CM4310: Chapter 4, Part A September 12, 2005

Chapter 4: Source Models Source Models

• What: Describe how material escapes from

Qm Qm 2 a process
• Why: Required to determine potential
Q m1
consequences of and accident

Risk = f( Probability, Consequences )

Why do we need Source Models?

What do Source Models Provide?
System description

• Release rate, mass/time Hazard identification

• Total amount released

Scenario identification
Source models are
• State of material: liquid, solid, gas, Accident
probability
Accident
consequences
used to estimate
the consequences.
combination
Risk determination

Risk &
hazard N
Modify design
acceptable
?
Y
Accept system Fig. 10-1

Selection of
Consequence Release Incident

Selection of
Release Mechanisms - 1
Models Source Model
to Describe Chapter 4
Release Incident

Figure 4-1 Pure Immediately

Selection of Wind
Dispersion Model Chapter 5 Vapor Jet Resulting
Direction Vapor Cloud
mô hình khuếch tán
Flammable Toxic
Vapor Vapor
Flammable Liquefied Gas
and/or Toxic?
under Pres.

Chapter 6 Selection of Selection of Chapter 2

Fire and Effect Model
Explosion Model Small Hole in Vapor Catastrophic Failure of

Mitigation Space of a Pressurized Tank Pressurized Tank

Factors

Consequence
Model

1
CM4310: Chapter 4, Part A September 12, 2005

Release Mechanisms - 2 Release Mechanisms - 3

Jet 3 Evaporation Evaporating

? Cloud
Liquid Jet
Liquid
Vapor Vapor Jet 2
Liquefied Gas Jet 1 SS Spill
under Pres.
d Liquid in Bund
Jet 4 Boiling
Spillage of Refrigerated Spillage of Refrigerated
Pool
Intermediate Hole in Escape of Liquefied Gas from Liquid into Dike Liquid onto Water
Vapor Space of a Pressurized a Pressurized Tank
Tank

Release Mechanism Parameters

Release Mechanisms - 4
Nature of release depends on lots of parameters:
1. Temperature and pressure of released material.
Vapor 2. Composition of released material.

Refrigerated Fragmenting 3. Ambient temperature and pressure.

Liquid Jet Infinitely more 4. Ambient wind, humidity
possibilities!
5. Geometry of release (hole, rupture, catastrophic
High-Velocity Fragmenting failure)
Jet from Refrigerated 6. Vapor – Liquid – Equilibrium of released material.
Containment Vessel
7. Velocity of release.
8. Many others!

Source Model: Liquid thru a hole Mechanical Energy Balance for

Incompressible flow
P1 > P2
2
ΔP + Δu + g Δz + F = − Ws
Eq. 4-28
ρ 2 gc gc m
•

P = P ressu re
ρ = D en sity
u = V elo city
g c = G ravitatio n al C o n stan t
g = A cceleratio n d u e to g ravity
1. Pressure drives liquid thru hole z = H eig h t ab o ve d atu mđối với lỗ z=0
F = F rictio n
2. Pressure energy converted to KE as liquid escapes W s = S h aft w o rk công ngoại lực
•

3. Frictional losses m = M ass flo w

2
CM4310: Chapter 4, Part A September 12, 2005

ΔP Δu 2 g W Make Assumptions for Hole:

+ + Δz + F = − s
ρ 2 gc gc m
Horizontal: Δ z ≈ 0
Δ P = P ressu re en erg y No Pumps / turbines: Ws = 0
ρ
2
F ≠0
Δ u = K in etic E n erg y
2gc
g Δ z = P o tential E n ergy Solve ME balance for u
gc
Apply: Qm = ρ uA
F = F rictio n al lo sses
( m ) = k g /s
⎛ kg ⎞⎛ m ⎞ 2
Qm =⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ m3 s
⎠⎝ ⎠
− W• s = M ech an ical E n erg y fro m p u m p s / tu rb in es ⎝
m

Giả sử chảy rối

Qm
Orifice Discharge Equation Orifice Discharge Coefficient
Qm=U.A.ro
Qm = Co A 2 ρ g cΔ P Eq. 4-7 0.700

0.650 =>U
Tốc độ tỷ lệ thuận với căn 2 của chênh áp 0.600
Discharge Coefficient

0.550
Co= Discharge coefficient accounts for friction 0.500
Re=UD/v
0.450
= 1 ---> no friction
0.400
Co
= 0.61 for turbulent flow of liquids. 0.350

0.300

0.250

0.200
1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
Reynolds Number

See Perry’s for more details!

Example Substitute in Orifice Equation

d= 1-inch diameter hole Qm = Co A 2 ρ g cΔ P

po= 100 psig upstream pressure

psia: áp suất tuyệt đối có trừ áp suất khí quyển
Q m = ( 0 .6 1 ) 5 .4 5 × 1 0 − 3 ft 2 ( )
Water psig: áp suất khí quyển(áp suất dư), không trừ áp suất khí quyển
⎛ lb m ⎞⎟ ⎛⎜ 3 2 .1 7 ft-lb m ⎞⎛ lb f ⎞ ⎛ 1 4 4 in 2 ⎞
⎡ ⎛ ⎞⎤
2
× ( 2 ) ⎜⎝⎜ 6 2 .4 ⎟ ⎜1 0 0 ⎟⎜ ⎟
(3 .1 4 ) ⎢⎢ (1 in ) ⎜⎜⎝ 112 ftin ⎟⎥
⎟⎥
ft 3 ⎠⎟ ⎜⎝ lb f − s 2 ⎟⎜
⎠⎝
in 2 ⎟⎜
⎠⎝ ft 2 ⎟
⎠
A= π D 2
= ⎣ ⎠⎦
= 5 .4 5 × 1 0 − 3 ft 2
4 4
Q m = 2 5 .3 lb m / s
C o = 0 .6 1 fo r h ig h ly tu rb u len t flo w
This is 3.03 gallons/sec.
Δ P = 1 0 0 p sig − 0 p sig = 1 0 0 p si= 1 0 0 lb f / in 2 The discharge velocity is 74 ft/sec!

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CM4310: Chapter 4, Part A September 12, 2005

⎛ g c Pg ⎞
Hole in a Tank Qm = ρ ACo 2 ⎜ + ghL ⎟ Eq. 4-12
⎜
⎝
ρ ⎟
⎠
Pg = Ambient Pressure
Qm = Mass flow rate
Hydrostatic
ρ = Liquid density
hL A = Hole area
Head
Phole=?
C o = Discharge coefficient
g c = Gravitational constant
Pressure at hole due to hydrostatic head
Pg = Gauge pressure in vapor space
plus ambient pressure.
Flow
g = Acc. due to gravity
Flow is maximum at t = 0 hL = Liquid height above hole.
and decreases with time.
0 Time

Hole in a Tank Liquid Flow Thru Pipes

dm dV
=ρ = −Qm Mass balance: Accumulation = -Output
dt dt
For a cylindrical vessel, V = At hL and it follows that:
dhL
ρ At = −Qm (hL )
dt
P1 > P2
Can solve above equations to determine:
1. Total draining time. - Pressure is driving force
2. Liquid level as a function of time. - Velocity is constant if pipe diameter constant
3. Discharge rate as a function of time. - Pressure drops due to friction
See textbook for details.

Mechanical Energy Balance for Pipe Flow Frictional Losses for Pipe Flow - 1
ΔP Δu2
+ +
g W
Δz + F = − .s ⎛ u2 ⎞
ρ 2gc gc m F = Kf ⎜ ⎟
ΔP ⎝ 2 gc ⎠
= P re ssu re E n e rg y
ρ where K f is the excess head loss

Δu
2
⎛ u2 ⎞
= K in e ti c E n e r g y ( K E ) ⎜ ⎟ is the velocity head
2gc ⎝ 2 gc ⎠
4 fL
g For pipe lengths: K f =
Δ z = P o te n tia l E n e r g y ( P E ) d
gc
where f is the Fanning friction factor (see text for computing)
F = F r ic tio n a l L o s s e s L is the pipe length
•

−W s /m = S h a f t W o r k f r o m M e c h a n i c a l L in k a g e d is the pipe diameter

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CM4310: Chapter 4, Part A September 12, 2005

Frictional Losses for Pipe Flow -2

Fanning Friction Factor
dộ nhám: chỗ có độ dày lớn nhất - chỗ có độ đay nhỏ nhất

For pipe fittings:

Friction term, F, given by:
2 fLu 2 K1 ⎛ 1 ⎞
F= L = Pipe Length, g c = grav. constant Kf = + K ∞ ⎜1 + ⎟
gc d u = Liquid ave. velocity, d = Pipe diam. Re ⎝ IDinches ⎠

f = Fanning friction factor where K1 and K ∞ are constants (see Table 4-2)
= f(Reynolds no., pipe roughness) Re is the Reynolds number
IDinches is the fitting diameter in inches
Equations (4-31 to 4-37) and Figure (4-7)
provided in textbook for f. K1 important at low Re while K∞ important at high
Re.
Differs from Moody friction factor!

Q=>u>Re

Example – Horizontal Pipe, no fittings Example:

What is pressure drop across 150 ft of 1-inch
KE ≈ 0 → u = constant → Δu 2 = 0 Sch. 40, commercial steel pipe if flow = 30 gpm?
Δz ≈ 0 since horizontal Viscosity = 1.0 cp (water), cp = centipoise
Ws ≈ 0 since no pumps or turbines 30 gpm 150 ft
": inch
ΔP
Procedure:
2 fLu 2 ':feet
= −F = − 1. Convert to appropriate units
ρ gc d
2. Select equation
3. Determine Reynolds number and then f
4. Calculate answer.

1. Convert to Appropriate Units 2. Select Equation:

I.D. = 1.049" = 0.0874 ft = 26.6 mm Mechanical Energy Balance:

πD
2 2
(3.14)(0.0874 ft)
A= = = 0.0060 ft
2
No Pumps: Ws = 0
4 4
Horizontal: Δz = 0
⎛ 0.1337 ft 3 ⎞
Qv = (30 gal/min) ⎜ ⎟ = 4.011 ft / min Δu 2 = 0
3
Velocity constant:
⎝ 1 gal ⎠
3
4.011 ft / min ΔP 2 fLu 2
u=
Qv
= = 668 ft/min = 11.1 ft/sec = −F = −
A 0.0060 ft
2
ρ gcd
Note: Typical pipe liquid velocity about 10 ft/sec.

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CM4310: Chapter 4, Part A September 12, 2005

3. Determine Reynolds No. and then 3. Determine Reynolds No. and then
Friction Factor Friction Factor
Du ρ From Table 4-1, ε = 0.046 mm (pipe roughness)
Re = D = diam., u = velocity,
μ Then
ρ = density, μ = viscosity ⎛ ε ⎞ 0.046 mm
⎜ ⎟= = 0.00173
1 cp = 6.72 × 10 lb m / ft-sec
-4
⎝ d ⎠ 26.6 mm
(0.0874 ft)(11.1 ft/sec)(62.4 lbm / ft 3) From Figure 4-7 (or equations in text), f = 0.00616
Re =
6.72 × 10-4 lb m / ft-sec
Re = 9.01×104 (no units!)

4. Calculate Answer: General Pipe Flow Problem

ΔP 2 fLu 2 For the general case, with fittings, changes in elevation,

= −F = − pumps, etc., problem is by trial and error.
ρ gc d Procedure:
lb 1. Guess velocity
−(2)(0.00616)(150 ft)(11.1 ft/s) 2 (62.4 m3 )
ΔP = ft 2. Compute Reynolds Number
ft lb m
(32.17 )(0.0874 ft) 3. Compute fitting head losses
lbf s 2 4. Compute friction factor, f
ΔP = -5052 lbf / ft = −35.1 lbf / in
2 2
(psi) 5. Calculate velocity
6. Continue until guessed velocity = calculated velocity.
Can all be done easily by spreadsheet!