as:
𝐼𝑖 = cos 𝜃𝑖 = cos(𝜃𝑖−1 + 𝜑𝑖 ) = 𝐼𝑖−1 cos(𝜑𝑖 ) − 𝑄𝑖−1 sin(𝜑𝑖 ) 2.19a
𝑄𝑖 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑖 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃𝑖−1 + 𝜑𝑖 ) = 𝑄𝑖−1 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜑𝑖 ) − 𝐼𝑖−1 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜑𝑖 ) 2.19b
where 𝜑𝑖 is the phase shift based on the input symbols, 𝑑I,𝑖 and 𝑑Q,𝑖 , and 𝜃𝑖 = 𝜃𝑖−1 + 𝜑𝑖 . The ith in-phase and
quadrature pulses, 𝐼𝑖 and 𝑄𝑖 , are produced at the output of the signal mapper over time 𝑖𝑇s ≤ 𝑡 ≤ (𝑖 + 1)𝑇s and are
based on their previous values, 𝐼𝑖−1 and 𝑄𝑖−1 and 𝜃𝑖 , which itself is a function of 𝜑𝑖 . The in-phase and quadrature
bits are then separately modulated by two carriers. The 𝐼𝑖 and 𝑄𝑖 can have peak amplitude values of 0,
±1, or ± 1⁄√2. Both 𝐼𝑖 and 𝑄𝑖 are usually passed through raised-cosine roll-off pulse-shaping filters which form the
time-waveforms from the data streams and the basic pulse 𝑝(𝑡), given as:
N−1 N−1
𝐼(𝑡) = ∑ 𝐼𝑖 𝑝(𝑡 − 𝑖𝑇s − 𝑇s ⁄2) = ∑ cos 𝜃𝑖 𝑝 (𝑡 − 𝑖𝑇s − 𝑇s ⁄2) 2.20a

𝑖=0 𝑖=0
N−1 N−1
𝑄(𝑡) = ∑ 𝑄𝑖 𝑝(𝑡 − 𝑖𝑇s − 𝑇s ⁄2) = ∑ sin 𝜃𝑖 𝑝 (𝑡 − 𝑖𝑇s − 𝑇s ⁄2) 2.20b

𝑖=0 𝑖=0
These carriers are in quadrature with one another and produce the 𝜋⁄4-DQPSK waveform which is expressed as:
𝑠m(𝑡) = 𝐼(𝑡) cos (2𝜋𝑓c 𝑡) − 𝑄(𝑡) sin(2𝜋𝑓c 𝑡) 2.21
Table 2.3 shows the carrier phase shifts corresponding to various input bit pair along with the initial and current
transmitted waveforms for the 𝜋⁄4-DQPSK transmitter. Remember that, unlike in coherent PSK systems, in a
differential PSK wave the value of the transmitted signal phase depends on the current symbol state as well as the
phase of the previously transmitted signal. In the table, for each unique dibit transmitted, it is assumed that the
previously transmitted signal had a phase of 90 degree (in terms of a sinewave)
19
Author: Gazi Sultan
Table 2.3. Carrier phase-shift and transmitted waveforms for the 𝜋⁄4 shifted DQPSK modulator when initial transmitted signal phase is 900
Transmitted
Previously transmitted
Input dibit Transmitted signal phase 𝜃𝑖 =
𝑠m (𝑡) over 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇s, Phase shift, 𝜑𝑖 𝑠m (𝑡) over
𝑑I,𝑖 , 𝑑Q,𝑖 𝜃𝑖−1 + 𝜑𝑖 at data-transition.
𝜏 = 1, 𝜃𝑖−1 = 𝜋⁄2 𝑇s ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2𝑇s ,
𝜏=1
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋
00 ↔ 450 + = ↔ 1350
4 2 4 4
3𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋
01 ↔ 1350 + = ↔ 2250
4 2 4 4
3𝜋 5𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋 𝜋 7𝜋
11 − = ↔ 2250 − =− = ↔ 3150
4 4 2 4 4 4
𝜋 7𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
10 − = ↔ 3150 − = ↔ 450
4 4 2 4 4
Note: Phase values are given in terms of a sinewave (see Figure 2.4)
Based on Table 2.3, the general form of 𝜋⁄4 shifted DQPSK waveforms, in terms of a cosine carrier-wave, can be
written as:
𝐸b
√ cos[2𝜋𝑓c 𝑡] , 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇b
2𝑇b
𝑠1 (𝑡) = 2.22a
𝐸b 𝜋
√ cos[2𝜋𝑓c 𝑡 + ] , 𝑇s ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2𝑇s
{ 2𝑇b 4
for transmission of dibit 00 over 𝑇s ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2𝑇s ,
𝐸b
√ cos[2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡] , 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇b
2𝑇b
𝑠2 (𝑡) = 2.22b
𝐸b 3𝜋
√ cos[2𝜋𝑓c 𝑡 + ] , 𝑇s ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2𝑇s
{ 2𝑇b 4
for transmission of dibit 01 over 𝑇s ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2𝑇s ,
𝐸b
√ cos[2𝜋𝑓c 𝑡] , 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇b 2.22c
2𝑇b
𝑠3 (𝑡) =
𝐸b 3𝜋
√ cos[2𝜋𝑓c 𝑡 − ] , 𝑇s ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2𝑇s
{ 2𝑇b 4
20
Author: Gazi Sultan
for transmission of dibit 11 over 𝑇s ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2𝑇s and,
𝐸b
√ cos[2𝜋𝑓c 𝑡] , 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇b
2𝑇b
𝑠4 (𝑡) = 2.22d
𝐸b 𝜋
√ cos[2𝜋𝑓c 𝑡 − ] , 𝑇s ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2𝑇s
{ 2𝑇b 4
for transmission of dibit 10 over 𝑇s ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2𝑇s .
In a 𝜋⁄4 shifted DQPSK waveform, the instantaneous phase transitions are limited to ±135 degree and
thus, the spectral regrowth are reduced when a power-efficient nonlinear amplifier is used to amplify the signal at
the receiving end (Lee, 1998). When compared with QPSK and OQPSK systems, the 𝜋⁄4 shifted DQPSK system lies
between the both in terms of performance as related to spectral regrowth. OQPSK has the lowest spectral regrowth
among the three. Nonetheless, envelope variation of the 𝜋⁄4 shifted DQPSK signals due to filtering are considerably
reduced when compared to those in QPSK. Most importantly, unlike the conventional coherent QPSK and the
OQPSK, 𝜋⁄4 shifted DQPSK can be noncoherently or differentially demodulated and detected. This feature
significantly simplifies the receiver design.
Differentially detected 𝜋⁄4-DQPSK is about 3 dB inferior when compared to conventional coherent QPSK
while coherently-detected 𝜋⁄4-DQPSK has the same error performance as that of the conventional coherent QPSK.
As differential detection is independent of phase synchronization, in low bit-rate fast Rayleigh fading channels,
differentially detected 𝜋⁄4-DQPSK offers lower error floor. (Subasinghe-Dias & Feher, 1991)
Performance of PSK Modulation Schemes

Coherent detection of PSK signals usually requires a pilot-signal-assisted fading compensation for
demodulation and detection. In un-coded AWGN channel, coherent demodulation of BPSK signal has bit-error
performance or bit-error probability (BEP) given as:
𝑃b,BPSK = 𝑄(√2𝛾b ) 2.23a
where 𝑄-function is related to the complementary error function, erfc(x) by
erfc(𝑥) = 2𝑄(√2𝑥) 2.23b
The 𝑄-function is upper-bounded by the Chernoff bound:

2⁄2
𝑄(𝑡) = 𝑒 −t 2.23c
Furthermore, the bit SNR and symbol SNR are defined as
𝛾b = 𝐸𝑏 ⁄𝑁0 2.24a
𝛾s = 𝐸𝑠 ⁄𝑁0 2.24b
, respectively. DBPSK can use differential demodulation, which uses the previous symbol as a reference for
demodulating the current symbol and such a receiver is a suboptimum receiver. On the other hand, an optimum
DBPSK receiver uses coherent demodulation, which requires a reference-signal but does not require phase
synchronization (Du & Swamy, 2010). The BEP of optimum DBPSK is give as (Xiong, 2006):
21
Author: Gazi Sultan
1
𝑃b,OPT DBPSK = 𝑒 −𝜸𝐛 2.25
2
The error performance of suboptimum DBPSK receiver is slightly inferior to that of the optimum case. As mentioned
earlier, QPSK systems are MPSK systems where 𝑀 = 4. Coherent QPSK increases the bandwidth efficiency by a
factor of two when compared to coherent BPSK system, having the same BEP. For QPSK system, the PSK modulator
must reshuffle the bit steam into symbol stream, each symbol having two bits. Similarly, for 8 PSK, the modulator
must reshuffle the bit stream into symbol stream where each symbol has three bits. Differentially encoded QPSK
(DEQPSK) has a BEP that is twice as large as that for coherent QPSK under AWGN and flat Rayleigh fading conditions
and for AWGN channel, the probability of bit error for differentially-encoded QPSK is given as:
𝑃b,DEQPSK = 2𝑃b,QPSK = 2𝑄(√2𝛾b ) 2.26
𝜋⁄4-DQPSK wave does not pass through the origin of the constellation diagram, leading to much smaller
fluctuations in the envelope (due to pulse-shaping) than those in coherent QPSK. 𝜋⁄4-DQPSK can be differentially-
coherently demodulated and, with Gray coding, has a BEP given as:
1 2 +𝑏 2 )
1
𝑃b,π⁄4−DQPSK = 𝑄(𝑎, 𝑏) − 𝐼0 (𝑎𝑏)𝑒 −2(𝑎 (differential demodulation) 2.27
2
where 𝐼0 is the zero-order modified Bessel function of first kind and 𝑎 and 𝑏 are given as:
1
𝑎 = √2𝛾b (1 − ) 2.28a
√2
1
𝑏 = √2𝛾b (1 + ) 2.28b
√2
and 𝑄(𝑎, 𝑏) is the Marcum 𝑄 function. With coherent demodulation, 𝜋⁄4-DQPSK has the same performance as
DEQPSK and produces better results than OQPSK in the presence of multipath fading (Du & Swamy, 2010). 𝜋⁄4-
DQPSK modulation scheme, like QPSK, is used in CDM-based systems. The BEPs of some popular PSK modulation
schemes are plotted in Figure 2.19.
.
Figure 2.19. BEPs of popular modulation scheme. Reprinted from “Wireless communication systems: from RF subsystems to 4G enabling
technologies” by K. Du & M. N. Swamy, 2010, p. 207.
22
Author: Gazi Sultan
As seen above, and with PSK modulation techniques, the detection is either coherent or differentially-
coherent. A method of discriminator detector is possible in few modulation techniques one of which is frequency
shift keying (FSK). Phase estimation is necessary for coherent detection used in linear modulation method such as
PSK. FSK, due to its nonlinear nature, is a modulation technique that is suitable for channels which lack phase
stability. Cellular telephony, which uses frequency-hopping spread-spectrum, are normally implemented with FSK
modulators that act as the frequency-synthesizer. One of the objectives of this work is to show how digital
frequency synthesis technique can be used to implement a frequency-hoping system and thus, it is necessary to
discuss the FSK modulation scheme in the following sections.
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) Modulation
Frequency Shift Keying, or FSK, is a digital modulation technique where the modulating binary input data
shifts the frequency of the constant-amplitude carrier signal between several discrete values of frequency
components. Thus, FKS modulation is an example of nonlinear and constant-envelope modulation scheme. The
analytical expression for the 𝑚th modulated signal waveform in an FSK modulation is expressed as:
2𝐸s
𝑠m (𝑡) = √ cos(2𝜋𝑓c 𝑡 + 2𝜋𝑚∆𝑓𝑡 + 𝜑) , 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇s 2.29
𝑇s
where 𝑚 = 1, 2, . . . , 𝑀. The incoming symbols in an FSK system are mapped to waveforms having equal amplitude,
equal energy but different frequencies as given by 𝑓m = 𝑓c + 𝑚∆𝑓. 𝑓c is known as the nominal carrier-frequency and
∆𝑓 is the frequency-separation. Therefore, the general Equation 2.29 of M-ary FSK modulated wave can be
rewritten as:
2𝐸s
𝑠m (𝑡) = √ cos(2𝜋𝑓m 𝑡 + 𝜑) , 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇s 2.30
𝑇s
FSK is usually implemented as orthogonal signaling and the discussion in subsequent sections is limited to
orthogonal FSK signals. Furthermore, coherent FSK signals can be demodulated in both, coherent and noncoherent
fashion. Noncoherent FSK signals can only be demodulated noncoherently. In noncoherent FSK detection, the
detector is configured with correlators and designed as an energy detector which does not need to exploit the
phase of the received signal. Two common ways to demodulate FKS signals noncoherently are through the use of 1)
quadrature receiver and 2) envelop detectors. In fact, de-hopping a frequency-hopped signal is usually done by a
synthesizer that employs the use of a frequency-hopping (FH) acquisition scheme. As FH systems are implemented
using FSK modulators, the noncoherent acquisition scheme is very similar to noncoherent FSK demodulation. The
schematic for a noncoherent FSK detector, using bandpass filters each centered at 𝑓m , is shown in Figure 2.20.
.
Figure 2.20. Noncoherent demodulator for M-ary FSK signals using envelope detectors.
23
Author: Gazi Sultan
The detectors are basically matched to the signal envelopes and not the signals themselves. The received
signal over a symbol interval is 𝑟m (𝑡); which is the sum of the transmitted signal and the noise, 𝑛(𝑡). 𝑧(𝑇s ) is the test
statistic and 𝑠̂m (𝑡) is the estimate of the transmitted signal. For a multiple-FSK (M-FSK/M-ARY FSK) system, deciding
which of the 𝑀 signals were transmitted is done based on which one of the 𝑀 envelope detectors has the maximum
output.
Consider two such orthogonal tones, 𝑓1 and 𝑓2 for the 𝑥 th and 𝑦th symbols, respectively, which are to be
detected coherently. The cross-correlation coefficient between the complex envelopes of the FSK waveforms
corresponding to the two tones is given as:
2 𝐸s ⁄𝑇s 𝑇s j2π(y−x)∆ft sin 𝜋 𝑇s (𝑦 − 𝑥)∆𝑓 jπT (y−x)∆ft

𝜌xy = ∫ 𝑒 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑒 s 2.31
2𝐸s 0 𝜋𝑇𝑠 (𝑦 − 𝑥)∆𝑓
Figure 2.21 shows a plot of the real and imaginary parts of the correlation coefficient between the two waveforms.
.
Figure 2.21. Cross-correlation coefficient of FSK signals plotted as a function of frequency separation.
From the figure, it can be inferred that the symbols become orthogonal when a frequency deviation of
∆𝑓 = 1⁄2𝑇s is chosen. Again, consider two such orthogonal tones, 𝑓1 and 𝑓2 , which are to be detected
noncoherently. Figure 2.22 shows the spectra of two such tones, 𝑓1 and 𝑓2 . For the noncoherently detected FSK
tone to result in a maximum output signal at its corresponding receiver filter and a null-output signal at the
neighboring filter (see Figure 2.20), the peak spectrum of tone 1 should coincide with one of the zero-crossing of the
spectrum for tone 2. As evident in Figure 2.22, the corresponding minimum tone separation required with
noncoherent detection is ∆𝑓 = 1⁄𝑇s .
Figure 2.22. Minimum tone spacing for noncoherently detected orthogonal FSK signals.
24
Author: Gazi Sultan
Summarizing the findings reveal: minimum ∆𝑓 of 1⁄𝑇s is required for noncoherently detected FSK signals
to maintain orthogonality and minimum ∆𝑓 of 1⁄2𝑇s is required for coherently detected FSK signals to maintain
orthogonality. Thus, coherently detected FSK signals consume less bandwidth than noncoherently detected FSK
signals, whilst maintaining orthogonality. In coherently detected FSK, the phase is taken into consideration during
modulation so that the two periodic waveforms are aligned in a way that their starting-phases are the same.
Contrary to that, in noncoherently detected FSK, orthogonality is achieved without paying attention to the phase.
Orthogonal Binary Frequency Shift Keying (BFSK) Modulation

In binary frequency shift keying (BFSK) modulation, the frequency of a constant-amplitude carrier-signal is
keyed between two different values depending on the state of the incoming data bit. The frequency switching can
be accomplished by having two separate oscillators which usually results in discontinuous-phase switching (as in
phase-coherent FSK or discontinuous-phase FSK) or a single oscillator can be used by forcing its phase to vary in a
continuous manner (as in continuous-phase FSK). It is advised to the readers to not confuse the terms used for FSK
keying types/techniques with the terms used for switching mechanisms of a phase-keying-unit (PKU) for the novel
PSK modulators implemented later in this work. Discontinuous BFSK (or FSK) uses 2 (or 𝑀) independent oscillators.
However, such discontinuous or abrupt phase-coherent switching, shown in Figure 2.23, results in spectral
spreading and spurious transmission. Consequently, these types of FSK signals are generally not a popular choice in
wireless systems.
.
Figure 2.23. Phase-continuous and phase-coherent switching between two independent oscillators.
In continuous-phase BFSK, the phase transition during data/symbol transition time, is kept continuous.
Despite being quite a challenge, this can be achieved in many ways. One way is to use two independent oscillators
and to switch them at zero-crossing points. Another way is to still have two independent oscillators and using
appropriate parameters (𝑓1 ,𝑓2 , and 𝑇b ) so that the switching seems to be continuous in phase (see Figure 2.23).
Alternately, a single oscillator can be used to force the phase to stay constant while switching frequency by either
using memory or carefully selecting 𝜏m for each frequency. Here, 𝜏m is the number of full-cycles of the carrier-wave
passed for the 𝑚th modulated signal wave where 𝑚 = 1, 2, . . . , 𝑀. Unlike PSK modulation, which is a constant-tone
modulation scheme having a fixed 𝜏, in FSK, due to changing frequency, 𝜏 varies from one symbol to another.
Nonetheless it remains unique to a symbol state and constant through the symbol duration. As it will be seen later, a
synthesis technique known as Direct Digital Frequency Synthesis, can inherently perform phase-continuous
switching when changing its output frequency, due to having memory-capabilities. Figure 2.24 shows the example
of Sunde’s FSK (a pseudo continuous-phase FSK scheme) and coherent FSK with discontinuous-phase.
25
Author: Gazi Sultan
.
Figure 2.24. BFSK modulated waveforms of Sunde’s FSK and coherent FSK with discontinuous-phase.
Note: 𝑓1 = 1⁄𝑇s for 0, 𝑓2 = 2⁄𝑇s for 1 (Sunde’s FSK). 𝑓1 = 3⁄4𝑇s for 0, 𝑓2 = 3⁄2𝑇s for 1 (Discontinuous FSK).
A typical pair of BFSK wave, also known as Sunde’s FSK, is described as:
2𝐸b
√ cos(2𝜋𝑓m 𝑡 + 𝜑m ) 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇b
𝑠m (𝑡) = { 𝑇b 2.32
0, elsewhere
where 𝑚 = 1, 2 and 𝑓m = (𝜏c + 𝑚)⁄𝑇b . 𝜏c is the nominal number of integral cycles corresponding to the nominal
carrier-wave frequency, 𝑓c . Note that for binary case, 𝑇b = 𝑇s . Furthermore, these waves are not normalized to have
unit energy; however, they result in continuous-phase FSK waveforms (CPFSK waveform) due to the constraints
used along with ensuring that 𝜑1 = 𝜑2 . For the sake of simplicity, 𝜑1 = 𝜑2 = 0. For 𝑚 = 1, 2: 𝑓1 = (𝜏c + 1)⁄𝑇b =
𝜏1 ⁄𝑇b and 𝑓2 = (𝜏c + 2)⁄𝑇b = 𝜏2 ⁄𝑇b , respectively. The frequency deviation or separation is therefore: ∆𝑓 = 𝑓2 −
𝑓1 = 1⁄𝑇b . As a result, Sunde’s FSK can be demodulated using both, coherent and noncoherent methods. Appendix
A.3 shows a MATLAB function that generates and plots such Sunde’s FSK signals based on any given input data
stream and nominal carrier-frequency. The function has the following parameters:
τ +1 2 𝜏 +2 3
𝜏c = 1, 𝑓1 = c = for binary 0 and 𝑓2 = c = for binary 1. In other words, 𝜏1 = 2 full-cycles of the carrier-
𝑇b 𝑇b 𝑇b 𝑇b
wave are transmitted (resulting in a frequency of 𝑓1 ) for an incoming binary bit 0. On the other hand, 𝜏2 = 3 full-
cycles of the carrier-wave are transmitted (resulting in a frequency of 𝑓2 ) for an incoming binary bit of 1. Executing
the function using the following parameters:
2 3
𝑑𝑖 = [1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0], 𝑓c = 0.01 Hz, 𝑇b = 100 s, 𝑓1 = = 0.02 Hz, 𝑓2 = = 0.03 Hz, and ∆𝑓 = 𝑓2 − 𝑓1 =
𝑇b 𝑇b
1⁄𝑇b = 0.01 Hz, results in the simulation output shown in Figure 2.25.
26
Author: Gazi Sultan
.
Figure 2.25. BFSK waveform generated using MATLAB function.
It is useful to define a center-frequency for FSK system given as: 𝑓0 = (𝑓1 + 𝑓M )⁄2. For the binary case shown above:
𝑓0 = (𝑓1 + 𝑓2 )⁄2 = 0.015 Hz. The two signals, 𝑠1 (𝑡) and 𝑠2 (𝑡), are indeed orthogonal, but not normalized to have
unit energy. The set of orthonormal basis-function for such FSK signal is given as:
2
√
Φm (𝑡) = { 𝑇b cos(2𝜋𝑓m 𝑡) 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇b 2.33
0, elsewhere
where 𝑚 = 1, 2.
A binary FSK modulator is shown in Figure 2.26. The input data stream is converted into unipolar signal. An
inverter is used in the lower channel to make sure that when binary 1 is at the input, the oscillator with frequency 𝑓1
is switched off and frequency 𝑓2 is transmitted. Conversely, when the input symbol is 0, the oscillator with frequency
𝑓2 is switched off and frequency 𝑓1 is transmitted.
.
Figure 2.26. Block diagram of a BFSK transmitter.
27
Author: Gazi Sultan
It is assumed that the two oscillators are synchronized, so their outputs satisfy the criteria required for
continuous-phase FSK. One way to ensure this using two oscillators is to make 𝑓1 and 𝑓2 equal to different integer
multiples of the bit rate 1⁄𝑇b . A single keyed oscillator could also be used along with a way to ensure that the phase
stays continuous during data-transition. However, with higher order FSK modulation, the process becomes more
complex and requires a way to store phase-memory at data-transition points.
Continuous-Phase FSK (CPFSK) Waves

Despite Sunde’s FSK producing continuous-phase at data-boundaries, it is usually not considered as a
member of CPFSK waveform family (Bhattacharyya, 2005). As shown above, it uses two different oscillators and
switches between them in a continuous fashion without using memory. Moreover, using 𝑀 different oscillator
outputs tuned at 𝑀 different frequencies will result in spectral broadening outside the main frequency band due to
switching. This brings about an enormous bandwidth requirement to successfully transmit the signal. One way to
avoid this spectral broadening is to use a single-frequency component and to change its frequency in a continuous
fashion. The resulting waveform is known as continuous-phase FSK (CPFSK) signals. Since the carrier is forced to be
continuous, CPFSK is a true memory-based modulation technique.
Consider a true binary-CPFSK signal given as:
2𝐸b
√ cos(2𝜋𝑓1 𝑡 + 𝜑(0)) for binary 0
𝑇b
𝑠m (𝑡) = 2.34
2𝐸b
√ cos(2𝜋𝑓2 𝑡 + 𝜑(0)) for binary 1
{ 𝑇b
𝜑(0) denotes the value of the phase at time 𝑡 = 0 and sums up the history of the modulation process up to time
𝑡 = 0. Therefore, it is convenient to express the CPFSK signal as an angle-modulated signal where:
𝜋ℎ
𝜑(𝑡) = 𝜑(0) ± 𝑡, 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇b 2.35
𝑇b
The plus sign corresponds to transmitting 0 and the minus sign corresponds to transmitting 1. The parameter ℎ is a
dimensionless parameter and is referred to as the deviation ratio, given as: ℎ = 𝑇b (𝑓2 − 𝑓1 ). In other words, sending
binary bit 0 increase the phase of a CPFSK signal by 𝜋ℎ while transmitting 1 reduces the phase by the equal amount.
In the Sunde’s FSK, the deviation ratio ℎ = 1 and therefore, the phase-change over one bit interval is ±𝜋 radians.
However, a change of +𝜋 radians is exactly the same as a change of −𝜋 radians and it follows that the Sunde’s FSK
has no memory. Therefore, despite producing continuous-phases at data-boundaries, Sunde’s FSK is not considered
as a true CPFSK wave. Generally, as mentioned earlier, CPFSK modulation are modulation techniques with memory.
A brief analytical analysis of CPFSK signals, which are a class of continuous-phase modulated (CPM) signals, as shown
by Ibnkahla (2005) and Bhattacharya (2005) is given below:
The baseband time-waveform of CPFSK signal is represented as:
𝑏p (𝑡) = ∑ 𝐴j 𝑟𝑒𝑐(𝑡 − 𝑚𝑇s ) 2.36a

j
𝐴j is the sequence of amplitudes obtained after mapping 𝑘 bit binary digits from the information sequence into
amplitude levels and 𝑟𝑒𝑐(𝑡) is a rectangular pulse of amplitude 1⁄2𝑇s and duration 𝑇s seconds. The signal 𝑏p (𝑡) is
used to frequency-modulate the carrier-signal and the modulated carrier-wave is given as:
𝑠(𝑡) = 𝑔(𝑡) cos[2𝜋𝑓c 𝑡 + 𝜑(𝑡; 𝑎) + 𝜑0 ] 2.36b
28
Author: Gazi Sultan
𝑔(𝑡) is the signal pulse shape, 𝜑 (𝑡; 𝑎) represents the time-varying phase of the modulated waveform and 𝜑0 is
some initial phase of the carrier.
𝑡
𝜑 (𝑡; 𝑎) = 2𝜋𝑓d ∫ 𝑏p (𝛼)𝑑𝛼 2.36c
0
where 𝑓d is the peak frequency deviation. Integration of the baseband signal, 𝑏p (𝑡), ensures phase-continuity of the
modulated signal. The term 𝑏p (𝑡) itself may have discontinuities. However, integration of 𝑏p (𝑡) does not have any
discontinuities. The integration results in:
𝑡
𝜑 (𝑡; 𝑎) = 2𝜋𝑓d ∫ 𝑏p (𝛼)𝑑𝛼 = 𝜓n + 2𝜋ℎ𝐴n 𝑣(𝑡 − 𝑛𝑇s ) 2.36d
0
𝑛 being the current input symbol and ℎ is the deviation ratio and is related to the peak deviation by the following
expression: ℎ = 2𝑓d 𝑇s . With the assumption that 𝜓n = 0 for 𝑛 = 0, 𝜓n is the accumulation of phases up to 𝑡 =
(𝑛 − 1)𝑇s . Moreover, 𝜓n is a phase shift that depends on the previous input symbols and thus, incorporates
memory in the modulated waveform. It is given as:
n−1
𝜓n = 𝜋ℎ ∑ 𝐴j 2.36e
j=0
The final expression of the CPFSK modulated waveform is:
∞
2𝐸s
𝑠(𝑡) = √ ∑ cos[2𝜋𝑓c 𝑡 + 𝜓n + 2𝜋ℎ𝐴n 𝑣(𝑡 − 𝑛𝑇s ) + 𝜑0 ] , 𝑛𝑇s ≤ 𝑡 ≤ (𝑛 + 1)𝑇s 2.36f
𝑇s
𝑛=0
CPM signals cannot be represented by discrete points in signal-space because the modulated waveform varies with
time. However, the phase-tree is a manifestation that shows the phase-continuity of such CPM signals. It describes
the various paths or trajectories taken by the modulated signals phase while transitioning from one phase-state to
another. The phase trajectory for binary CPFSK is shown in Figure 2.27.
.
Figure 2.27. Phase-tree/trajectory for binary CPFSK waveform. Reprinted from “Digital communications” by J. G. Proakis & M. Salehi, 2008, p.
120.
29
Author: Gazi Sultan
Performance of FSK Modulation Schemes

The minimum frequency separation is 1⁄𝑇s for achieving orthogonality between noncoherently detected
FSK signals, in contrast to 1⁄2𝑇s for coherently detected FSK. As a result, more bandwidth is required for
noncoherent FSK at a given symbol rate. The probability of bit error for coherently detected orthogonal binary FSK is
given as:
𝑃b,CH O−BFSK = 𝑄 √𝛾b 2.37
which is 3 dB inferior to that of coherent BPSK. For noncoherently detected orthogonal binary FSK, the probability of
bit error is given as:
1 −𝛾b
𝑃b,NCH O−BFSK = 𝑒 2 2.38
2
The use of envelop detection in noncoherent demodulation is a more common practice due to the fact that the
local-oscillators are not required and it requires only about 1 dB more power than coherent FSK demodulation (for
𝑃b ≤ 10−4 ). Figure 2.28 shows the BEP curves pertaining to BFSK modulation schemes
.
Figure 2.28. Bit error performance of FSK using coherent and noncoherent demodulation. Reprinted from “Wireless
communication systems: from RF subsystems to 4G enabling technologies” by K. Du & M. N. Swamy, 2010, p. 210.
Comparison of FSK and PSK Systems
As a final closure to the chapter, Figure 2.29 presents the BEP curves for several binary modulation
systems. Coherent BPSK offers the best BEP for a given SNR amongst all the schemes. Optimal DBPSK (coherent
detection of differentially-encoded BPSK) comes out as the second in terms of BEP. Suboptimal DBPSK
(differentially-coherent detection of differentially-encoded BPSK) systems offer better performance than
coherently-detected orthogonal BFSK for SNR exceeding 2 dB. Finally, noncoherent detection of orthogonal FSK
provides the least performance when it comes to BEP.
30
Author: Gazi Sultan
.
Figure 2.29. Bit error probability versus SNR for several binary modulation schemes. Reprinted from “Digital communications fundamentals and
applications” by B. Sklar, 2001, p. 212.
Discussion
This chapter presented the readers with the theories and expression related to conventional digital
modulation techniques used in wireless-applications. MATLAB codes have also been presented for a few selected
modulation schemes to investigate the behavior of the modulated waves. Also, several performance parameters
have been presented to draw comparison among the different modulation techniques.
PSK signals are more bandwidth efficient, but FSK signals have good noise rejection for a given data rate. As
mentioned earlier, the choice of modulation scheme ultimately depends on limitations of the system: either in
terms of bandwidth or in terms of power. MFSK is better for power limited systems, whereas MPSK systems are
more bandwidth efficient.
The next chapter discusses another class of modulation technique mainly used for multiple-access and
enhancing data-security, known as frequency-hopping spread-spectrum modulation. As it will be seen in the next
chapter, the concept of frequency-hopping is very similar to FSK modulation.
31
Author: Gazi Sultan
APPENDIX A
MATLAB FUNCTIONS/SCRIPTS FOR DIGITAL MODULATION SCHEMES
1. MATLAB script code to generate coherent BPSK waveform
d=[1 0 1 1 0]; % d(t)/d_i binary data sequence

b=2*d-1; % Convert unipolar to bipolar (NRZ-converter)
Tb=1; % Bit-time
Eb=Tb/2; % This will result in unit amplitude waveforms
fc=3/Tb; % Carrier frequency, tao = 3, i.e. transmitted signal contains 3 full sine-
cycles per bit
t=linspace(0,5,1000); % discrete time sequence between 0 and 5*T (1000 samples)
N=length(t); % Number of samples
Nsb=N/length(d); % Number of samples per bit
dd=repmat(d',1,Nsb); % Replicate each bit Nsb times
bb=repmat(b',1,Nsb);
dw=dd'; % Transpose the rows and columns
dw=dw(:)'; % Convert dw to a column vector (column by column) and convert to a row
vector
bw=bb';
bw=bw(:)'; % Data sequence samples
w=sqrt(2*Eb/Tb)*cos(2*pi*fc*t); % carrier waveform
bpsk_w=bw.*w; % modulated waveform
% Plots:
% d(t)
subplot(4,1,1);
plot(t,dw); axis([0 5 -1.5 1.5])
% NRZ signal
subplot(4,1,2);
plot(t,bw); axis([0 5 -1.5 1.5])
% Carrier-wave
subplot(4,1,3);
plot(t,w); axis([0 5 -1.5 1.5])
% Coherent BPSK wave

subplot(4,1,4);
plot(t,bpsk_w,'.'); axis([0 5 -1.5 1.5])
xlabel('time')
2. MATLAB script code to generate coherent QPSK waveform
clc;
clear all;
close all;
data=[0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0]; % information
data_NZR=2*data-1; % NRZ level encoded data

s_p_data=reshape(data_NZR,2,length(data)/2); % S/P conversion of data
br=10.^6; % bit-rate
f=2*br; % minimum carrier-wave frequency
T=1/br; % bit-duration
t=T/99:T/99:T; % Time vector for one bit information
% QPSK Modulation:
y=[];
y_in=[];
y_qd=[];
for(i=1:length(data)/2)
y1=s_p_data(1,i)*cos(2*pi*f*t); % In-phase component
32
Author: Gazi Sultan
y2=s_p_data(2,i)*sin(2*pi*f*t) ;% Quadrature component

y_in=[y_in y1]; % In-phase signal vector
y_qd=[y_qd y2]; % Quadrature signal vector
y=[y y1+y2]; % Modulated signal vector
end
Tx_sig=y; % Signal after modulation
tt=T/99:T/99:(T*length(data))/2;
carrier = repmat(cos(2*pi*f*t), length(data)/2); % Unmodulated carrier-wave
figure(1)
subplot(4,1,1);
plot(tt,carrier,'b','linewidth',1), grid on;
title('Unmodulated COSINE carrier wave');
xlabel('time(sec)');
ylabel('amplitude');
subplot(4,1,2);
plot(tt,y_in,'linewidth',1), grid on;
title('Waveform for in-phase component');
subplot(4,1,3);
plot(tt,y_qd,'linewidth',1), grid on;
title('Waveform for quadrature component');
subplot(4,1,4);
plot(tt,Tx_sig,'r','linewidth',1), grid on;
title('Modulated QPSK signal');
3. MATLAB function code to generate Sunde’s BFSK waveform
function [ BFSKout, nbits ] = bfsk_mod(di,fc,Tb)

% BFSKout is the BFSK Output, fc is the nominal carrier
% frequency, and Tb is the bit duration,
% nbits is the number of bits, and
% di is the input bit-stream.
d=2*di-1; % Convert unipolar bit-stream to bipolar form

Eb=Tb/2; % This will result in unit amplitude waveforms
nbits=length(di);
t=linspace(0,Tb,100);
Lt=length(t);
wm1=sqrt(2*Eb/Tb)*cos(6*pi*fc*t);
wm0=sqrt(2*Eb/Tb)*cos(4*pi*fc*t);
BFSKout=[]; bw=[];dw=[];
for k=1:nbits
if di(k)==1
BFSKout=[BFSKout,wm1];
bw=[bw,di(k)*ones(1,Lt)];
else
BFSKout=[BFSKout,wm0];
bw=[bw,di(k)*zeros(1,Lt)];
end
dw=[dw,d(k)*ones(1,Lt)];
end;
subplot(311), plot(bw,'LineWidth',2);
title('Incoming binary data-stream, d_i');
axis([0 nbits*Lt -0.5 1.5]);grid;
subplot(312), plot(dw,'LineWidth',2);
title('Bipolar data-stream');
subplot(313), plot(BFSKout,'LineWidth',2);
33
Author: Gazi Sultan
title('Modulated BFSK Waveform');

xlabel('Time');
end
LIST OF TABLES
Table
2.1. Generation of DBPSK Signal ...................................................................................................................................................

2.2. Signal—space characterization of coherent QPSK wave using the phase set: 𝜋⁄4, 3𝜋⁄4, 5𝜋⁄4, and 7𝜋⁄4 ...........................
2.3. Carrier phase-shift and transmitted waveforms for the 𝜋⁄4 shifted DQPSK modulator when initial transmitted
signal phase is 900 ....................................................................................................................................................................
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
2.1. Power and bandwidth efficiencies as functions of the SNR recorded at the receiver ................................................................
2.2. Waveform for three basic forms of signaling binary information: binary ASK, binary FSK with continuous-phase,
and binary PSK.........................................................................................................................................................................
2.3. Block diagram of a memoryless digital modulator ...................................................................................................................
2.4. Phase conversion between a sine and a cosine wave ................................................................................................................
2.5. Constellation diagram of BPSK signal .....................................................................................................................................
2.6. Block diagram of a BPSK modulator .......................................................................................................................................
2.7. Block diagram of a BPSK modulator .......................................................................................................................................
2.8. Timing diagram of typical DBPSK waveform..........................................................................................................................
2.9. Block diagram of a DBPSK Transmitter ..................................................................................................................................
2.10. Signal-space constellation for coherent QPSK wave ..............................................................................................................
2.11. Block diagram of a coherent QPSK transmitter ......................................................................................................................
2.12. MATLAB simulation output of a coherent QPSK modulator .................................................................................................
2.13. QPSK waveform showing inconsistent phase difference every time the incoming symbol state changes to 11 .....................
2.14. Coherent QPSK waveform showing consistent and unique amount of phase shift with respect to
unmodulated-carrier (reference signal) for each unique symbol state .....................................................................................
2.15. Signal-space characterization of coherent OQPSK wave........................................................................................................
2.16. Two commonly used signal-constellations for coherent QPSK wave .....................................................................................
2.17. Eight possible phase-states for the 𝜋⁄4-DQPSK modulator ...................................................................................................
2.18. Generic 𝜋⁄4-DQPSK transmitter ...........................................................................................................................................
2.19. BEPs of popular modulation scheme ......................................................................................................................................
2.20. Noncoherent demodulator for M-ary FSK signals using envelope detectors ..........................................................................
2.21. Cross-correlation coefficient of FSK signals plotted as a function of frequency separation ...................................................
2.22. Minimum tone spacing for noncoherently detected orthogonal FSK signals ..........................................................................
2.23. Phase-continuous and phase-coherent switching between two independent oscillators ..........................................................
2.24. BFSK modulated waveforms of Sunde’s FSK and coherent FSK with discontinuous-phase .................................................
2.25. BFSK waveform generated using MATLAB function ...........................................................................................................
2.26. Block diagram of a BFSK transmitter ....................................................................................................................................
2.27. Phase-tree/trajectory for binary CPFSK waveform.................................................................................................................
2.28. Bit error performance of FSK using coherent and noncoherent demodulation .......................................................................
2.29. Bit error probability versus SNR for several binary modulation schemes ..............................................................................
34
Author: Gazi Sultan
REFERENCES
A technical tutorial on digital signal synthesis. (1999, December 2). Retrieved October, 2016, from http://www.analog.com/media/cn/training–
seminars/tutorials/450968421DDS_Tutorial_rev12–2–99.pdf. Analog Devices.
Akhtman, J., & Hanzo, L. (2009). Power versus bandwidth–efficiency in wireless communications: The Economic Perspective. IEEE 70th
Vehicular Technology Conference Fall. doi:10.1109/vetecf.2009.
Andrews, J. R. (2005). Co–verification of hardware and software for ARM SoC design. Amsterdam: Elsevier
Anitha, K., Umesharaddy, & Sujatha, B. K. (2014). FPGA Implementation of High Throughput Digital QPSK Modulator using Verilog HDL.
International Journal of Advanced Computer Research, 4(14), 217–222.
Ao, S. (2010). Electronic engineering and computing technology. Dordrecht: Springer.
Arnold, H., & Bodtmann, W. (1983). The Performance of FSK in frequency–selective rayleigh fading. IEEE Transactions on Communications,
31(4), 568–572. doi:10.1109/tcom.1983.1095838
Bhasker, J. (1998). Verilog HDL synthesis: a practical primer. Allentown, PA: Star Galaxy Publishing.
Bhattacharya, A. (2006). Digital communication. New Delhi: Tata McGraw–Hill.
Brown, S. D., & Vranesic, Z. G. (2009). Fundamentals of digital logic with VHDL design. Boston, MA: McGraw–Hill Higher Education.
Cardells–Tormo, F., & Valls–Coquillat, A. (2002). Optimized FPGA–implementation of quadrature DDS. 2002 IEEE International Symposium
on Circuits and Systems. Proceedings (Cat. No.02CH37353), 369–372. doi:10.1109/iscas.2002.1010717
Collins, A. (2017, February 17). All programmable RF–sampling solutions. Retrieved from
https://www.xilinx.com/support/documentation/white_papers/wp489–rfsampling–solutions.pdf. Xilinx White Paper: WP489.
DM54161/DM74161/DM74163 synchronous 4–bit counters. (1992, October). Retrieved from:

http://pdf.datasheetcatalog.com/datasheet/nationalsemiconductor/DS006551.PDF
Du, K., & Swamy, M. N. (2010). Wireless communication systems: from RF subsystems to 4G enabling technologies. Cambridge, UK:
Cambridge University Press.
Duttweiler, D., & Messerschmitt, D. (1978). Analysis of digitally generated sinusoids with application to A/D and D/A converter testing. IEEE
Transactions on Communications, 26(5), 669–675. doi:10.1109/tcom.1978.1094129
Essenwanger, K., & Reinhardt, V. (1998). Sine output DDSs. A survey of the state of the art. Proceedings of the 1998 IEEE International
Frequency Control Symposium (Cat. No.98CH36165). doi:10.1109/freq.1998.717930
Flynn, M. J., & Luk, W. (2011). Computer system design: system–on–chip. Hoboken: Wiley.
Garvey, J. F., & Babitch, D. (1990). An exact spectral analysis of a number controlled oscillator based synthesizer. 44th Annual Symposium on
Frequency Control, 511–521. doi:10.1109/freq.1990.177539
Goldberg, B. (1999). Digital frequency synthesis demystified. Eagle Rock, Va: LLH Technology Pub.
Goldsmith, A., & Chua, S.–G. (1997). Variable–rate variable–power MQAM for fading channels. IEEE Transactions on Communications, vol.
45, pp.1218–1230.
Grout, I. (2008). Circuit design. Amsterdam: Newnes.
Guo, Y., & Feher, K. (1993). Frequency hopping F–QPSK for power and spectrally efficient cellular systems. IEEE 43rd Vehicular Technology
Conference, 799–802. doi:10.1109/vetec.1993.508811
35
Author: Gazi Sultan
Hamidian, K. (2012). Phase–lock & frequency feedback systems. San Diego, CA: Montezuma Publishing.
Hamidian, K. (2013). Information theory and coding. San Diego, CA: Montezuma Publishing.
Hamidian, K. (2015). Spread spectrum communication. San Diego, CA: Montezuma Publishing.
Hamidian, K. (2016). Introduction to cellular wireless communication. San Diego, CA: Montezuma Publishing.
Hanzo, L., Blogh, J., & Ni, S (2008). 3G, HSDPA, HSUPA and FDD Versus TDD networking: smart antennas and adaptive modulation. IEEE
Press–John Wiley.
Hatai, I., & Chakrabarti, I. (2011). A New High–Performance Digital FM Modulator and Demodulator for Software–Defined Radio and its
FPGA Implementation. International Journal of Reconfigurable Computing. Vol 2011. Hindawi Publishing Corporation.
doi:10.1155/2011/342532
Haykin, S. S. (2001). Communication systems. New York: Wiley.
Ibnkahla, M. (2005). Signal processing for mobile communications: handbook. Estados Unidos: CRC Press.
Jayamohan, U. (2015). Not your grandfather’s ADC: RF sampling ADCs offer advantages in systems design. Retrieved from
http://www.analog.com/media/en/technical–documentation/technical–articles/Not–Your–Grandfathers–ADC–RF–Sampling–ADCs–
Offer–Advantages–in–Systems–Design.pdf. Technical article. Analog Devices.
Kester, W. (Ed.). (2008, October). MT–085: Fundamentals of direct digital synthesis (DDS). Retrieved from
http://www.analog.com/media/en/training–seminars/tutorials/MT–085.pdf. Analog Devices.
Kester, W. (2009). MT–003: understand SINAD, ENOB, SNR, THD, THD N, and SFDR so you don't get lost in the noise floor. Retrieved
October, 2016, from http://www.analog.com/media/en/training–seminars/tutorials/MT–003.pdf Analog Devices.
Khanna, V. K. (2009). Digital signal processing. New Delhi: S. Chand & Co.
Kroupa, V. F. (1993). Discrete spurious signals and background noise in direct frequency synthesizers. 1993 IEEE International Frequency
Control Symposium. doi:10.1109/freq.1993.367402
Kroupa, V. F. (1994). Spectral properties of DDFS: computer simulations and experimental verifications. 48th Proceedings of the 1994 IEEE
International Frequency Control Symposium, 1994. doi:10.1109/freq.1994.398272
Kroupa, V. F. (1999). Direct digital frequency synthesizers. New York: IEEE Press.
Larson, D. C. (1998). High speed direct digital synthesis techniques and applications. IEEE Gallium Arsenide Integrated Circuit Symposium.
20th Annual. Technical Digest 1998 (Cat. No.98CH36260). doi:10.1109/gaas.1998.722673
Lee, W. C. (1998). Mobile communications engineering: theory and applications. New York: McGraw–Hill.
Leibson, S., & Mehta, N. (2014, May 13). Xilinx UltraScale: The next–generation architecture for your next–generation architecture. Retrieved
from https://www.xilinx.com/support/documentation/white_papers/wp435–Xilinx–UltraScale.pdf . Xilinx White Paper: WP435 (v1.1)
Lin, Y. S. (2010). Essential issues in SoC design: designing complex systems–on–chip. New York: Springer.
Liu, Z. (2013). Design of typical waveform generator based on DDS/SoPC. Proceedings 2013 International Conference on Mechatronic Sciences,
Electric Engineering and Computer (MEC). doi:10.1109/mec.2013.6885143
Maxfield, C. (2004). The design warrior's guide to FPGAs: devices, tools and flows. Amsterdam: Newnes.
Moubark, A. M., Ali, M. A., Sanusi, H., & Ali, S. (2013). FPGA Implementation of Low Power Digital QPSK Modulator Using Verilog HDL.
Journal of Applied Sciences, 13, 385–392. doi:10.3923/jas.2013.385.392
36
Author: Gazi Sultan
Nicholas, H., & Samueli, H. (1991). A 150–MHz Direct Digital Frequency Synthesizer in 1.25– mu m CMOS with –90–dBc Spurious
Performance. IEEE Journal of Solid–State Circuits, 26(12), 1959–1969. doi:10.1109/4.104190
Nikolic, O. (2005). Direct digital synthesizer (DDS). Orono, Maine: University of Maine. Retrieved September, 2016, from
https://ece.umaine.edu/wp–content/uploads/sites/203/2012/05/OgyECE547Report.pdf
Park, J. (1978). On binary DPSK detection. IEEE Transactions on Communications, 26(4), 484–486. doi:10.1109/tcom.1978.1094092
Popescu, S. O., Gontean, A. S., & Budura, G. (2011). Simulation and implementation of a BPSK modulator on FPGA. 6th IEEE International
Symposium on Applied Computational Intelligence and Informatics (SACI), 459–463. doi:10.1109/saci.2011.5873047
Proakis, J. G., & Salehi, M. (2008). Digital communications. Boston: McGraw–Hill.
Proakis, J. G., & Manolakis, D. G. (2014). Digital signal processing. Harlow, Essex: Pearson.
Purle, D., Nix, A., Beach, M., & McGeehan, J. (1992). A preliminary performance evaluation of a linear frequency hopped modem. 1992
Proceedings on Vehicular Technology Society 42nd VTS Conference – Frontiers of Technology, 120–124.
doi:10.1109/vetec.1992.245458
Rappaport, T. S. (2009). Wireless communications: principles and practice. New Delhi: Dorling Kindersley.
Reinhardt, V. S. (1993). Spur reduction techniques in direct digital synthesizers. 1993 IEEE International Frequency Control Symposium, 230–
241. doi:10.1109/FREQ.1993.367401
Shannon, C. E. (1948). A Mathematical Theory of Communication. Bell System
Sklar, B. (2001). Digital communications fundamentals and applications. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Smillie, G. (1999). Analogue and digital communication techniques. London: Arnold.
Smith, D. J. (2001). HDL chip design: a practical guide for designing, synthesizing, and simulating ASICs and FPGAs using VHDL or Verilog.
Madison, Alab.: Doone Publications
Smith, M. J. (1999). Application specific integrated circuits. Addison–Wesley.
Staszewski, R. B., & Balsara, P. T. (2006). All–digital frequency synthesizer in deep–submicron CMOS. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley–Interscience.
Subasinghe–Dias, D., & Feher, K. (1991). Baseband Pulse Shaping Techniques for pi /4–DQPSK in Nonlinearly Amplified Land Mobile
Channels. 41st IEEE Vehicular Technology Conference, Technical Journal, 27(4), 623–656. doi:10.1002/j.1538–7305.1948.tb00917.x
The NCO as a stable, accurate synthesizer. (1998, May). Retrieved November, 2016, from
https://www.intersil.com/content/dam/Intersil/documents/tb31/tb318.pdf. Intersil Technical Brief. TB218.1
Tierney, J., Radar, C. M., & Gold, B. (1971). A Digital Frequency Synthesizer. IEEE Transactions on Audio Electroaccoustics, vol. 19, pp. 48–
57, March.
Understanding direct digital synthesis (DDS). (2016, December 30). Retrieved January, 2017, from http://www.ni.com/white–paper/5516/en/.
White paper. Instrument Fundamentals Series. National Instruments.
Vankka, J. (1996). A modulator using direct digital synthesis technique. Otaniemi: Helsinki University of Technology.
Vankka, J., & Halonen, K. A. (2001). Direct digital synthesizers: theory, design and applications. New York: Springer.
Wheatley, C. E., & Phillips, D. E. (1981). Spurious suppression in direct digital synthesizers. 35th Annual Frequency Control Symposium.
doi:10.1109/freq.1981.200508
Woods, R., McAllister, J., Lightbody, G., & Yi, Y. (2008). FPGA–based implementation of signal processing systems. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley
& Sons Inc.
37
Author: Gazi Sultan
Wu, C., Zhou, B., & Fang, J. (2015). Study on spurious suppression method of high accuracy DDS. 2015 IEEE International Conference on
Progress in Informatics and Computing (PIC). doi:10.1109/pic.2015.7489901
Xiong, F. (2006). Digital modulation techniques. Norwood: Artech House.
Zybo reference manual. (n.d.). Retrieved January, 2017, from https://reference.digilentinc.com/reference/programmable–logic/zybo/reference–

manual
Zynq–7000 All Programmable SoC product advantages. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.xilinx.com/products/silicon–devices/soc/zynq–
7000.html
38
View publication stats

Digitalbandpassmodulationtechniques PSKFSK

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Digitalbandpassmodulationtechniques PSKFSK

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

DIGITAL BANDPASS MODULATION TECHNIQUES: Phase & Frequency Shift

Chapter · August 2020

The Projective Funnel View project

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

DIGITAL BANDPASS MODULATION TECHNIQUES: Phase & Frequency Shift Keying

2.DIGITAL BANDPASS MODULATION ............................................................................................................................... 1

In baseband pulse transmission, an information-bearing data stream is represented in the form of a

Hierarchy and Classification of Digital Modulation Techniques

Choice of Digital Modulation Scheme

𝐶 < 𝐵 log 2 (1 + SNR) 2.3

Digital Bandpass Modulation Technique Basics

Mathematical Representation of Digitally Modulated Signals

Figure 2.3. Block diagram of a memoryless digital modulator.

and the bit-rate is given as:

𝑅b = 𝑅s log 2 𝑀 = 𝑅s log 2 2𝑘 = 𝑘𝑅s 2.6

Phase Shift Keying (PSK) Modulation

Coherent Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK) Modulation

Noncoherent Differential Binary Phase Shift Keying (DBPSK) Modulation

𝑑𝑐𝑖 = 𝑑𝑐𝑖−1 ⊕ 𝑑𝑖 2.14a

𝑑𝑐𝑖 = 𝑑𝑐𝑖−1 ⊕ 𝑑𝑖 2.14b

Table 2.1. Generation of DBPSK signals

Differentially encoded message, 𝑑𝑐𝑖−1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1

Corresponding phase shift, 𝜙𝑚 (𝑖) π π π 0 0 π π

Figure 2.8. Timing diagram of typical DBPSK waveform.

Regardless of binary or 𝑀-ary scheme, the basis of differentially-coherent detection of differentially-

Coherent Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK) Modulation

Phase shift of symbol from Transmitted

Coherent Offset QPSK (OQPSK) Modulation

The two basis-functions to generate offset QPSK are defined as:

In many applications, like multipath faded environment in cellular-phone or satellite-television

𝝅⁄𝟒 Shifted Differential QPSK Modulation

𝐼𝑖 = cos 𝜃𝑖 = cos(𝜃𝑖−1 + 𝜑𝑖 ) = 𝐼𝑖−1 cos(𝜑𝑖 ) − 𝑄𝑖−1 sin(𝜑𝑖 ) 2.19a

𝑄𝑖 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑖 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃𝑖−1 + 𝜑𝑖 ) = 𝑄𝑖−1 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜑𝑖 ) − 𝐼𝑖−1 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜑𝑖 ) 2.19b

𝐼(𝑡) = ∑ 𝐼𝑖 𝑝(𝑡 − 𝑖𝑇s − 𝑇s ⁄2) = ∑ cos 𝜃𝑖 𝑝 (𝑡 − 𝑖𝑇s − 𝑇s ⁄2) 2.20a

𝑄(𝑡) = ∑ 𝑄𝑖 𝑝(𝑡 − 𝑖𝑇s − 𝑇s ⁄2) = ∑ sin 𝜃𝑖 𝑝 (𝑡 − 𝑖𝑇s − 𝑇s ⁄2) 2.20b

for transmission of dibit 00 over 𝑇s ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2𝑇s ,

for transmission of dibit 01 over 𝑇s ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2𝑇s ,

for transmission of dibit 11 over 𝑇s ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2𝑇s and,

for transmission of dibit 10 over 𝑇s ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2𝑇s .

Performance of PSK Modulation Schemes

𝑃b,BPSK = 𝑄(√2𝛾b ) 2.23a

where 𝑄-function is related to the complementary error function, erfc(x) by

erfc(𝑥) = 2𝑄(√2𝑥) 2.23b

The 𝑄-function is upper-bounded by the Chernoff bound:

Furthermore, the bit SNR and symbol SNR are defined as

𝑃b,DEQPSK = 2𝑃b,QPSK = 2𝑄(√2𝛾b ) 2.26

Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) Modulation

2 𝐸s ⁄𝑇s 𝑇s j2π(y−x)∆ft sin 𝜋 𝑇s (𝑦 − 𝑥)∆𝑓 jπT (y−x)∆ft

Orthogonal Binary Frequency Shift Keying (BFSK) Modulation

Continuous-Phase FSK (CPFSK) Waves

Consider a true binary-CPFSK signal given as:

The baseband time-waveform of CPFSK signal is represented as:

𝑏p (𝑡) = ∑ 𝐴j 𝑟𝑒𝑐(𝑡 − 𝑚𝑇s ) 2.36a

𝑠(𝑡) = 𝑔(𝑡) cos[2𝜋𝑓c 𝑡 + 𝜑(𝑡; 𝑎) + 𝜑0 ] 2.36b

The final expression of the CPFSK modulated waveform is:

Performance of FSK Modulation Schemes

𝑃b,CH O−BFSK = 𝑄 √𝛾b 2.37

Comparison of FSK and PSK Systems

1. MATLAB script code to generate coherent BPSK waveform

d=[1 0 1 1 0]; % d(t)/d_i binary data sequence

% Coherent BPSK wave

2. MATLAB script code to generate coherent QPSK waveform

y2=s_p_data(2,i)sin(2pift) ;% Quadrature component