Lesson Proper:
 MALTOSE= glucose + glucose
Three major classes of carbohydrates:
monosaccharides, oligosaccharides and
polysaccharides (from word saccharide is
derived the Greek word "sakcharon” meaning
sugar).
Monosaccharides/Simple surgars
- consist of a single polyhydroxy aldehyde
or ketone unit or one saccharide group.
- The most abundant monosaccharide in
nature is Dextrose (six-carbon sugar D-
glucose).
- Carbohydrates are classified according
to the number of the saccharide groups
contained in their molecules.
Most common and abundant
monosaccharide
 Glucose
 Galactose
 Fructose
• Trioses (C3H603) — glyceraldehyde,
dihydroxyacetone
• tetroses(c4H8o4)- erythrose, erythrulose
• Pentoses (C5H1005) — xylose, ribose
desoxyribose, arabinose, rhamnose
• Hexoses (C6H1206) — glucose,
galactose, mannose, fructose
• Heptoses (C7H1407) — mannoheptose,
mannoheptulose
Oligosaccharides
-consist of short chains of
monosaccharide units joined by glycosidic
bonds/ linkages. Oligosaccharides consist
of more than one (2-10) saccharide
groups.
-The most abundant are Disaccharides,
consisting of two monosaccharide units.
Typical in sucrose (sugar cane), which
consists of the six-carbon sugar D-glucose
D-fructose.
-All common monosaccharides and
Disaccharides have names ending with
the suffix "ose"
TYPICAL DISACCHARIDE
 SUCROSE= glucose + fructose
 LACTOSE= glucose + galactose
• Disaccharides (C12l-122011) —
sucrose, lactose, maltose, isomaltose
• Trisachharides (C18H32016) — raffinose
Polysaccharides
-are sugar polymers containing more than
20
or so monosaccharide units; some have
hundreds or thousands of units.
- Some polysaccharides, such as
cellulose, are linear chains; others, such
as glycogen, are branched.
-Glycogen
-present in animal tissues (LIVER)
- storage form of glucose in
humans (LIVER)
-Glucose – present in the bloodstream
• Starch group — starch, glycogen, inulin,
dextrin
• Cellulose group:
✓ Cellulose
✓ Hemicellulose
✓ Pentosans (C5H8O4)— gum Arabic
✓ Hexosans— agar agar
✓ Hexopentosans- pectins
Physical Properties
• The mono and disaccharides are white
crystalline substances; starches are amorphous
powder, while the most complex cellulose is
fibrous.
• The solubility to ordinary solvents is inversely
proportional to the complexity of their structure.
( the lesser its complexity the more soluble it is)
• Both mono and disaccharides are sweet, while
starches and cellulose are tasteless
Reducing and Nonreducing Sugars
• Reducing Sugars: Glucose, Maltose, Fructose,
Lactose and Galactose
• The presence of a double band and a negative
charge in the enol anion makes glucose an active
reducing substance.
• Sucrose is the most common nonreducing
sugar.
• Non reducing sugar do not contain active ketone
or aldehyde group.
Examples of Monosaccharides
1. Glucose/ Dextrose/ Grape sugar
• It is widely distributed in nature
• Together with fructose, it is found in fruit juices
• It appears as white or yellowish white crystalline
solid that is soluble in water
• It is one of the sweetest sugars, excelled only by
fructose and sucrose
• Commercially it is produced by the hydrolysis of
starch and appears as colorless or faintly yellow
syrupy liquid
• It is readily absorbed through the digestive tract
and it is the only sugar present in the blood
• In conditions where carbohydrate metabolism is
disturbed, as in DM (Diabetes mellitus), the
amount in the blood is increased and glucose
finds its way into the urine
2. Fructose/ Levulose/ Fruit sugar
• It is found along with glucose in many fruits and
vegetables
• It is commercially prepared by the hydrolysis of
inulin
• It is the sweetest of all sugars
• In solution, it is difficult to crystallize due to its
property of absorbing moisture
• It may be found in the urine of patients suffering
from DM (Diabetes mellitus)
3. Galactose
• It is found in plants as a constituent of pectin
• In animals, it forms a part of the nervous tissues
such as galactolipids
• It appears abnormally in the urine of nursing
infants suffering from digestive disturbances
• It is less sweet and less soluble than glucose
Other Monosaccharides
4. Pentoses
• Are monosaccharides containing 5 carbon
atoms.
• They are not found in nature as such they occur
in the form of complex carbohydrates like
pentosans, gums, xylans, and arabans which only
yield pentoses
• Like hexoses they possess strong reducing
property, forming characteristic osazone crystals
with phenyldrazine and are optically active
• Pentoses are not however fermented by Baker's
yeast
• On prolonged heating with mineral acids,
pentoses yield furfural. This can be distilled off
and when brought in contact with aniline acetate
paper, produces characteristic red color
5. Desoxy sugars
• are true carbohydrates but the hydrogen and
oxygen in their molecules are not in such
proportion as that found in a molecule of water.
This is due to the substitution of one of the
hydroxyl groups with hydrogen, so they contain
one oxygen less than the sugars from which they
are derived
6. Monosaccharide Esters
• Monosaccharides form esters with phosphoric
acid which appears to be a prerequisite to many
physiological reactions
• The hydroxyl groups are esterified with
phosphates in the presence of appropriate
enzyme
Examples of Oligosaccharides
1. Disaccharides
• The members of the disaccharides can be
grouped into those containing the potentially free
aldehyde group, like maltose and lactose, and
those which do not, like sucrose
• On hydrolysis, they yield two molecules of
monosaccharides
❖ Sucrose/ Saccharose/ Table sugar
• This is the most important sugar from the dietary
standpoint
• It is widely distributed in nature especially in
sugar cane and sugar beets
• It is one of the sweetest sugars, surpassed only
by fructose
• It is an inert sugar
• It does not reduce alkaline metallic soIutions nor
does it form osazone crystals
• In the intestinal tract it is readily hydrolyzed into
glucose and fructose which are subsequently
absorbed
• Like lactose it is not utilized as such by the body
and therefore should not be injected
intravenously, if intended for nutritive purposes
❖ Maltose
• Malt sugar is the product of hydrolysis of starch
by the action of either enzymes or acids
• The enzyme may be either a diastase
(vegetable origin) or amylase (animal origin)
• It is easily digested which makes it an essential
ingredient of food preparations for invalids and
babies
• Maltose is a sweet, crystalline, white powder,
soluble in water
• It is fermentable by yeast only after hydrolysis
• Because of the presence of the aldehyde group,
it reduces alkaline metallic solutions and forms
osazone crystals
❖ Lactose/ Milk sugar
• It is found in large amount in milk
• In excessive secretion of the mammary gland as
in lactating women, it may appear in the urine
• It may also be eliminated through the urine, in
normal individuals after ingesting large amounts
of milk or lactose, and in nursing infants suffering
from digestive disturbances
• Like maltose it reduces alkaline metallic
solutions and forms characteristic osazone
crystals due to the presence of the aldehyde
group
• Lactose is not acted upon by yeast but is
fermented by Escherichia coli
• Sour milk is formed after the conversion of
lactose into lactic acid by microorganisms like
Lactobacillus acidophilus and Lactobacillus
vulgaris
• It is not very soluble in water and is not as sweet
as other sugars
2. Trisaccharides
❖ Raffinose/ Melitose/Melitriose
• It is found in cotton seed
• It is dextrorotatory, does not possess reducing
power on alkaline metallic solutions and is slightly
acted upon by yeasts
• Acids hydrolyze it into fructose and melibiose
Examples of Polysaccharides
• Polysaccharides with large molecular weights
are antigenic. When injected to experimental
animals, they produce antibodies. These
antibodies cross — reacts with polysaccharides of
similar structure. So that if the structure of the
original antigen is known, the structure of the
cross —reacting polysaccharide may be inferred.
By the use therefore of different antibodies of
known specificity, and measurement of the cross
reaction to unknown polysaccharide, important
information can be obtained of the latter's
structure.
1. Homopolysaccharides
• These are polysaccharides which on hydrolysis
yield one kind of monosaccharide
• Example: (1) Starch and glycogen which yield
glucose (2) Inulin which yields only fructose
❖ Starch
• Is found abundantly in the plant kingdom
particularly in fruits, cereals, seeds, bulbs and
tubers
• Occurs in the form of granules
• Starch granules are made up of amylose (98%)
which is linear in structure, and amylopectin which
consists of highly branched chains
• Raw starch is insoluble on cold water
• Prolonged heating or grinding causes the
disintegration of the granules liberating the
amylose which is slightly soluble in water
• This is responsible for the deep blue color
produced with iodine due to the formation of
starch iodine; amylopectin produces purple color
• The hydrolysis of starch either by action of
amylolytic enzyme or acid gives rise to split
fragments of gradually diminishing molecular size
and complexity with simultaneous production of
maltose
• In the presence of the enzyme maltase, maltose
is converted into glucose.
• In acid, the final product is glucose
• The enzymes amylases catalyzing the
hydrolysis of starch have been divided into 2
classes:
α— amylases like those of the pancreatic and
salivary, split a — 1,4 — glucosidic bonds (except
for those of maltose) in random fashion
β— amylase, such as barley and malt, attack
polysaccharide chains effecting successive
removal of disaccharides
❖ Inulin
• It is found in the bulb of onions and garlic
• It is a white, odorless, tasteless powder, easily
soluble in hot water but slightly soluble in cold
water and insoluble in 60% alcohol
• It does not give blue color with iodine solution
• Optically active
• Thru the hydrolyzing action of either acid or the
enzyme inulase, insulin yields only fructose
❖ Glycogen/ Animal Starch
• Found mostly in the liver as storage material
• Found in the muscles as a source of energy
• It has been found to occur also in yeast, algae
and fungi
• It differs from starch in being soluble in cold
water, forming an opalescent solution, from which
it can be precipitated by ethyl alcohol and in
giving with iodine a red instead of a blue color
• Like starch, glycogen upon the hydrolysis by
amylase yields maltose; with acid, the end
product is glucose
• β - amylase hydrolyzes glycogen incompletely
into maltose and limit dextrin
• Analysis of tissues for glycogen depends upon
solution in hot alkali, precipitation with alcohol,
acid hydrolysis of the precipitate and quantitative
determination of glucose
❖Dextrins
• These are intermediary products of starch
hydrolysis
• They are amorphous, white powder, soluble in
ordinary solvents but insoluble in alcohol and
ether
• They are dextrorotatory and non — fermentable
by yeast
• Dextrins upon hydrolysis by amylase yield
maltose, by acids, they give glucose
• They are precipitated from their clear, colorless
solution by alcohol, forming a sticky, gummy
mass which are used d mucilage
• They are widely used in infant feeding
• Many of breakfast foods and malt preparations
for beverages also contain dextrin
❖ Cellulose
• Purest source is cotton
• It forms the supporting tissues of plants
• It is practically insoluble, being dissolved only in
certain special reagents like Schweitzer's
ammoniacal cupric hydroxide and zinc chloride in
HCI solution
• It does not give a blue color with iodine
• It is not hydrolyzed by dilute acids
• With strong nitric acid and concentrated sulfuric
acid, it forms nitrocellulose
• When heated for some time with concentrated
acids, it liberates a disaccharide which is
subsequently split into 2 molecules of D —
glucose
• Cellulose plays an important role in human
physiology by furnishing bulk (roughage) which
stimulates peristalsis
• Under suitable conditions, cellulose is oxidized
by nitric oxide, giving rise to substances which are
soluble in the slightly alkaline body fluids
❖ Hemicellulose
• Group of carbohydrates which differ from
cellulose in that they are hydrolyzed upon boiling
with mineral acids
• Unlike other polysaccharides, they are not
readily digested by amylase
• The products of its hydrolysis are pentoses and
hexoses
• Pentosans is a class of hemicellulose liberates
pentose on hydrolysis. They are widely distributed
in the plant kingdom. Example: Gum Arabic
• Hexosans is represented by the galactans,
which are widely distributed in plants. Upon
hydrolysis, they give galactose. Example: Agar
Agar
• Hexo— pentosans this group is represented by
pectins which are colloidal carbohydrates. They
are responsible for the jellying properties of fruits.
On hydrolysis, pectin yield arabinose, galactose,
acetic acid, methyl alcohol, and galacturonic acid
❖Dextrans
• Polysaccharides produced by certain
microorganisms when grown on sugar media
• Made up of units of D — glucose molecules
having glycosidic linkages
• Dextrans , synthesized by Leuconostoc
dextranicium has been recommended as blood
extenders due to their high viscosity, low osmotic
pressure, low disintegration and utilization
2. Heteropolysaccharides
• These are polysaccharides which on hydrolysis
yields mixtures products of monosaccharides and
derived products
• The nitrogen containing heteropolysaccharides
may be divided into 2 main groups
(1) Neutral mucopolysaccharides
✓ Made up of N — acetyl — hexosamine and
hexose
✓ Example: those found in bacteria and the so —
called " immunological, specific blood group
substances
(2) Acid mucopolysaccharides
✓ Contain hexuronic acid, sulfate or phosphate
and acetylhexosamine
✓ Example: Chondroitin sulfate, Heparin
Carbohydrate Metabolism
• Around 60% of the total amount of food ingested
is made up of complex carbohydrates
• Starch and glycogen are acted upon by the
digestive enzymes of the GIT
GLUCOSE METABOLISM
 Glycolysis- conversion of
pyruvate/lactate + ATP from glucose
 Glycogenolysis- (glycogen + lysis)
breakdown of stored glycogen to
glucose
 Glycogenesis- (glycogen + genesis)
conversion/formation of excess
glucose into glycogen stored in liver
and/ skeletal muscles.
 Lipogenesis- (lipid + genesis)
conversion of carbohydrate to fatty
acids (small units of lipids)
 Gluconeogenesis- conversion of non-
carbohydrate substances such as
amino acids, fatty acids, glycerol into
glucose.
A. Adsorption
• After thorough digestion, carbohydrates are
reduced into simple monosaccharides
• Simplified monosaccharides take places in the
small intestine and they are carried by the portal
circulation to the liver
• The different monosaccharides are absorbed at
different speed
• Galactose and glucose are actively absorbed
• Active absorption of D — glucose requires the
mediation of specific transport protein in the
membrane of the brush border of the intestinal
mucosal cells
• Potassium and lithium ions are inhibitory to
glucose absorption
• D — fructose and D — mannose is absorbed by
facilitated transport
• Other sugars like pentose are passively
absorbed by diffusion
• Competitive interrelationship exists between
transport of glucose and transport of galactose
• Thyroxine and members of the B complex
vitamins, promote the absorption of hexoses
• During absorption, the liver cannot completely
remove the sugars from the blood and some find
their way into the systemic circulation
• Sprue hyperglycemia does not follow oral
administration of glucose although intravenous
injection produces a normal rise
• In the liver, the hexoses are transformed into
glycogen
• In the body of a normal healthy adult, there is
usually about 200 grams of glycogen
Regulation of Blood Glucose
 Insulin
- it is the only hypoglycemic
hormone (it lowers blood glucose
level when it is excessive in
amount)
-it is synthesized by the pancreas
(beta cell of the islet of Langerhan)
-if glucose is definitely increased in
the circulation insulin will stimulate
the formation of glucose into
glycogen
 Glucagon
- it is the primary hyperglycemic
hormone (it increases blood
glucose level when the body
demands glucose)
-synthesized by the pancreas
(alpha cells of islet of Langerhans)
-if the body demands glucose
glucagon will stimulate the
breakdown of glycogen into
glucose
Other Hyperglycemic Hormone
 Somatostatin- growth hormone inhibitor;
synthesized in pancreas (delta cells of
islet of Langerhans)
 GH/somatotropin-growth hormone
 ACTH/ Adrenocorticotropic hormone
 Cortisol
 Epinephrine
 Thyroid Hormone
Carbohydrate Malabsorption
• Hereditary deficiencies of enzyme sucrase,
lactase, a — dextrinase, in infants and children is
called Disaccharide Intolerance
• Incomplete digestion of amylopectin, maltose,
sucrose or lactose results in bacterial
decomposition of these carbohydrates in the
lower intestines with production of glucose and
other monosaccharides, organic acids and gases
Citric Acid Cycle
• The citric acid cycle has two other names:
1. Krebs Cycle, after Sir Hans Krebs, who first
investigated the pathway
2. Tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA)
• The citric acid cycle is amphibolic, it plays a
role in both catabolism and anabolism.
• It is the central metabolic pathway.
• The main difference between glycolysis and the
citric acid cycle is that, the part of the cell in which
these pathways occurs are different; In
eukaryotes, glycolysis occurs in the cytosol, while
the citric acid cycle takes place in mitochondria.
• Under aerobic conditions, pyruvate produced
by glycolysis is oxidized further, with carbon
dioxide and water as the final products.
• First, the pyruvate is oxidized to one carbon
dioxide molecule and to one acetyl group, which
becomes linked to an intermediate, coenzyme A
(CoA).
• The acetyl CoA enters the citric acid cycle, and
within the cycle, two more molecules of carbon
dioxide are produced for each molecule of acetyl
CoA that enters the cycle, and electrons are
transferred in the process.
• The immediate electron acceptor in all cases is
NAD (Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) which is
reduced to NADH.
• In another case in which there is another
intermediate electron acceptor, FAD (Flavine
adenine dinucleotide), which is derived from
riboflavin (Vitamin B2), takes up two electrons
and hydrogen ions to produce FADH2.
• The final electron acceptor is oxygen, with
water as the product.
• In the first reaction of the cycle, the two-carbon
acetyl group condenses with the four-carbon
oxaloacetate ion to produce the six-carbon citrate
ion.
• The citric acid cycle has eight steps, each
catalyzed by a different enzyme. Four of the eight
steps — namely Steps 3, 4, 6 and 8 are
oxidation reactions. The oxidizing agent is
NAD+ in steps 3, 4 and 8 while Step 6 has a FAD
oxidizing agent.
• In Step 5, a molecule of GDP (Guanosine
diphosphate) is phosphorylated to produce GTP
(Guanosine triphosphate).
• The enzyme pyruvate dehydrogenase
complex is responsible for the conversion of
pyruvate to carbon dioxide and the acetyl portion
of acetyl CoA.
• There are five enzymes that make up the
pyruvate dehydrogenase complex in mammals.
They are pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH),
transacetylase, dehydrogenase, pyruvate
dehydrogenase kinase, and pyruvate
dehydrogenase phosphatase. The first three
enzymes are involved in the conversion of
pyruvate to acetyl CoA. The remaining two
enzymes catalyze the reactions of lipoic acid, a
compound that has a disulfide group in its
oxidized form and two sulfhydryl groups in its
reduced form.