Administration and Supervision

in Social Work
Ofelia C. Mendoza, RSW, MSW
Theoretical Concepts of Social
Work Administration
 ▪ Administration is an important area in
organized human activity.
▪ It has been considered a process, a
method or a set or relationships between
and among people working toward
Why we need common objectives in an organization.
administration? ▪ Every organization requires
administration to function effectively to
achieve its goals.
▪ Administration is necessary to orchestrate
the myriad activities of an organization.
 ▪ Administration is the process of defining and
attaining the objectives of the organization
through a system of coordination and
cooperative effort.
▪ Administration is a continuous process that
Definition of leads to organizational growth and
Adminstration development.
▪ Administration is a phenomenon occurring in
government, schools, business firms, labor
unions, hospitals, and in any organized goal
seeking group of persons.
 ▪ Determination of goals and/or setting of
objectives.
▪ Formulation of policies.
▪ Maintenance of the organization.

Adminstration as ▪ Formulation of plans.

a method of ▪ Securing of resources.

practice evolves ▪ Selection of technologies necessary for
operations.
on the following
activities: ▪ Design of programs and services.
▪ Optimization of organizational behavior.
▪ Evaluation of results for the improvement of
services.
▪ Accounting for resource utilization.
 ▪ Administration is a human enterprise that involves the
activity of people in the organization.
▪ It is a continuous dynamic process for a common purpose
or goal that is pursued through an uninterrupted,
continuing interactive activity between and among
people in vertical and horizontal positions in an
Characteristics organization.
of ▪ The resources of people and materials are harnessed and
Adminstration coordinated to achieve organizational goals.
▪ Leadership is implicit in administration. Leadership has
been defined as the ability of the individuals to influence,
motivate, and enable others to contribute toward the
effectiveness and success of the organization of which
they are members.
 ▪ Leadership occurs at all levels of the
organization.
▪ The task of leadership varies with the
position that it occupies in the
organizational hierarchy, be it at the top-
level, mid-level, etc.
Leadership ▪ Coordination, cooperation, and
participation are the means for achieving
the organizational goals.
▪ Complementation - working and acting
together- involves people taking part of
organizational tasks for shared goals.
 ▪ Organization and management are the two primary
elements of administration.
▪ Organization is the setting up of the framework or
structure of the different units of the system to carry out
or perform distinct tasks for the attainment of the goals
of administration.
▪ An organization comes into being when…
Elements of a) There are persons able to communicate with each
Administration other.
b) Who are willing to contribute action
c) To accomplish a common purpose.
▪ While communication, willingness to serve, and
common purpose may be found in all organizations,
efficiency and effectiveness would be essential for
continued existence.
 ▪ Management is the activity that allocates and
utilizes resources to achieve the goals of the
organization,
▪ More specifically, it is the scientific utilization of
manpower, money, machines, materials, methods,
time, space, and other resources for attainment of
organizational goals.
Definition of
▪ It involves the tasks of establishing and maintaining
Management an organizational climate or internal environment
in which people working together in groups can
perform effectively and efficiently towards the
attainment of group goals.
▪ Management is essential in all organized activity, as
well as at all levels of an enterprise .
 ▪ Management is undertaken by a manager who
gets things done by working with people and
resources to attain organizational objectives.
▪ It can be “conceptualized as various ways of
shaping and exerting an influence over the work
environment.”
Definition of ▪ As such, it is primarily a proactive than a reactive
Management activity.
▪ Management is the function of the university
president and the army general, as well as shop
foreman and the social welfare agency
supervisor.
 ▪ Social administration, social welfare administration , and
social work administration are found in social literature
as they apply to human service organization.
▪ Conceptually, they need not be differentiated as they
Administration in are not separate nor mutually exclusive entities although
they focus on the macro to micro continuum in
Human Service organizational development.
Organization ▪ Social administration is focuses on the policies, planning
and administration of goods and services in relation to
political , social, and economic institutions and to the
determinants of the distribution of national resources to
social welfare needs (Archie Hanlan).
 ▪ This considers the social work profession as a subsystem of the
large social, political, and economic institutions of society.
▪ In a general sense, the term social administration is used to
refer to administration in the field of health, education, and
other social development fields.
▪ Social welfare administration refers more specifically to the
administrative processes in social welfare agency, the
formulation of the policies and plans, and their implementation
Administration in into programs and services for specific client groups.
Human Service ▪ It is also referred to as social agency administration.
Organization ▪ The major objective of social welfare administration is the
enhancement of social functioning (Edward Schwartz).
▪ Social welfare as a field of administration and social work as a
profession may be considered to have shared objective
(Edward Schwartz).
▪ The term social functioning is used in the definition of the
profession of social work by Werner Boehnm.
 ▪ SW Administration is a method of social work concerned
with the provision and distribution of societal resources so
as to enable people to meet their needs and fulfill their
potentials toward empowering their lives.
▪ It is assumed that in transforming social policies into
Social Work programs and services, the social work administrator a
Adminstration synthesis of social work methods in the administrative
processes.
Definition ▪ As a secondary method in social work, administration is
based upon the principles and techniques of
administration in general but addressed to the specific
social work tasks of defining and solving human problems
and satisfying human needs (Waler Friedlander).
 ▪ As a part of social work practice, the Code of
Ethics equally applies to it.
▪ The same core values such as worth and
dignity of persons, service, social justice,
among others, apply to social work
Social Work administration.
Adminstration ▪ In administration, there are greater chances
Definition of ethic conflicts than being a direct service
worker, because of the greater number of
stakeholders involved in the organization
and the need to meet numerous obligations
within and outside the organization.
 1. The use of principle and techniques of administration in
general.
2. The use of the philosophy, aims, and functions of social
work, its methods of social diagnosis, analysis and
synthesis of individual, group or community needs, and of
generalization for change or development in agency
function and goal. Its primary focus is helping process for
Major individuals groups and communities.
Characterisrics of 3. Working with people based on knowledge and
SW understanding of human behavior, human relations and
Administration human organizations.
4. Methods encompassing not only in the services provided
by the agency but also in the administrative process and
staff relations.
5. Ethics plying a significant role.
 1. Study and analyze the community.
2. Determine agency purpose as basis for clientele selection or
people to be served.
3. Provide financial services, budgeting and accounting.
4. Develop agency policies, programs and procedures for the
implementation of agency purposes.
5. Select and work agency leadership, professional and
Activities nonprofessional staff, bords, committees, and service volunteers.
6. Provide and maintain physical plant, equipment and supplies.
Undertaken in SW
7. Develop a plan, establish and maintain effective community
Administration relations, and interpret programs.
8. Keep complete and accurate records of agency operations and
make regular reports.
9. Plan and conduct research on a regular basis.
10. Continuously conduct regular evaluation of program and
personnel.
 ▪ SW administration is the keystone for
maximizing the effectiveness of social work
programs in the solution of social problems
and in betterment of social conditions for all
people.
Importance of
SW ▪ SW administration provides the framework for
Administration social work practice that relates it to other
agency functions.

▪ The quality of social work practice is greatly

influenced by social work administration.
 Function – the following are the social
1.
work administration functions:
✓The means by which identified social
needs are dealt with by appropriate
social services, whether under public
Aspects of SW or private auspices.

Administration ✓The societal action for improved or

new services needed by specific
groups or the community as a whole.
There is decision-making at every
level of administration.
 2. Structure – the study of structure consists
of:
✓Studying it in relation to the
organization as an element of
Aspects of SW administration.
Administration ✓Knowing that the social welfare
agency represents the organizational
structure in social work
administration.
 3. Process – SW administration is a
continuous, dynamic and total process of
brining together people, resources, and
purposes to accomplish the agency goal of
providing social services.
Aspects of SW ▪ As a process, it is based upon knowledge
Administration of human nature and human organization
to establish and maintain a system of
participative and cooperative effort at all
levels of the organization.
 ▪ Important dimensions of SW administration (Trecker):
a) Central dimension- this is the task of work
assignment within the agency structure. There is a
wide distribution of responsibility in the agency
with the allocation of tasks and functions for every
level of work. The community in which the agency
works affects agency purposes and programs as it is
Aspects of SW the source of support as well as the object of
Administration service.

b) Psychosocial Dimension – this presupposes that

people release their feelings and energies and that
these feelings and energies, when properly
harnessed by administrators, constitute the human
resources in achieving agency goals.
 ▪ Based on the field practicum evaluation
guidelines, there are ten areas for evaluation as
follows:
1. Appropriate use of self in relation in relation to
the agency’s organizational structure and
Evaluation of individual staff functions.
Organizational 2. Effective communication and handling of
Management and conflicts.
Leadership in SW 3. Ability to initiate and maintain system for
implementing ideas.
Administration
4. Skill in assessing available information, including
budgets for planning.
5. Initiative in analyzing and designing program
components.
 6. Skill in utilizing management information
technology.
7. Capacity to coordinate activities , develop
leadership, and delegate tasks in working with
Evaluation of staff, committees or coalitions.
Organizational 8. Ability to overcome staff or organizational
Management and resistance to task completion.
Leadership in SW
9. Ability to monitor and evaluate outcomes and
Administration alternative strategies.
10. Capacity to strategically utilize self and a
variety of leadership styles to mobilize others.
 ▪ Social welfare agency is a structured framework
within which the administrative tasks are carried out,
an instrument of society established through
government initiatives or through voluntary efforts
to achieve a social goal.
Social Welfare ▪ Social welfare agency in its simplest form comes
Agency into being when “several people see an unmet
Definition need, want to meet that need, get community
permission to meet that need, and accept legal
responsibility for seeing that the resources secured,
or made available, are used for the specific purpose
for which they were given rather for some other
purposes”(Peter Drucker)
 1. Governmental or public agencies –
organizations supported by public funds.
2. Private or voluntary agencies –
organizations supported by private
Types Social contributions or donations or income from
services, properly referred to as
Welfare nongovernmental organizations (NGOs).
Agencies
3. Semi-government or quasi governmental
organizations – organizations that receive
some form of subsidy, either in cash or kind
from the government.
 1. They are created through any of these constitutional
mandate, legislative act, executive order, presidential
decree, or letter of instruction.
2. Their existence, functions and programs are created by
law or executive order, hence, may only bee changed or
Charateristics of modified by law or executive order.
Public Agencies 3. Their organizational structure is bureaucratic and less
flexible than private agencies.
4. They must conform with government procedures,
especially the accounting and auditing of funds,
property and other resources.
 1. They are organized as a form of response of private
organizations to meet people’s needs in the community.
2. They may be national chapters of international organizations
such as Red Cross, Young Man Catholic Association (YMCA),
World Vision, and others.
3. They may have been established by sectarian or non-sectarian
organizations.

Characteristics 4. They are governed by their own charter, constitution and by-
laws and by a governing board.
of Private 5. Their organizational structure do not generally follow a
Agencies bureaucratic pattern , and, therefore are more flexible in their
policies nd programs that enable them to readily respond to
people and community needs.
6. Private agencies can pioneer and initiate demonstration
projects which may subsequently be turned over to the
government, that can adapt the program on a larger scale with
more available resources and organizational capacity.
 ▪ The social welfare agency may be a small
organization with a few people involved
in the program or a complex social
system involving a great number of
Size of Social people.

Welfare ▪ For a large social welfare agency, the

personnel would include administrators
Agencies
at various levels, professionals, members
of different related professions, clerical,
technical and manual staff, as well as
volunteers and paraprofessionals.
 ▪ The Department of Social Welfare and Development
(DSWD) is a good case illustration of a large public
social welfare agency. In addition to being a
national social welfare agency, it has deployed social
work staff in different countries where there are
Filipino overseas worker through the International
Size of Social Social Welfare Services for Filipino Nationals
(ISWSFN).
Welfare
▪ In collaboration with the Department of Foreign
Agencies Affairs (DFA) and the Department of Labor and
Employment (DOLE), the Filiopino migrant worker in
crisis situation and in need of special protection are
provided proper assistance by virtue of Republic
Act (R.A.) 8042 or the Migrant Workers and
Overseas Filipino Act of 1995.
 ▪ Smaller in scale and responsibility are the
local government social welfare offices at
the provincial and municipal, city levels
which are established under the authority
Size of Social of the Local Government Code (LGC).
Welfare
Agencies ▪ Private agencies exist at the local level to
meet the needs of residents . An example
of small agency is the Philippine Band of
Mercy.
 ▪ Must be viewed both as administrative
bureaucracies and social systems (rosemary C. Sarri
& Robert D.Vinter).
▪ They are administrative bureaucracies in that they
are established to attain specific goals, and their
internal structures, technologies, and procedures are
Nature of Social designed to implement these goals.
▪ Example: the Standard Operating Procedures
Welfare (SOP) of agencies mean to guide agency workers
Agencies in the performance of their tasks to serve
particular client groups in accordance with
agency goals.
▪ They are social systems that adaptively respond to
external and internal pressures, and they generate
informal patter that may both facilitate and hamper
goal attainment.
 ▪ Being social systems, social agencies are subject to pressures
from outside and within the organization.
▪ For instance, the political factors interfere with normal operations of
the public agencies as in the appointment of managers and their
staff.
▪ Socio-cultural factors such as “utang na loob” (debt of gratitude)
and “pakikisama” (getting along with…) oftentimes characterize the

Nature of Social informal relationships that may contravene the formal tenets of the
organization.
Welfare ▪ The economic situation also affects funding and support to social
agencies that may cause the cutting down and/or elimination of
Agencies existing programs.

▪ The professional culture influences social agencies by

establishing standards of practice which are mandated through
licensure requirements established by law R.A. 4373 has made a
difference in the standards of professional staffing of both public
and private agencie.
 ▪ Other types of social agencies may be
created by foundations set up by
individuals, u
▪ Business corporations, religious
organizations, or even universities.
Other Types of ▪ Example: Philippine Business for
Social Agencies Social Progress (PBSP), a corporate-
led non-profit social development
foundation in the Philippines that is
committed to poverty alleviation and
people development.
 ▪ Conceptually, a Social System is a whole with
each part bearing a dynamic relation to every
other part and all are interdependent.

Social System ▪A system is a “purposeful organized

interrelationship of components in which the
performance of the whole exceeds the
individual outputs of all the parts” (William
Link).
 ▪ When applied to social work
administration, it refers to the concept of
agency purpose and interrelationship of
different units as sub-systems of the
organization.

Social System ▪ The interrelation and of the various sub-

systems are brought about by the
information and communication network,
the decision-making mechanism and
other built-in mechanisms which exist in
every organization.
 1. Input – the input into the system maybe
human resource, work method, or a set of
beliefs from the environment. They find a
way of relating with each other within the
Basic Concepts system. A change in one input may affect
of Social the entire system.
Systems 2. Output – the output represent what the
system is doing in relation to its goals.
3. Throughput – refers to the conversion
process of inputs to outputs.
 Input-----------------Throughput------------------Output
(Conversion Process)
Basic Systems Staff Program
Model Budget Management and
Building Services
 ▪ Open system – the clientele to be served
comes from the community as well as the
resource inputs for its support and maintenance.
This is the characteristic of ana open system.
Most systems are open and the social agency is
a good example of this.
Properties of
Systems ▪ Closed system – is one that is not affected by
the external environment. In reality, there are
very few closed systems. The closed system
may apply to an agency program and services
of which remain constant despite changes in
socio-economic and /or political situation.
 ▪ In considering the closed and open
properties of systems, it should be
remembered that the social system is
permeable to other systems and is
Properties of
affected by them.
Systems
▪ Thus, the social system is influenced by
its external environment, i.e., the
community.
 ▪ Apply to the many levels of systems and sub-
systems.
▪ “Multiple system moves from a small views i.e.,
microcosm, to a large view, i.e., macrocosm of
systems” (Link).
▪ A program undertaken by a social agency
Multiple System could be viewed as a system by itself in relation
to the various agency programs in the
community.
▪ The social administration , social welfare
administration and social work administration
continuum is an example of multiple systems.
 ▪ Is the tendency of an organization (system) to maintain a
uniform and beneficial stability within and between its
parts.
▪ The management function in an organization provides the
mechanism for system equilibrium not only within the
Systems system but also among the subsystems.

Equilibrium or ▪ Example 1: when staff morale is high and work

performance is satisfactory, systems equilibrium n an
Stability agency.
▪ Example 2: when agency has demonstrated relevance to
community needs, and has at the same time maintained a
network of relationships with various sectors of the
community.
 Relation of ▪ Through planning, organizing, controlling,
Systems and administering, the manager takes
Approach to the certain resource inputs and converts them
in order to achieve some value utility or
Management
output.
Process
 The Program as a System

Manager

Plans, Organizes, Controls, Administers

Supply of Outputs to
Resource Input Meet Demand
A Complex
Money Functional Subsystems Treatment
Input-Output Labor Services
Management Service (from utility) Wages
System Fixed-use Profits
Current-use Support (time &place utility) Satisfactions
Data

Information Feedback
 1. Policy level – parameters of policy level:
a) Policy-making in public agencies is a function of higher
officials based on constitutional mandate, legislative act,
executive order or presidential decree.
b) In the non-governmental organizations policy-making is
vested in duly constituted board of directors. The other
functions of the board are`;
Levels in ✓ Review and approval of recommendations, reports,
and budget;
Organization ✓ Negotiation, contract signing, and other legal matters;
✓ Upholding professional standards;
✓ Provision of directions for the reports;
✓ Provision of direction for the interpretation of the
agency to the community, and
✓ Fund raising
 2. Administrative or executive level – have the following
functions;
a. Participation in the formulation and determination of
policy;
b. Provision of guidance and direction in the planning
process;
c. Staffing and organizing;
d. Provision of guidance, direction, supervision,
Levels in coordination and fiscal control;
Organization e. Provision of continuous interpretation of the agency
to the public, including the preparation of the annual
report;
f. Provision of continuous evaluation to improve agency
standards, and
g. Representing the agency in councils and other
organizations in the community.
 3. Supervisory level – below are the supervisor’s
functions to enable the workers to perform their
functions more effectively and provides the means for
them to grow in their roles:
a. Ensuring that work is done ass mandated and
expected (administrative).
Levels in
b. Provision of guidance in the best use of worker’s
Organization knowledge and skills and assisting in the
development of competence required by their
functions (educative).
c. Provision of support and assistance whenever
needed by workers (service).
 4. Direct service level – the direct service workers have
direct/field contact with the people or clients needing
agency services or assistance in the context of professional
values and ethics. The functions of direct service workers
include….
a. interpretation of policies and procedures in rendering
services and in helping the client system (individuals,
Levels in groups and communities) in the context of professional
and ethical values.
Organization
b. Provision of concrete, psycho-social and other services
needed by the clients.
c. Referral of clients to other services in the community
when indicated.
d. Advocacy on clients’ behalf for needed services or
benefits.
 e. Use of a range of interventions in helping clients in order
to empower them to become independent and self-
determined to help themselves.
f. Provision of opportunity for client participation in
decision-making .
g. Preparation of appropriate and timely agency
Levels in documentation.
Organization h. Use of information technology to enhance ability to help
clients.
i. Availing of assistance/service experience in helping
evaluate programs and services. This serves as the basis
for the agency to transform or modify policies to meet
more effectively the changing needs of individuals, groups
and communities.
ADMINISTRATIVE FUNCTIONS
1. Policy Formulation
 Functions of Administration
1. Policy formulation 8. Coordinating

2. Planning and programming 9. Communicating

3. Organizing 10. Budgeting and financing

Administrative
4. Staffing 11. Recording and reporting
Functions
5. Directing 12. Public relations

6. Controlling 13. Research

7. Supervising
 ▪ Policy is defined as a stated course of action adopted and
followed by the organization in doing its work.
▪ Republic Act (R.A.) 5416, which created the Ministry of
Social Services and Development (MSSD)now the
Department of Social Welfare and Development (DSWD),
states that:
✓ Section 2. Declaration of Policy – It is hereby declared
Policy that it is the responsibility of the government to provide
a comprehensive program of social services designed
Formulation to ameliorate the living conditions of distressed
Filipinos, particularly those who are handicapped by
reason of poverty, youth, physical anf mental disability,
illness and old age or who are victims of natural
calamities, including assistance to members of cultural
minorities to facilitate their integration into the body
policy.
 ▪ An agency policy is a written statement
formally adopted by the board or legal
authority and publicly made known to
guide the provision of service.
Policy
Formulation ▪ The same law contains policies or
guideline as to what services would be
allowed by {MSSD) now (DSWD) to attain
the purpose for which it was created.
 ▪ R.A. 5416. Section 7 states that the Bureau of Family
Welfare (BFW) shall have among the others the following
functions.
✓ To formulate, administer, develop, and implement
social welfare services which will permit the social
adjustment of families, prevent family disorganization,
develop social consciousness, and civic
Policy responsibility.
✓ Such services shall include: family life education
Formulation program, establishment of family centers and
extension youth centers of groups for self-help, group
work and street corner gang training, income-
producing projects and employment referral services
for handicapped adults and youth, and programs for
preschool children of working mothers.
 1. Identification of the problem or issue.
2. Analysis of the problem.
3. Informing the public about the problem
Eight Stages in 4. Development of policy goals including
Policy the involvement of other agencies.
Formulation 5. Building of public support.
(Harry Specht) 6. Legislation or enunciation of policy.
7. Implementation and administration,
8. Assessment and evaluation.
 ▪ As a stated course of action for agency work, a
social policy should be considered the context
of all social work practice.
▪ Important for social work practitioners to be
truly familiar with the policies governing the
Importance of agency policy, and on which rules, procedures
Policy and regulations are based.
▪ Areas of policy consideration:
✓Policy values and objectives;
✓Policy target group of clients;
✓Methods of implementation;
✓Environemental impact
 ▪ Policy awareness on areas for consideration
would encourage the engagement and
participation of the practitioner in policy
formulation, analysis, and change.
▪ This is along the third objective in the BS Social
Work (BSSW) curriculum, which expects the
students to be trained to document the
Importance of effectiveness, as well as the gaps in services for
Policy policy change and development.
▪ It has been said that “ the front-line
practitioners who the daily, intimate
relationships between policy and service to
clients can be the sources of pertinent policy
recommendation.
 ▪ Policy must be based on and developed out of
agency purpose.
▪ Policies must be soundly based on adequately
evaluated facts and experience. Persons
affected by policy, especially clientele groups,
12 Principles of should be involved in the process.
Policy
Formulation ▪ Policy implies focus and direction for the
attainment of the agency purpose.
(Trecker)
▪ Unity and consistency between the various
policies of the agency and between policies
and purposes is essential. Conflict betwen and
among policies will confuse the staff and will
have adverse effect on agency service.
 ▪ Although the board is responsible for the
enactment of the policy the entire agency should
participate in the formulation process. Direct
service workers have a serious responsibility for
policy enactment and change.

12 Principles of ▪ Policy should relate the agency purpose to the

realities of th community setting (including other
Policy
agencies and special needs) and of the agency’s
Formulation own facilities anf resources.
(Trecker)
▪ Policy-making, planning, and operations are
integrally related and cannot be separated.
▪ New policies should develop out of an evaluation
of the existing policies in practice as they ar
systematically reviewed and studied.
 ▪ Thorough knowledge of policy on the part of every staff
member is essential. It is administrator’s responsibility to
make policy statements available to the staff in written
form. This policies should be discussed in meetings,
conferences, and consultations.
12 Principles of ▪ Policies should be expressed in positive forms so that
Policy their constructive use is emphasized.
Formulation ▪ The carrying out of policies in the spirit of their intent is a
(Trecker) major responsibility of the administration. This should be
shared by the direct service practitioners.
▪ Conflict between statement of the policy and actual
practice is a signal to the administrator of a need to
evaluate both.
2. Planning and Programming
 ▪ A Plan is a course of action for reaching a goal
beginning now or at any predetermined time in
the future.
▪ A plan maybe short range/medium term or
long range/medium term, or long range/long
term.
▪ In order to achieve the objectives, plans must
What is a plan? be consistent with human needs, must be based
on the philosophy of the profession and the
agency , must be based on research, must be
flexible enough to give room for whatever
changes have to be made, must be easily
communicated and understood, and must
contribute to the improvement of service, (Joseph
Hungate)
 ▪ Planning is the process of anticipating goals or
targets and then preparing a plan for reaching to
them.
▪ It is a process of mapping out one’s activities towards
the accomplishment of the goals and projecting the
means or resources of achieving them.
What is ▪ This is a process which should be participated in by
planning? those involved in implementation (e.g. social worker
in direct practice); by the recipients of the services
or target of planning (e.g. the clients), and by the
policy-makers.
▪ A means of feedback and/or review is part of the
plan in order to determine whether or not the goals
are achieved.
 ▪ Efficiency – this means to achieve goals with a
minimum of cost and effect.
▪ Effectiveness – this means to achieve the desired
result which is to help people in need.
▪ Accountability – Planning is needed for evaluation
and accountability to the public, to families, and to
The Four the clients.
Reasons for ▪ Morale - Every staff member needs to understand
Planning exactly what to do and how to do the job. These can
(Rex Skidmore) be achieved if the administrator and staff members
jointly plan the total operation of the agency. Such
involvement of everyone will give them the feelings
of achievement and satisfaction as well as the
feeling of being needed and effective. Their
feelings will make the difference in the social
service delivery and contribute to high morale.
 ▪ Goal or the what;
▪ Resources, means, procedures, and methods or
Five Essential the how;

Planning ▪ People involved in achieving the goals or the

who;
Elements
(Ray Johns) ▪ Method of evaluation and review, and
▪ Conditions under which the plan will be
implemented
 ▪ The process of setting objectives is actually the
starting point of planning.
▪ The objectives are like a map, they show as
where we want to go and point out some of the
roads which we may take to get to others
Essential (Trecker).
Planning ▪ Objectives make concrete and real the things
Elements for which we strive.
▪ Objectives make it possible for us to evaluate
the extent to which we have approached a
realization of our fundamental aspirations.
 1. Substantive plan- this plan is designed to
achieve program objectives. It calls for the
formulation of broad issues confronting the
program.
2. Procedural plan - this plan is designed for the
organizational structure within which are
Principal Types embodied the various administrative
mechanisms such as rules, guidelines, standard
of Plans operating procedure, reporting requirements
and the like.
3. The major type of planning in any organization
is resource planning which includes finances,
facilities, equipment, supplies and personnel.
 1. It should be based on clearly well-
defined objectives or goals.
2. It should be simple and easily
understood.
Characteristics 3. It should be flexible.
of Effective 4. It should be easily analyzed and
Planning classified.
5. It should be able to maximize existing
or limited resources such as funds and
personnel.
 1. Planning should grow out of expressed interest and
needs of the person who comprise the agency. The
agenda for planning should include the ideas of all
rather than the imposition of one.

2. Those who will be affected by the results of planning

Planning should have a share in the making of the plan. It is
axiomatic that persons are more important than plans
Principles and that the meaning of planning in term of its direct
implications for people must be a first consideration.

3. The planning must have an adequate factual basis. The

extent to which plans are based on facts reflects the
reality orientation of the planning.
 4. The most effective plans have come out of a
process which combines face-to-face methods with
more formal methods of committee work. here we
have an opportunity to set in motion a network of
influences that will make for acceptance and
implementation of the plan with a minimum of
Planning objection and resistance.

Principles
5. The planning process must be individualized or
particularized because of the differ3nces in
situations. Good planning calls for variety and a
combination of approaches indigenous to the
situation in which we are.
 6. Planning requires professional leadership. The
professional must define his/her role and help
others to understand it.

7. Planning requires the efforts of volunteers, non-

Planning professionals, community leaders as well as
Principles professionals. The division of responsibility
between these groups is a pre-requisite to a
satisfactory prosecution of a program. It is
necessary to allocate and coordinate these
responsibilities as well as to divide and integrate
them.
 8. Planning calls for documentation and full recording so
that results of discussion and deliberations will be
preserved to provide directions and continuity. It is
important to utilize records for purposes of summary and
for purposes of evaluation.
9. Planning should make use of existing plans and
resources rather than starting from scratch with every new
Planning problem. It is fundamental to build upon that which we
Principles already have, provided it is sound and furnishes a firm
foundation.
10. Planning is dependent upon thinking prior to action.
“Planning is fundamentally an intellectual process, a mental
predisposition to do things in an orderly way, to think before
action, and to act in the light of facts rather than guesses.”
 1. Select objectives – objectives are destination, goals or
target. They relate to the purposes and policies of the
agencies. The two kinds of objectives are:
✓ Overall and long range – this is based on the aims and
purposes of the agency charter and policies.
✓ Specific and short-range – this involves the present
Basic Planning and immediate future. Planning as an anticipatory
process should have targets which are specific, simple
Steps and attainable.
(Skidmore)
• Management by Objectives (MBO) is a system
approach to improving operations. It includes inputs
(beginnings, resources, goals, objectives, and
related operations); activities (the actual doing and
achieving; and output (results).
 Inputs Activities Outputs
Management (Objectives) (Actions) (Results)
by Objectives
 Two main kinds of Goals and Objectives)
(Skidmore)

✓ Strategic goals – which are concerned with developing

new ideas and with overall or long range planning.
✓ Operational goals – which are specific and measurable.
Basic Planning • Strategic planning is a concept being used in social
Steps service agencies as well as business which puts a major
focus on looking ahead realistically as much as possible
and includes specific long-range goals (Skidmore).
• Behavioral objective which is specific, usually simple,
observable, measurable and realistic is the focused of
social work education and practice )Skidmore).
 2. Consider agency resources - consider the
agency’s economic resources (budget and
monies available), the physical resources
(agency facilities), the personnel and staff
(number available, their quality or competencies,
Basic Planning attitudes and feelings).
Steps
3. Enumerate the alternatives – consider
numerous paths, carefully describe these and
anticipate each. Creativity, free willing
discussions and talks with individuals will
helping coming out with alternatives.
 4. Anticipate the outcome of each alternative –
this includes following anticipate and estimate
what is likely to happen when an action occurs,
look at various vantage points what is likely to
happen , weigh the choices and come up with
what is best.
Basic Planning
Steps
5. Decide on the best plan – setting the
priorities is needed. Weigh the alternatives and
choices of objective for their significance and
feasibility as some are more important than
others, some need immediate action, while
others can be postponed.
 6. Plan specific program for action – to reach the
agreed upon targets, a blueprint or mapmaking
should be prepared wherein the step-by-step action is
outlined and recorded. After deciding on the
priorities, a time chart to achieve the objectives is
essential. The timetable will help in making the
Basic Planning blueprint come alive and to implement the plans
Steps effectively.

7. Be open to change – “Flexibility is fundamental in

planning. The original plan should be followed.
However, change often occurs as planning is
programmed and implementation takes place.
 ▪ Competent administrators advocate
changing plans at any moment if the
change will bring in facilitative resources
Basic Planning or better procedure for moving ahead.
Steps
▪ Rigidity is unacceptable in planning.
 Activity Jan Feb Mar Apr May June
Preparati
on
FGDs

Sample Gantt Activity 1

Activity 2
Chart Activity 3
Evaluatio
n
 ▪ Is fast becoming a “major component of social
work process especially in large agencies and in
intervention with complex and fragmented
services.
▪ The emphasis of case management is an effective
Case planning “although rooted in casework, group
Management work and community organization, its approach is
(Skidmore) unique.
▪ Case management is likewise considered as a
way to achieve better cost effective and cost
control
 ▪ Case management is method of providing services
whereby a professional social worker assesses the needs
of the client and the client’s family and when appropriate,
arranges , coordinates, monitors, evaluates, and advocates
a package of multiple services to meet the specific clients’
complex needs
Case
Management ▪ Case manager’ challenge is to individualize the total
(Skidmore
intervention process.

▪ The case manager has a dual role of providing some

casework services if needed as well as coordinating the
network services that are appropriate.
 ▪ Practice Key Skills significant to case management
(Vorlekis & Greene):
✓ Client identification and outreach
✓ Individual and family assessment and diagnosis
✓ Planning and resource identification
✓ Linking clients to needed resources
Case ✓ Service implementation and coordination
Management ✓ Monitoring service delivery
(Skidmore ✓ Advocacy to obtain services
✓ Evaluation
• Case management emphasizes planning , coordination
integration of network, monitoring and follow up
(Skidmore).
 ▪ In order to develop the plans and make the
program more effective, the worker usually has
to look beyond the resources of his/her own
agency.

Program/Project
▪ After carefully formulating and designing a
Planning and project, it is equally important to write a
Proposal Writing proposal which will attract the necessary
funding.

▪ Proposal writing is a skill which requires

knowledge and practice.
 ▪ Considerations to observe in proposal writing:
1. The project proposal must be a reflection of
the background work already done and
logically set out. A letter of request is not
enough. One must demonstrate the need
Program/Project and prove that the project is worthy of
Planning and funding as there are many other
Proposal Writing organizations competing for the fund.
2. Use clear, concise, and simple language in
the proposal which says exactly what is meant.
It is necessary, use diagrams, charts, or other
visual presentations to illustrate key points.
 3. Use appendices to avoid crowding the body of
the proposal and disturbing the flow of the
narrative.

Program/Project 4. Tailor your request and presentation to the

Planning and agency being approached .
Proposal Writing
5. Express a willingness to be interviewed
personally by the funding agency once they have
received and read your proposal request.
 6. Do not be discouraged if your proposal is not
accepted. Find out why and try another agency.

7. Find out in advance what sources of funding

are available through government, international
Program/Project agencies, or private foundations.
Planning and
Proposal Writing
8. Reflect in the proposal the degree of local
initiative, the utilization of available resources
within one’s agency or country, and the plans for
the project to be self-supporting once the initial
funding has been spent.
 9. The project should be practical, not too
costly, and must have the potential to be
repeated or replicated in other situations.
Program/Project
Planning and 10. Show to what extent your project
Proposal Writing support and supplements existing activities
and is designed to overcome identified
needs.
 Headings and divisions constitute the proposal
format:
1. Title page – this page can serve as both the
title page and the cover letter for the proposal
that include the following:
Proposal a. Title of project
Format b. Name of person applying for funds
c. Name of organization sponsoring the
proposal
d. Length and date of project
 2. Proposal summary
• the first thing that the funding source will read is
the summary which may also be referred to as an
“abstract” or “synopsis”.
• The summary should be a concise description of
the proposed project.
• It should be clear and specific.
Proposal • It should logically present the main features of
Format the project and explain the importance of the
problem to which the project is attempting to
respond.
• It should not attempt to use technical jargon.
• It should describe briefly who the proponent is,
the scope of the project and the project cost.
 3. Introduction and background development
situation
• This is the section where the proponent identifies
himself.
• More often than not, proposals are funded on the
basis of the reputation or “connections” with the
applicant organization or its key personnel rather
Proposal than on the basis of the program’s content alone.
Format • It is in the introduction where you as proponent
build your credibility as an organization which
should be supported.
• The credibility you establish nay be more
important than the rest of the proposal so build it,
but be as brief, simple and specific a you can.
 4. Problem statement or assessment of need
• This section should make a logical
connections between the organization’s
background and the problems and needs
that are to be resolved or met.
• The problem should not be just assumed but
must be documented.
Proposal • Support the existence of the problem by
Format evidence.
• The problem should be defined clearly.
• It should be narrowed down to something
that can be solved and accomplished within
given time frame and with a reasonable
amount of money.
 5.Program/Project goal/objectives and
beneficiaries
• A major concern to consider in preparing a
proposal is to see to it that there is logical
flow from one sector to another.
• The program objective is the specific,
measurable out come of the program.
Proposal • I should be written in the terms of the end
Format results expected in the project and not how
the results can be achieved. This will
describe the connection between the why
and the what.
• Target beneficiaries refer to the who of the
project - who it tries to help.
 6.Program/project description and methods
• This section in the longest and most
comprehensive in the proposal.
• It will answer the essential question of what
or the project component, including the
strategic information on the how or the
methods on how the project will bring about
Proposal the results of the implementation plan and the
Format process and answer some elements of who,
where, and when.
• This section should include the management
structure and the how on managing the funds.
• This section should show how the project will
bring about the results.
 ▪ Describe the methods to be used and the activities
to be conducted to accomplish the objectives.
▪ The location or where the project will take place
may ne indicated here as well as as the people
involved (who, how many, and how they will be
Proposal selected.
Format ▪ The activities to undertaken may b described in
sequence so that they lead toward the achievement
of the objectives.
▪ Also include the phasing out of the project or how
one stage will lea to another.
 ▪ The funding agency is usually interested to
know why certain methods were selected.
▪ The choice of the methods should be
substantiated .

Proposal ▪ The consideration of alternatives is an important

Format aspect of describing the methodology.
▪ The funding source will feel more secure if you
show your knowledge or familiarity with the
differ3nt models of solving the problem and
giving the reasons for your choice of method.
 7. Evaluation
• An evaluation of the project of program will
determine how effective it is in reaching the
objectives that have been established.
• It can also be used as a tool to provide information
necessary to make appropriate changes and
adjustments in the program as the program
Proposal proceeds.
Format • Th measurable objectives prepare earlier set the
stage for an effective evaluation.
• If there is difficulty in setting the evaluation
criteria, a second look t the objectives will
probably show that they were not specific and
measurable,
 8. Budget
• The budget should be a realistic estimate of
all costs involved in implementing and
operating the projects.
• If possible demonstrate the potential for
Proposal eventual self-support or support from your
own organization or from sources other than
Format
the one being applied for.
• Specify physical facilities, existing
equipment, and supplies of your organization
that are available or will be available for the
project.
 ▪ Budget answers the questions of how much.
▪ It includes the requirements of the project in
accordance with the schedule of activities.
▪ The components for the cost estimate include
personnel’s salary for each position and
percentage of time on the project and fringe
Proposal benefits and the non-personnel costs (space
Format cost, rental/lease or purchase of equipment;
consumable supplies; travel and per diem ; and
other cost (postage, insurance, etc.)
▪ The cost estimate is usually broken down into
the following components: (see next slide).
 a. Space cost – this includes the actual rent and
those which are being donated for use.
Include also the cost of maintenance services
and renovations if they are absolutely
essential to the program.

Proposal b. Rental, lease or purchase of equipment –

include all the equipment, donated or to be
Format
purchased, that will be used in the program.
c. Consumable supplies – include supplies
and materials such as paper clips, typewriting
papers, pens, pencils, etc.
 d. Travel and per diem - include local an out-of-town travel
costs. The out-of-town travel which includes per diem (for
board and lodging) is usually big compared to the local
travel. It must be well-planned and justified as completely
as can be made.
e. Other costs –this catch-all category may include
postage, insurance, professional association’s dues,
Proposal subscriptions, publication, and other items that do not
Format logically fit elsewhere.
f. Indirect costs – cover management fee for bookkeeping,
payrolls, maintenance, and overseeing the project. This is
paid for the host institution in return for its rendering
certain services to the project such as managing the
bookkeeping and payroll, overseeing the project,
maintenance, etc.
 9. Schedule – this section should include
he Gantt Chart, which answers the question
Proposal of when the activities in the project
Format descriptions will be carried out as well as
the sequence of the activities
 10.Future Funding/Sustainability
• The funding sources would also want to
know how the program would be continued
when the grant runs out.
• Present plan that will assure the funding
Proposal source to the greatest extent possible that
Format you will be able to maintain this new
program.
• The best plan for future funding is the plan
that does not require outside grant support.
 ▪ Definition
✓Program is a unit of planned purposive
action.
Program ✓Programming is the process of preparing or
setting up the program involving a specific
period of time of services.
 Sample Format for a Program Plan

Iden- Program Objectives Indicators Strategic

tified
needs

Program
3. Organization
 ❖Organization
▪ Is defined in various ways by different
authorities.
▪ Based on different views, organization
basically is both s structure and a process.
Definition of ▪ A structure is like the skeleton of the human
Organization body or the framework of a house.
▪ The organizational structure may then be
defined as the pattern or network of
relationships between the various positions
and the individuals holding such positions.
 ▪ An organization structure is the set of formal, planned
relationships between the physical factors and personnel
required for the performance of these functions 9Davis &
Filley).
▪ An organization structure consists of the following
(Ehlers):
✓ A board of directors, in case of a private agency or a
Definition of legislative body, in the case of public agency.
Organization ✓ Committees, standing or special, district or
departmental, appointed by the board and/or the
executive director.
✓ Provisions for associate executives (finance, program,
personnel, service, and directors especially in larger
agencies)
✓ Provisions for supervisors and regular staff positions.
 ▪ Organization
✓As a process means the setting up of the
individuals and functions into relationships
and aimed toward the accomplishment of
certain common objectives.
✓The cooperative spirit among the
Definition of employees working together is more
Organization important than the organizational structure
itself.
✓No matter how good the structure is on
paper if the people cannot get along well
with each other, the goals cannot be
achieved.
 ❖Two types of organization
✓Formal
✓Informal
• The formal organizational structure refers to
one which is established by law. By-laws or
Types of constitution and activities are consciously
Organizational coordinated. These are found in policies,
procedures, manuals, etc.
Structure
• The informal organizational structure refers
to the one established un consciously by the
spontaneous groupings of persons and
consists of rules, sentiments, traditions and
customs.
 1. Line organization – is concerned with working
towards primary service goals. The line
authority here is from top to bottom or the
supervisor-subordinate relationship.

Kinds of Formal 2. Functional organization – is focused on the

Organization functions or activities in each unit with a
functional specialist or staff supervising the
activities of a single subordinate. The different
staff units have line authority over the same
people and they are concerned with providing
benefits and services to the organization itself.
 3. Line and staff organization – is made up of
line and staff unit exerting authority over their
own subordinate. The staff unit or specialist (e.g.
legal research personnel) assist, advise, suggest
or provide specialized knowledge for the use of
the line executives.
Kinds of Formal
Organization
4. Committee type organization – is not as
common as the above but it is also organized as a
type of formal organizational structure wherein a
group of persons act as a body and perform
functional, staff, or line duties.
 a. Lines of authority – authority here means “the specific
administrative and supervisory responsibilities of
supervisors to their supervisees. Agency policy usually
specifies theses lies of authority in writing”.
b. Channels of communication – in formal lines of
Concepts authority communication should “flow harmoniously and
synchronically along the lines of authority”. Supervisees
significantly special are supposed to communicate primarily with their
in appraising supervisors for direction and feedback. Likewise,
agency’s formal or supervisors are supposed to communicate directly with
informal structure their supervisees and the managers who supervise them.
c. Dimension of power – power is the potential ability to
move people on a chosen course to produce an effect or
achieve some goal. Dimensions of power are supposed to
follow the lines of authority (Ashman & Hull Jr.)
 1. Bureaucratic
2. Democratic
Models of 3. Adhocracy
Organization
4. Collegial or professional team
model
 1. Bureaucratic – is a form of organization which
can be seen as a pyramid, that is there is one
authority on top and the base is under. The
chain of command is from top to bottom.
a) Elements of bureaucracy
✓A pre-set system of procedures and rules for
Models of dealing with all contingencies relating to work
Organization activities.
✓A division of labor based on specialization.
✓Promotion and selection based on technical
competence; and
✓Impersonality in human relations.
 b) Characteristics of bureaucracy
✓The organization operates according to a body of
laws or rules, which are consistent and have
normally been essentially established.
Models of ✓Every official is subject to an impersonal order
Organizatio by which he/she guides his/her action. In turn,
his/her instruction have authority only in so far as
they conform with this generally understood
body of rules; obedience is due to his office, not
to him/her as an individual.
 b)Characteristics f bureaucracy continuation…
✓Each incumbent of an office has a specified
sphere of competence, with obligations,
authority, and power of compel obedience
strictly defined.
✓The organization of offices follows the principle
of hierarchy, that is, each lower office is under the
Models of control and supervision of a higher one.
Organization ✓The supreme head of the organization, and only
he occupies his position by appropriation, by
election, or by being designed as successor.
Other offices are filled, in principle, by free
selection, and candidates are selected on the
basis of technical qualifications. They are
appointed, not elected.
 b) Characteristics of bureaucracy continuation…
✓The system also serves as a career ladder. There
is promotion according to seniority or
achievement. Promotion is depending upon his
Models of judgment.
Organization ✓The official who, in principle, is excluded from any
ownership rights in the concern, or in his position,
is subject to discipline and control in the conduct
of the office.
 2. Democratic – is a form of organization where
employees participate and share in decision-
making, policy-making , and so forth.
a) Characteristics of democracy
Models of ✓Decisions regarding goals and objectives, plans
Organization and procedures are made by all concerned
persons or their selected representatives.
✓Cooperation of staff, board, and committees is
cultivated in order to establish a smooth working
relationship.
 a)Characteristics of democracy continuation…
✓Promotion or selection for a new or different
work opportunities based on the varied abilities
and experience of the workers, with an eye
Models of towards their personal development as well as
Organization the good of the agency.
✓Warm, friendly, cooperative relationships based
on group or team spirit concepts are
encouraged.
 3. Adhocracy – since no model is perfect, and
rarely do we find in practice one that is purely
bureaucratic or democratic , a new model called
adhocracy is evolving. This modified
Models of organizational structure is a blend of bureaucratic
Organization and democratic characteristics. It is referred to as
the modified bureaucratic hierarchy and there is
the flattering of the pyramid , according to
Trecker.
 a) Characteristics of Adhocracy..
✓Central administrative control is still
retained.
Models of ✓Decision and service delivery are
decentralized and shared.
Organization
✓The line of communication from the top to
the bottom is shorter.
 4. Collegial or professional team model – this
model emphasizes the ”group of professional
colleagues organized in a collaborative lifestyle
that prizes well-used channels of
communication”.
Models of
Organization a) Characteristics of the model
✓Mutual trust among the group members.
✓Clarity on how and where decisions are made as
well as accountability.
✓Involvement of the team members.
 a) Characteristic of Collegial model
continuation…
✓Delegation of responsibilities and authority with
built-in evaluation to determine how
Models of responsibilities are carried out.
Organization ✓Maximum informal communication.
✓Recognition of special resources in the agency
and the community.
✓Stress on the growth of the persons involved.
 ▪ Organizational chart
✓is a pictorial presentation of the form
which the organization structure takes.
Organizational ✓It shows how work is divided, what
Chart work each person, unit, section, etc. is
responsible for, who directs the work
ort he line of authority, and to whom
one is to report.
Horizontal Chart
Vertical Chart
Circular Chart
 1. Division of work into components - department, bureau,
section
2. Who direct the work or the line of authority – who is
supposed to be whose boss. The solid lines on the chart
show this superior-subordinate relationship.

Organizational 3. Nature of the work performed by the component – what

work each person, unit, section, etc. is responsible for.
chart shows….
4. Grouping of components on the functional or regional
basis.
5. Levels of management in terms of successive layers of
superiors and subordinates (.e.g., all persons or units that
report to the same person are on one level.
 1. It clarifies and defines the lines of responsibility
and authority.
2. It helps prevent organizational ills such as buck-
passing and empire-building.
Benefits provided 3. It helps in developing sound procedures as it
by the provides a visual aid.
organizational 4. It aids communication as it gives a picture of
chart where decision-making is.
(Davis & Filley)
5. It promotes greater efficiency as it helps in
maintaining organizational stability, flexibility
and balance.
 ▪ While plans establish the
objectives, policies, functions, and
procedures, organizing, on the
other hand, defines the work units
Steps in and the relationship of one to the
Organizing client.
▪ To perform the process, there must
be steps to consider. (see the next
slide)
 1. Distinguish clearly the various
functions necessary to accomplish the
action.
2. Group the functions into organizational
Steps in and eventually into economical and
Organizing effective work assignment.
3. Provide in advance of the need for the
physical facilities and resources.
4. Find the qualified personnel who can
perform the assigned responsibilities.
 Important factor to bear in mind is that:
▪ Organizing should be based on the
work to be done and not on the people.
▪ Organizing should be built around the
Steps in work to be performed.
Organizing
▪ It it is built around individuals, some
functions might be overlooked or
underdeveloped and the result will be
an organizational imbalance.
 1. Work specialization or division of work – in order to
achieve its objectives, the tasks to be accomplished may
be divided and assigned to the personnel qualified to do
the task. This will promote improved performance.
2. Unity of command – each and every member of the
organization should report to one and only one
supervisor.
Principles of 3. Span of control – there is a limit as to the number of
people a person can supervise well, usually from five to
Organization seven, is a good number. The factors affecting span of
control include the following:
a. Distance
b. Time
c. Abilities and competence of workers and staff.
d. Availability of adequate facilities like the telephone,
vehicles, etc.
 4. Homogenous assignment – this
principle has the following requisites:
a. Jobs must be related or allied.
b.Functions must not overlap.
Principles of c. Functions must be specific, clear-cut.
Organization d.Every assignment or task must be
within the range of accomplishment
of the person assigned to do the job.
e.All functions of every unit must be
assigned to specific persons.
 5. Delegation of authority – for this principle
to be at work, the following must be observed:
a. Responsibilities assigned must carry
with them corresponding authority for
decision-making.
b.Scalar authority must be from top to
bottom.
Principles of c. The number of delegated functions must
Organization be limited.
d.Delegation of authority and
responsibility stems at the lowest
operation level.
e. Command responsibility rests with the
administrator.
 6. Hierarchicalor Scalar Principle – people are
organized in groups under leaders with
ascending and descending levels of authority.
When shown in a chart, the hierarchy assumes the
form of a pyramid.
Principles of 7. Line and staff principle – the line people are
Organization directly involved in the implementation and
accomplishment of objectives. The staff people
assist the line personnel by their specialized
knowledge and skills. The authority of staff
people is the authority od knowledge and ideas.
Their work is along planning, advising, etc.
 8. Division of labor – for the vast organization to
achieve its objective, there must be division of
labor. Only those qualified for the performance of
a special function should be assigned to the job.

Principles of 9.Short chain of command – there should be as

Organization few levels of supervision between the top
management and the rank and file. The shorter
the administrative distance, the less are there
chances for distortion of orders, and the better is
the flow of communication.
 10. Balance – there must be a
reasonable balance between the size
Principles of of different departments, and
Organization centralization and decentralization in
decision-making.
4. Staffing
 ▪ Even with planning, setting the objectives and organizing,
defining the work units and their relationships already in
place, the agency still cannot meet the objectives unless
there are personnel to do the job.
▪ Hiring of the right people and the handling of personnel
are among the most difficult and challenging tasks of the
administrator.
Staffing ▪ The staff personnel who actually do the work are the key
factors in the efficient and effective delivery of services.
▪ Getting the right kind of people, developing and
motivating them are important in order to achieve the
objectives.
▪ The most important aspect of personnel administration is
the development of people.
 ▪ “Staffing, personnel management or
administration is the art of acquiring, developing,
and maintaining a competent workforce in such a
Definition of manner as to accomplish with maximum
Staffing efficiency and economy the functions and
objectives of the organization “. (Society of
Personnel Administration).
 ▪ Staffing, personnel management
/administration objectives:
1. To secure and develop adequate and
efficient personnel to aid
management in accomplishing the
Objectives goal of the organization.
2. To aid every personnel to develop and
perform to the limit of his capacity,
recognizing his interests an
competency.
 1. Effective recruitment, selection, and hiring
• Every agency usually has a personnel policy
and selection procedure. This involves first, a
job description prepared after a job analysis has
been done.
Process/Elements of • Job description should include the following
Staffing/Personnel (Ray Johns):
Management/ a. Description of the position, what the
Administration position is, and to whom the person is
responsible,.
b. Duties and responsibilities
c. Qualification
d. Relationships
 ▪ Recruitment and selection can be accomplished
through advertising in national newspapers or
journals, contracts with schools, websites, internet,
etc. and through personal contacts.
▪ The tools usually used in staff selection are the
Process/Elements application forms showing the personal data,
personal interview, letters of reference from previous
of employers, school records such as the transcript of
Staffing/Personnel records and references from the school heads and
Management/ teachers, battery of tests, and medical examination.
Administration ▪ The provision of student placement is a good way of
recruiting for the agency. The organization is given
the opportunity to see and know the quality of
student’s work, evaluate heir potential and attract
them into the job.
 ▪ In actual selection, the applicant’s qualifications
are compared and matched with the job
description.
▪ No amount of training can later on can
compensate for poor selection.
Process/Elements ▪ Once the applicant is notified of his/her
of acceptance, he/she should be furnished with
Staffing/Personnel information regarding salary, duties,
Management/ responsibilities and relationships, as well as the
Administration job description and the agency’s personnel
policy.
▪ With these information, the applicant can make
the decision and if these information are
acceptable to him/her, he/she is then hired.
 2. Placement - once the applicant is hired, it is assumed that
he/she is the right person for the right job.
3. Orientation or induction and training
• Despite the new employee’s formal education ,
management should proceed on the premise that the new
Process/Elements employee knows little of what he/she needs to know
of about the agency.
Staffing/Personnel • It is the responsibility of the agency to give the employee
Management/ thee needed information in the form of orientation.
Administration • Orientation or induction is the procedure for introducing
the new worker to the agency’s history, objectives,
organization and standard operating policies and
procedures, rules and regulations, benefits, services, etc.
• It is the first part of the overall training program of the new
worker in the agency.
 ▪ According to the Rules and Regulations
implementing the Labor Code, Book II, Rule I,
“training is defined a the systematic
development of the attitude/behavior patten
required for the adequate performance of a
Process/Elements given task or job”.
of ▪ Based on this definition, the objectives of
Staffing/Personnel trainings are (Perfecto Sison):
Management/ ✓Productivity – to make the employee do
Administration his/her job more effective.
✓Effectiveness on the present job – to make
the employee improve or increase his/her
skills or knowledge which the training
endeavors to develop.
 ✓Qualifications for a better job – to
prepare him/her to another job that is
more difficult or higher in category in
Process/Elements order to overcome obsolescence or
of inbreeding arising from the policy or
Staffing/Personnel promotions from within.
Management/ ✓Morale-booster – to improve the
Administration
employee’s attitude towards his/her
fellow workers, supervisor, and the
firm as a whole.
 ▪ Since social work is a dynamic profession, continuous
development of the workers is needed to keep them
abreast of new trends and developments.
▪ Every agency is expected to have a development
program for those who are already employed.

Process/Elements ▪ Staff development must be a continuous process and

must be a planned program.
of
Staffing/Personnel ▪ Some of the components of staff development are
supervisions, individual or group, periodic evaluation,
Management observation, opportunities to participate in policy
formulation, educational leaves, provision of modern
technology, and full utilization of resources within the
agency and the community such as attendance at
professional conferences, seminars, workshops, and
personal readings.
 4. Performance appraisal or rating
✓The systematic periodic inventory or
appraisal of a person’s characteristics,
potentiality and performance through
Process/Elements observation by a rate on a basis of a
of systematic and uniform performance
Staffing/Personnel standard or goals made by the employee and
Managem employer.
✓It is used to equitably and wisely decide for
promotions, transfer, reduction orlay-offs, to
determine training needs, and as an
incentive and basis for effective supervision.
 5. Promotion
✓This refers to the advancement of a
worker to a better job, or position in
Process/Elements terms of greater responsibilities, more
of prestige, greater skills, and usually, an
Staffing/Personnel increase in salary.
Management ✓Factors to be considered in promotion
are merit and performance or
seniority.
 6. Transfer
✓Is the movement of the worker from one
position to another with basically the same
responsibilities and salary level.
✓This is done to adjust workloads, for remedial
purpose.
Process/Elements ✓To achieve greater versatility in the work
of force and to enable employees to get greater
Staffing/Personnel job satisfaction.
Management ✓At times, it is done upon the worker’s own
request for personal reasons such as to be
with his/her family.
✓This is the horizontal movement as against the
vertical movement of promotion.
 7. Wage and salary administration
✓The pay that the worker receives is an
incentive to do his/her job well.
✓Though a social worker is expected to work
because of his commitment to serve, he/she
Process/Elements must himself survive, hence he/she works to
of earn a living.
Staffing/Personnel ✓ The wage and salary level will depend upon
Management the financial condition of the employing
agency, the wages paid for comparable work
by other organizations, the current cost or
standard of living, and the government
regulation.
 8e. Discipline
✓This is the force that prompts an individual
or group to observe rules, regulations, and
procedures that are deemed necessary to
Process/Elements attainment of the objectives.
of
✓It should not be seen as punishment but
Staffing/Personnel
rather as a frm of education.
Management
✓It is the employer’s action against an
employee for infraction of company rules or
policies .
✓It is a process of control.
 9. Employee benefits and services
✓In addition to direct wages which the worker
receives, a supplemental compensation or
Process/Elements service is given by the agency which is
of called employee’s benefits or fringe
Staffing/Personnel benefits.

Management ✓This may include health or medical services,

retirement and pension, recreational, social
and athletic services, counseling and related
services, and living allowances.
 10. Turnover, Separation, and Retirement
✓Turnover refers to the shift and replacement
of personnel. It may be due to separation,
retirement, death and disability.
✓Separation is defined as the termination of
Process/Elements employment a a result of resignation, lay-off
of or discharge, while voluntary separation is
Staffing/Personnel better known as resignation or quitting,
Management generally initiated by the employee.
✓Some organizations provide some
compensation for those who resign
depending upon their policy.
 10. Turnover --- continuation
✓Since aging is something inherent in a man’s
life, most companies provide for the worker’s
retirement.
Process/Elements ✓Compulsory retirement ranges from 60 to 65
of years depending the organization’s policy on
Staffing/Personnel this matter.
Management ✓There are many kinds of retirement plans but
the most common is the sum of money
equivalent to one-half or one month pay for
every year of service given by the
organization.
 ▪ As stated earlier, the development of people is
the most important aspect of staffing or personal
administration.
▪ Every staff should grow/develop in his/her job.
▪ The methods of staff development are the
Staff following (Skidmore):
Development ✓Lectures – this can be done by staff
members or an outside guest on a specific
topic related to the knowledge, attitudes and
skills (KAS) in social work. This could be
followed with questions and discussion.
 2. Case presentation
✓ This is helpful usually in case planning and the
consideration of intervention techniques.
✓ The discussion of a different or complex case
involving family dynamics might help others involved
with similar cases.
✓ The case incident approach is a popular version of
Staff case presentation.
Development ✓ The focus here is on a particular action or series of
events in detail to help others present to understand a
particular dynamics, techniques, or principle in
working with an individual, a family or a community.
✓ If there are a series of case incidents presented they
should all be related to a particular principle,
professional attitude , or specific technique or skill.
 3. Role playing
✓The staff members assume the roles
Staff to act out what might have happened.
Development ✓This method should bring out feelings
and ideas that are relevant to a given
situation.
 4. Self-development program
✓This is a self-study program which involve
programmed learning.
✓Included here are printed materials with a
detailed instructions for solving problems and
providing the answers or opinions as requested.
Staff ✓One of the best ways to improve practice
Development abilities is to keep abreast of current
developments by reading recent books and
journal articles.
✓Another effective way of staff development is
writing articles for publication or write for
themselves by keeping notes or case histories.
 5. Group Actions
✓A variety of group approaches can be
utilized such as “Sensitivity training with “T”
groups, which attempts to provide an open
accepting climate for the small group
members to reveal their thoughts and
Staff feelings and react to the revelation of
Development others.
✓The aim here is to help the staff members
increase their understanding of themselves
especially their feelings and how they affect
their decisions and actions in service
delivery.
 5. Group actions continuation ….
✓Another way of group action is a
“retreat” away from office which may be
a two days and nights in duration.
✓Retreat may involve informal lectures, and
Staff group discussion, film showing, and role
playing.
Development ✓The events in retreats are summarized
and evaluated.
✓Retreat is a method not only educationally
effective but also socially enjoyable with
the staff relations improved.
 5. Group action continuation …
✓The “marathon” is another group action.
✓Marathon takes longer than the retreat and
may involve the entire staff.
✓Marathon should provide an open, relatively
free emotional atmosphere so that the
Staff participants’ feelings and thoughts will be
Development articulated.
✓The aim is for the staff to understand
themselves better, improve their ability to
understand others and work more
effectively with thm.
 6. Game exercises
✓Games can be done to provide a simulated
experience in solving social problems.
✓In some of these games computers are used.
Staff 7. Library facilities
Development ✓Social work agencies should provide library
materials for the use of the staff.
✓Books, social work journals, tapes, films, etc.
related to social work practice should be
made available.
 8. Continuing professional education (CPE)
✓There are several opportunities for CPE
such as those offered outside of the social
agencies which can be taken with credit or
non-credit.
✓Schools of social work offer part-time
Staff training for an advanced degree.
Development ✓There are summer or evening classes and
there are workshops offered for practitioners
to advance professionally and academically.
✓In the Philippines, an approved CPE for
social workers is required to maintain or
renew one’s license to practice.
 9. Exchanges
✓Social work agencies and schools of social
work can provide an opportunity to the
exchange staff and faculty for at least a
semester.
Staff ✓Practitioner invited to teach a particular class
Development can enrich the training of future social
workers.
✓Likewise, a faculty given the opportunity to
practice in an agency will contribute to the
professional development of the staff with the
infusion of the latest development.
 ▪ All workers of a social welfare agency must
understand the personnel practices of their own
agency.
▪ Even before accepting the job offer, they should
know exactly what the job requirements and
benefits, among other, are in order to avoid future
misunderstandings.
Personnel
▪ Most agencies have personnel manual as a guide on
Manual personnel policies.
▪ This must be accessible to all staff and board
members.
▪ Such personnel manual usually includes information
on the hiring procedures, termination procedure,
employee’s development and training, job
description, and the organizational chart.
 ▪ Some personnel manuals do not include all job
description. However, each employee must be
given his or her own job description.
▪ The following are usually covered in a job
description:
1. Job title
Personnel 2. Salary range
Manual 3. Work hours
4. General description of major
responsibilities.
5. Specific required responsibilities (e.g.,
attending staff meetings, preparing
monthly reports).
 • Continuation of coverage of job description….
6. Activities that the employee may be called
upon to perform in special circumstances.
7. Person/position to whom the employee is
directly accountable.
8. Person/position to whom the directly
Personnel responsible for supervising and what tasks are
Manual involved.
9. Education and experience requirements for
the position.
Recommended education, experiences, or
skills for the position.
5. Directing
 ▪ To efficiently achieve the objectives of the agency,
workers should know….
✓what they are expected to accomplish;
✓What their specific responsibilities and tasks
are;
✓How they are expected to do them;
Reason for ✓Why they are important;
applying directing ✓When they are expected to accomplish certain
in management tasks and where.
• In other words, they must have direction and
this should come from executives.
• Direction is the valid step between preparation
and actual operation.
 ▪ Directing is….
✓The process of implementing the total plan
and bringing into being all the necessary
and available resources to achieve the
objectives.
✓It is a continuous task of making directions
Definition of and embodying them in specific and
Directing general orders and instructions.
✓It is the function of constraining and
regulating action by interpreting,
explaining and instructing subordinates
about the requirements of the plan or some
phases of it (Davis & Filley).
 ▪ It is a communication by a supervisor,
concerning the performance expected and the
authority granted to the subordinate for such
performance.
▪ it is designed to give the respondent both
Definition of information and understanding of the work to be
Directing done.
▪ Directing is also concerned with the way an
executive or supervisor issues instructions to the
subordinates.
▪ It is important function of the executive and calls
for leadership abilities.
 ▪ In short, directing is issuing instructions.
Every instruction should possess these basic
features according to Newman and Schatz:

Definition of ✓Compliance should be reasonable,

Directing ✓It should be complete as to what is to be
done and when.
✓It should be clear to the person receiving
it.
 1. Setting up the major responsibilities, persons,
units, and branches.
2. Placing the jobs, responsibilities, and
functions properly in an organizational
Steps in pattern.
Directing 3. Issuing the directions, special assignments,
and orders.
4. Controlling or directing closely by basic
policies and plans.
6. Controlling
 ▪ After directions have been given, the executive
task is not yet complete,

Reason for ▪ The executive must see to it that in the

applying achievement of the objectives, the plans as
Controlling in agreed upon were carried through.

Administration ▪ It is not merely achieving the objectives that

counts, but it is also the assurance of correct
performance as specified by the standard set.
 ▪ Controlling is ….
✓The work of constraining, coordinating and
regulation action in accordance with plans for
the achievement of specified objectives.
✓It involves establishment of standards, guides,
Definition of or requirements as a basis of measuring and
Controlling evaluating performance against objectives.
✓It also involves motivation of people to achieve
these standards, comparison of actual results
against the standards and necessary corrective
action when performance deviates from the
plan.
 ▪ In short, controlling is the function
of making action conform to
Definition of standards that assure satisfactory
Controlling accomplishment of the objectives of
a plan.
 1. Setting standards at strategic points.

Essential Steps 2. Checking and reporting on performance.

in the Control 3. Getting feedback or information about the
results of performance.
Process
4. Taking corrective action.
 ▪ For the purpose of control in any deviation,
standards are the goals and objectives of the
organization/agency as a whole and are broken
down into objectives for individual departments
and sections.
Essential Steps
▪ These objectives are stated periodically, example:
in the Control in terms of projected program plans, membership
Process goals, participation levels, amount of income
(Newman & Schatz)
anticipated from various sources, amount of
expenditures anticipated for the several budget
items, extent of active participation of board and
committee members , and so forth.
 ▪ Control begins in the checking of actual results
against such stated objectives.
▪ If the control is to have an effective influence
Essential Steps in on performance, the administrator should
the Control make sure that goals are identified with
Process individual responsibility.
▪ Periodic departmental budget reviews are
essential.
▪ Another strategic point of control is the cost
per person served in a particular program.
 ▪ Corrective action is the decisive factor in control.
▪ Comparison of actual results with projected
Essential Steps in objectives and standards often show discrepancies.

the Control ▪ As soon as discrepancies are discovered, steps must

Process be taken to correct past action or to bring similar
action in the future closer to the desired goal.
▪ This may require revision of the operation or a
modification of the goal.
 ▪ An administrative tool being used nowadays is
social services to gather adequate information
on the effectiveness of a program is the
Essential Steps management information system (MIS).
in the Control ▪ Each agency has its own way of doing this but in
Process essence the system involves collecting
data/information about performances for
further planning and standard setting.
 1. Reporting

Some Methods 2. Setting deadlines

of Controlling 3. Inspection, and
4. Prior approval of projects
7. Coordinating
 ▪ It is a big job to achieve the objectives of an
agency and it is for this reason that functions
and tasks to accomplish the goals have to be
assigned and divided among the many
Reason for
personnel or workers of the agency.
Coordinating
▪ The management’s task is to see to it that all th
efforts of all workers performing the job are
coordinated.
 ▪ Coordinating is…
✓The process of interrelating the various parts
of the work of an agency so that it functions
as a whole.
✓It is a process by which cooperation,
Definition of agreement, and understanding are secured
to support a common endeavor.
Coordinating
✓It is also a process whereby a
supervisor/executive develops an orderly
pattern of group effort among his/her
subordinates and secure unity of action in the
pursuit of common purposes.
 ▪ Therefore, coordination calls for
effective leadership to assure
coordination not only of the job or
function but also of the personnel’s
efforts.
Definition of
Coordinating ▪ Coordination takes place through
communication between and
among people, linking both
organization functions and the
groups of people.
 ▪ The two types of coordination used to link
together the functions of the organization and
Types of the people are:
Coordination ✓Coordination of thought
(Davis & Filley)
✓Coordination of action
 1. Coordination of thoughts…
✓Has to do with the relationship between
mental activities.
✓The development of standards of thought
and action is important since it aids in
common understanding of th action to be
Types of taken.
Coordination ✓Common measures, terminology,
(Davis & Filley specification, or philosophy are all examples
of such basic aids to coordination of
thoughts.
✓Unity of thought is also a prerequisite for a
meeting of minds, hence, it is important in
developing and maintaining morale.
 2. Coordination of action…
✓This has to do primarily with establishing
Types of harmonious relationship between and
Coordination among physical activities.
(Davis & Filley ✓The proper training and sequence of
physical activities are reestablished .
 1. Perpendicular or vertical coordination …
✓This is effected through the competent
delegation of responsibilities and the
corresponding authority for the performance of
every act from the largest to the smallest.
✓The “scalar principle or organization” which
Forms of extends from top to bottom , with the authority
Coordination coming from the top as well as maintaining
responsibility for seeing that the job is done after
it has been delegated –is th example
✓Ideally, this should be a two-way communication,
that is, not only from the topto bottom but also
from bottom to top.
 2. Horizontal coordination or cross coordination
✓This refers to supervisors or executives on
the same level coordinating and relatitng
their activities or functions among
Forms of themselves.
Coordination ✓This is necessary since the actions within
one’s area or responsibility will affect the
other parts of the agency or vice-versa.
 ▪ Basically, coordination in an agency can be
achieved if there is a cooperative environment.
▪ Cooperation is the key to effective
coordination.
▪ Ways of effective coordination:
Ways for ✓Clear lines of authority and responsibility
Effective ✓Periodic reports
Coordination ✓Effective communication system through the
use of:
a. Committees
b. Staff meetings/conferences
c. Group decision-making techniques
 ▪ In addition, modern management leans
heavily on another concept, that is,
Ways for coordination by reason of the fact the
Effective entire staff understood and accepted the
Coordination organization’s goals and objectives and
results (MBOR)
 ▪ Coordination is not an by itself but should be
the tool or a means towards the achievement of
the goal.
▪ The following are the criteria:
Criteria for 1. It is not forced by autocratic direction but is
Successful fostered by leaders who understand the
Coordination value of participative management.
2. It is timely and extends in a balanced
organization and operates horizontally and
vertically.
 3. Rensis Likert noted in his book “The Human
Organization” that there are conditions which
should be met by an organization if it is to
achieve a satisfactory solution to the
coordination of functional problems.
a. It must provide high levels of cooperative
Criteria for behavior between supervisors and
Successful subordinates and especially among peers.
Coordination b. Its members should have confidence and
trust among themselves.
c. It must have the organizational structure
and the interaction skill required to solve
differences and conflicts and to attain
creative solutions.
 d. It must possess the capacity to exert
influences and to create motivation and
coordination without traditional forms of
Criteria for line authority.

Successful e. Its decision-making processes and

superior-subordinate relationships must be
Coordination
such as to enable a person to perform
hi/her job well and without hazard when
he/she has two or more superiors.
 ▪ In administration, “leadership and supportive
teamwork can make a major difference in the
services offered.
▪ Staff workers working cooperatively work
Teamwork together can bring results that surpass in
quantity and quality the mere addition of the
contribution of each (Skidmore).
▪ When they do not work together the results may
be negative or diminished.
 1. Communication
2. Compromise
Five Major
3. Cooperation
Processes of
Teamwork 4. Coordination
(Skidmore)
5. Consummation
 1. Communication – sharing of ideas and
feelings and involves listening as well as
interacting and reflecting back ideas and
involve both verbal and non-verbal
components.
Five Major
Processes of 2. Compromise – due to individual differences,
it is expected that when two or more people
Teamwork communicate with each other, the next
process is either to accept the plans or work
out a compromise.
 3. Cooperation -
✓Is a process where two or more people are
working together and helping each other.
✓It involves doing one’s own work efficiently
Five Major and effectively and making successful
Processes of contribution to the agency as a whole.

Teamwork ✓Commitment of time and energy is involved

in cooperation
✓Competition among the staff members is the
enemy of team work.
 4. Coordination…
✓This requires the involvement of all staff
Five Major members.

Processes of ✓Here the “strands of an agency are

intertwined in organization and practice so
Teamwork that the agency’s strengths come to the
fore and friction and difficulties are
minimized.
 5. Consummation…
✓The activities and projects started with
Five Major others must be completed.
Processes of ✓A major part of the teamwork process is
Teamwork bringing service or activities to a conclusion.
8. Communication
 ▪ All the administration/management functions in one way or another
have to use communication, if they have to be accomplished
effectively.
▪ The administrators must communicate feedback to the top people.
The Value of ▪ Those on the same level in the organization must likewise be
communicating with each other.
Communication ▪ The administrator must see to it that all channels of communication
in Administration must be well-established and properly maintained.
▪ There are many forms of communication which the welfare agency
may use, therefore, there is no valid reason why there can be no
communication among the staff of the agency from the
administrator down to the lowest ranking worker.
 ▪ Communication is the phase of the managerial
process that transmits ideas from one person to
another for use in the performance of
management functions (Davis & Filley).

Definition of
Communication ▪ Communication may be defined as the transfer
of meaning from one person to another through
signs, signals, or symbols from mutually
understood language system (Alberts).
 ▪ Communication is a two-way channel directed
to all staff and/or board members for
transmitting ideas, plans, commands, reports
and suggestions concerning all appropriate
agency tasks, goals and objectives which are to
Definition of be met.
Communication ▪ Communication is the vital link that unites
executives, board members , employees and
clients of an agency or a program and
establishes a liaison between the agency, the
government representatives and the concerned
members of the community.
 ▪ Communication in social work administration is
extremely important for three main reasons
(Skidmore):
✓Effectiveness
Definition of
• communication is basic in the delivery of
Communication services in the formulation of sound
policies and in decision-making.
• Such communication must be two-way
and must be a democratic process.
 ✓ Efficiency
• Staff members must communicate openly among
themselves the procedures, methods, cases, policies,
among themselves the procedures, methods, cases,
policies, goals, and efficient techniques for expediting
and improving social services as well as certain
procedures which are found to be ineffective.

Definition of ✓ Morale
• The leaders and staff members should feel connected
Communication in order to be supportive of one another to achieve the
agency goals.
• They should tell one another what they think and why.
• Agency morale is built on the understanding of
administration and staff members, who communicate
and help one another in the delivery of social
services”
 • Communication as an administrative tool must
be a two-way channel to be effective, otherwise
Essential it is just information giving any feedback.
Compnents of 1. The source or sender
Communication 2. The message, and
(George de Mare) 3. The receiver – unless the receiver gets and
understands the message, effective
communication has not taken place.
 ▪ Whatever the purpose or reason for
communication, it is important it is important to
be clear to be clear about to whom it will be
sent, what is it to be sent and how it will be sent.
▪ Sixmajor purposes of administrative
communication (Trecker):
Purpose of 1. To clarify what is to be done, how, and by
Administrative whom;
Communication 2. To reinforce identity with agency purposes;
3. To transmit problems, suggestions, ideas;
4. To report progress;
5. To promote participation, and
6. To promote social interchange or to provide
recognition.
 ▪ Communication flow in an agency is greatly
affected by its organizational structure, whether
public or private.
▪ Two communication patterns:
❖Formal communication
✓Means the rational, planned system of
Patterns of procedures and channels by which
Communication information flows from the lines of
authority as seen in the organizational
chart.
✓This may include not only downward
communication but also upward and
cross communication.
 ❖Informal communication
✓ this means that communication does not
follow channels of authority.

Patterns of ✓Instead, it is channeled by the social contacts

among the people in the agency and it is
Communication commonly known as the “grapevine” .
✓Surprisingly, the grapevine is fast in its
distribution of news but it is inaccurate in
keeping the original facts straight.
 ▪ There are several ways of delivering communication.
▪ Whatever way it may be will depend on the urgency of
messages.
▪ Some ways of communication:
1. Telephone - this is the quickest way where feedback
Methods of is immediate and includes mobile phone through
text.
Delivering 2. Face to face – another quick way if the receiver is
Communication available and where feedback is also immediate.
3. Special messenger – this applies if the message is
urgent and the receiver within reach.
4. Meetings – if the message is for large number of
people or group such as the staff, board, committee,
etc. this is the quickest way.
 5. Reports
✓ this is one way by which the administrator is informed
of the progress of the work of the staff.
✓ In private organization, the report is a means by which the
board members are informed by the executive.
Methods of ✓ The feedback may be slow but a large amount of
Delivering information is given.

Communication 6. Letter
✓ this is usually done where there is a need to send
message outside of one’s agency.
✓ The feedback here is slow.
 7. Memo –this is used for internal non-urgent
communication usually feedback is usually also slow.
8. E-mail, Facebook, Twitter, etc.
Methods of 9. Informal conference
Delivering 10.Nesletters
Communication 11. Bulletin boards
12. Suggestion box
13. The grapevine
 1. The purpose of communication must be clear
and must be understood by the person it and
by the person receiving it.
2. Both spoken and written material must be as
Criteria for clear as possible and subject to one and only
Effective one interpretation.

Communication 3. Effective communication is a series of

(Trecker) consistent acts. In other words, subsequent
communication are consistently related to
earlier communication and avoid the hazard
nullification.
 4. Good communication is adequate to
accomplish its purpose; it is neither too much or
too little; it has a sharp focus and is selective as to
context.
Criteria for 5. Good communication is timely in that thought is
Effective given to the timing as point of issue and the
Communication readiness on the part of the recipient.
(Trecker)
6. In good communication, thought is given to the
channels to be utilized and to the distribution so
that the right person will receive the material.
 1. Clarity – ambiguity makes it possible for people to give
different signals and direction, even at the same time.
Messages should be simple and clear.
2. Completeness – an instruction that is only partially
complete is difficult to follow.
The Five C’s of 3. Conciseness – the shorter a presentation, the better, as
long as it covers the subject.
Communication
4. Concreteness – communication should be on target. It
should be very specific, citing names and expectations,
so that no misunderstanding arises.
5. Correctness – if the false information is reported,
difficulties ensur from the outset. Accuracy is essential.
9. Budgeting and Financing
 ▪ No matter how well organized an agency is or its
authorized social services programs, such programs can
only be effectively implemented and possibly realized if
funds are available.
Imporance of ▪ Where to get the agency funds and how to get the funds
Budgeting and will require budget preparation and budget presentation.
Financing to an ▪ This Is the main responsibility of of the administrator
Agency or together with the assistance of his/her department heads
Organization and other officers.
▪ This does not mean, that the direct service worker does
not have to know hoe to prepare the budget for he/she too
has to prepare the for a program which he/she may be
proposing.
 ▪ Budget (Melvin Gross):
✓Is a financial plan whether for an agency or
a program.
✓A budget is a plan of action. (Melvin
Definition Gross).
✓It represents the organization’s blueprint for
the coming months or years expressed in
monetary terms.
✓Budget may be characterized as a series of
goals with price tags attached.
 ▪ Budgeting
✓Is one of the areas of financial administration
with which an administrator must be
concerned if he is to run the organization
efficiently.
✓Main areas of financial administration are:
Definition 1. Securing of funds or income;
2. Using the funds in accordance with the
objectives of the organization or
budgeting; and
3. Maintaining appropriate records of
financial transaction or accounting and
also auditing.
 ▪ Accounting is the art of recording,
classifying, and summarizing in a
significant manner and in terms of
money transactions or events which
Definition
are in part of a financial character
and analyzing and interpreting the
results thereof.
 ▪ Recording includes making
entries; classifying includes
sorting mass of transactions in an
orderly and systematic manner;
Definition summarizing means bringing
together of accounting data in a
form that further enhances this
information.
 ▪ Auditing is the state of making an audit or an
examination of some or all of the following
document, records, reports, system of mutual control,
accounting procedures, and other evidences for one
or more of the following purposes:
✓ To determine the propriety, legality and mathematical
Definition accuracy of proposed or consummated transaction;
✓ To ascertain whether all transactions have been
recorded; and
✓ To determine whether transactions are accurately
reflected in the accounts and in the statements drawn,
therefore, in accordance with the accepted accounting
procedures.
 1. Line-item budgeting
✓Is the most used format.
✓This format is based on line-item accounting
and incremental increases in projecting
ahead for a year or more.
✓It indicates how the money is to be spent, but
Types of Budget it does not depict what the agency does.
✓It is not program oriented and does not
present agency goals, targets, or results.
✓Its main feature is its reliance on explicit
categories of expenditures to insure
justification.
 2. Program budgeting
✓Goals and objectives are a significant part and
include services offered by the agency.
✓It may cover several years, particularly as a
program is offered and approved for specific
amount of time.
✓It also includes cost estimates and specific for
Types of Budget each program .
✓This format has been found to be useful
management tool in monitoring the effect of key
allocation decisions as this affect th program
quality.
✓An example of program budgeting is the
Program, Planning and Budgeting System (PPBS)
 ▪ Program, Planning and Budgeting System
(PPBS)
✓Is a management tool to help focus on the
main goals of the agency.
✓This tool contrasts with the traditional
approach of ;ine-item budgeting where
Types of Budget administrators simply itemized their
budgetary needs for the year in such
categories as personnel, rent, supplies,
travel, and the like (Ehlers, et al.).
✓PPBS consists of four basic elements: system,
planning, programing and budgeting.
 ▪ This system involves classifying expenditures
based on an analysis of objectives and
resources and the interrelations among them,
and are taken into account to achieve a
coherent and comprehensive program of action
(Arthur Smithies).
Types of Budget
▪ This approach is a tool which can help the
administrator since it starts with the assumption
that an organization rarely finds the resources
adequate to finance all of the valid programs
which are urgently needed (Greenberg).
 ▪ The entire package of PPBS must be seen as a
system and also a systemic approach to the
problems of budgeting (Ehlers).
▪ Since PPBS concepts is embodied in th systems
Types of Budget theory, one should look at the interrelatedness
or programs and activities, at means and ends
(goals and objectives) all in relation to the
crucial question of cost-effectiveness.
 ▪ Elements of PPBS
✓Keeping an eye on the ”end product” – not just
on the specific activity.
✓Taking a long-range vies, looking five or even 10
years in the future – rather than just a year-to-
year review.
✓Identifying alternative courses of action – and it
Types of Budget none exists, inventing some.
✓Analyzing in terms of both its contributions
towards achieving the “end product” and its
costs.
✓Keeping tab on what is happening in the system,
and
✓Being flexible,
 3. Functional Budgeting
✓This system encompasses program
services but emphasizes the supporting
administrative services that are needed for
operating an agency,
Types of Budget ✓Revenues and expenditures as they relate
to management and general functions , fund
raising functions, and identifiable programs
offered by the agency are all listed.
 4. Zero-based budgeting (ZBB)
✓This is done particularly in government
agencies.
Types of Budget ✓Here the agency starts with no money each
year and describes and justifies all
expenditures for the coming year, whether
or not they have existed before.
 ▪ When the budget is prepared, it is done in the
light of the agency’s objectives or goals.
▪ The administrator who wishes to know and
evaluate the extent to which the budget is
achieving its objectives may use the “cost-
benefit” method.
Cost-benefit
▪ Cost benefit means the relationship[ of the
Analysis resources required or the cost – to attain a
certain goals or the benefits (Levine).
▪ It is based on the economic concept that many
executive decisions involve the allocation or
best use of limited resources among competing
requirements.
 ▪ Cost-benefit analysis is a tool for the
administrator confronted with the need to make
choices among viable competing programs
designed to achieve certain objectives.

Cost-benefit ▪ It provides a package of relevant information on

Analysis which to base certain kinds of decisions.
▪ It does not favor the ‘cheapest’ or even the ’best’
program, but the optimal program in terms of the
available resources-money, trained personnel,
facilities.
 1. Setting the specific needs and goals of the
agency. It is important to review the basic
policies and procedures of the agency. The
goals and objectives ought to be observable
and measurable.
Steps in Budget- 2. Collecting and studying basic information
making Process regarding the current and past operations of
(Skidmore) the agency, including what has and has not
been accomplished.
3. Looking at alternatives and different ways of
using the money that may be available during
the year.
 4. Deciding on priorities for the agency. Look at
the agency policies and goals to see which are
most financially compatible with the agency.
5. Finalizing decisions regarding the budget. The
needs and potentials of the agency as a whole and
Steps in Budget- of the individuals who work there should be
making Process considered. Also, the welfare of clients, along with
(Skidmore efficiency of the agency’s operation, is important
matters to consider.
6. Providing adequate interpretation and public
relations. The administrator should interpret the
budget to those in position of power so they will
fully understand the reasons for specific requests.
 ▪ The administrator should periodically
check the agency’s budget to ascertain
the balance between income and
Chart of expenditures.
Account ▪ Setting up a chart of accounts which is
basically a list of all items, both income
and expenditures to be accounted for will
be helpful
 ▪ Chart of account involved the following:
✓ Estimating the cost of each objective or goal listed
before. This process should be done in detail.
✓ Estimating the expected income of the agency. For
the public agency, it will mostly come from the
government appropriation through taxes paid by the
people; for the private agencies, the general public’s
Chart of contribution will be the primary source.

Account ✓ Comparing the total expected income with the

expense of achieving the goals or objectives. If the
expected expenses exceed that of the income, some
value judgment have to be made, such as deciding
which of the program are most important. The process
of reconciling the expected income and expenses is
an important step.
 ▪ In preparing the budget, it should be noted that
finances must be adequate to meet the program
needs.
▪ A big item in the budget is for personnel’s salaries
or wages, pensions and retirement plans, social
security and other personnel benefits.
Chart of ▪ Other items in the budget will involve transportation,
Account light, water, telephone, office supplies, insurance,
equipment, publications, building, etc.
▪ For social welfare agencies, the biggest item may be
for social services i.e. the material and tangible
service or aid to be rendered to the clientele or
target population.
 ▪ After understanding wha a budget is and how it
is prepared, and after getting an overview of
some budgeting methods and evaluation, see
what constitutes an ideal budget:
✓It is comprehensive – it includes all planned
Other Phases of expenditures and all estimated income.
Budgeting ✓It is clear and easily understood.
✓It is flexible,
✓It is workable.
✓It is accurate and realistic.
 ▪ Financing
✓Defined as allocation of an
organization/agency’s liquid assets to assure
their most productive use.
Financing ✓In other words, the limited supply of capital
Definition available to an organization must, if the
agency is going to be successful, be used in
a way in which it can do the most good in
terms of profitability.
 ▪ Funds required by government agencies come from the taxes of
the people.
▪ Funds required by non-government or voluntary agencies to
administer and deliver their services come mainly from the
following sources:
✓ Fees for services
✓ Membership dues
✓ Investment earnings
Sources of ✓ Use of capital resources
✓ Sale of goods and publications; oter grassroots fundraising
Agency Funds efforts
✓ Bequests: private foundation
✓ Graants or contracts for services
✓ Donor contributions
• Social workers need to understand financial records,
financial controls, and the preparation of budgets to use
funds wisey.
 ▪ Is an ongoing record of what the agecy
has spent on what and how well kt is
staying within the budget.
▪ The agency’s bookkeeper or accountant
enters into the ongoing record paper
Financial Record showing what have been spent.
▪ All social workers who are working on a
program must periodically check with
the bookkeeper or accountant to see
how the money for the program is being
sent.
 ▪ In most agencies, a set of procedures for
purchase is followed in addition to keeping a
ledger book on expenses.
▪ The usual practice is for the worker to fill out a
purchase order in several copies
(quadruplicate).
Financial ▪ One copy is for the supervisor of the program
Control or the person who approves the expenditures,
ne for the bookkeeper, one for the merchant
from whom the social worker will buy, and the
last copy is for the worker.
▪ While this practice may seem too bureacratic,it
is actually helping the worker to rn the program
smoothly.
 ▪ It is also a common practice for financial control to have
more than one person to handle income and disburse
money.
▪ Oftentimes, two out of three signatures, usually a staff
and member of the board, sign check and deposit.
▪ The staff and even volunteers should be given the right
Financial to see the budget and the financial statements of the
agency.
Control
▪ With this practice they will take real responsibility in
accounting for and controlling the finances, thereby
enhancing their commitment to the program.
▪ At the same time, this will give the head of the agency
and/or the bard of directors the wisdom and feedback of
the frontline or direct service workers.
10. Recording and Reporting
 ▪ Every agency must have some form of evidences to
show its activities, actions, transactions, and the like.
▪ All workers should be able to account for the tasks,
functions, responsibilities, and others, which have
been assigned to them and for which they are being
paid by the agency.
Value of ▪ The agency which was organized in response to a
Reporting and need of a particular community or society has the
obligations to let the public know what it has done in
Reporting justification for the funds extended to it.
▪ Management also needs a tool in its decision-
making process.
▪ For all of these, records and reports form part of the
evidence.
 ▪ Record is an account in written or other
permanent form serving as a memorial or
authentic evidence of a fact or event.
Definitions ▪ Report means “to make or give an account of,
often formally”. Reports are based on an
accurate records, research, and investigation.
 ▪ Recording
✓Every worker has a responsibility for
record keeping of which there are
various forms.
✓The variation is related to the
agency’s purposes and the particular
Recording problem of the clientele (Margaret
Schubert).
✓Records are the basis for reports but it
is not enough to keep records.
✓What is more important is to make
accurate records.
 ▪ A written record may be achieved through
careful observation, the worker’s perception
based on his/her knowledge relating to the
problems, and his/her skill in interviewing.
▪ Recording may be use for different purposes:
✓Case recording may be used for
administrative purposes, for teaching, and
for research.
Recording
✓The chief function of the record is to show
the nature of the case situation, what the
client is doing about his/her problem and
how the worker carries the responsibility of
offering help or treatment (Gordon
Hamilton).
 ▪ In every welfare agency with professional
programs perusing a highly disciplined skills
such as social work, it is necessary that the
workers prepare some type of administrative
recording, examples are:
✓Minutes of meetings
Recording ✓Annual reports
✓Project progress reports, and the like.
• In social work practice recording always
plays a significant role.
 ▪ In administration of social services
recording is necessary.
▪ The primary purpose of recording is
accountability (Jill Kagle).
▪ Practitioners discharge an important
Recording legal and ethical responsibility to their
agencies, clients. Communities and
profession by documenting, explaining
and evaluating their services.
 ▪ Information from records may be used not only by
the practitioners, supervisor, consultant and other
professionals in the agency, but also by the courts,
other community agencies, oversight and and
funding organization, managed case networks,
accrediting groups as well as the clients and the
Recording client’s family, attorney and employer.
▪ In preparing the records, the practitioners should
respond to information needs both of the current
audience and also of the future, example: the case of
litigation and for the use of records in the court
(Kagle).
 ▪ We are all aware of the need to protect
confidentiality.
▪ Informed consent for release of information, proper
storage, and handling of written and computerized
records should always be observed.
▪ Recording is much more than a practice skill.
Recording ▪ It involves a series of important professional
decisions at all levels of the organization.
▪ Social workers must see to it that in their recording
entry and organization of the recordings, there is a
balance between the demand for accountability and
the goals of efficiency and client privacy.
 ▪ Social workers are all aware of the
narrative record and and the process
recording.
▪ Types of records (Kagle):
Recording ✓Tape recording
✓Problem-oriented recording
✓Time series recording
 1. Tape recording
✓Is used to supplement and not to
replace the need to keep other
records.
Recording ✓Audio tape and videotape are useful
in educating students and
supervising family therapy and other
process-oriented approaches to
practice.
 2. Problem-oriented recording
✓Problems and identified services are
planned and delivered, problems are
resolved.
✓This type of recording is currently used in
Recording health and mental health settings, where the
different disciplines collaborate in collecting
information, listing problems, formulating
plans and evaluating results, but record
using the same frmat.
 ▪ Progress notes follow the “SOAP” (Kagle)
✓S for subjective information (from client and
family)
✓O for objective information (from tests and
observation
✓A for assessment
Recording ✓P for plans
• At termination, problems are resolved or
stablished and the outstanding problems
alternative plans such as referrals are
outlined.
 3. Time series recording (Kagle)
✓The documentation of repeated measures of
the specific behaviors, attitudes, or
interactions that are the focus of social work
intervention.
Recording ✓The purpose is to provide information about
movement toward achieving the goals of
service.
✓This approach to record keeping tends to
focus practice and the records on client
behaviors rather than on other aspects of
client situation.
 ▪ Whatever type of recording is used the
important matter to consider is to limit
the content to information pertinent to
the delivery of services, which include
the following:
Recording ✓Who the client is
✓What the client needs
✓What services are delivered
✓How the services affect the client and
the need
 ▪ Records should always include a description
and assessment of the client situation, the
analysis of the purpose, goals, plans, process
and effect of services.
▪ A clear link between assessment of the client
Recording situation, analysis of available resources and
intervention, decisions and actions regarding
the purpose, goal and plan of service and
definable and meaningful outcomes must be
demonstrated.
 ▪ Reporting as a process of management is
broadly interpreted as a process of
Reporting communication. It is not only aa two-way flow
of information upward and downward but also
outward, across, and around.
 1. For upward and outward purposes, to report
the progress, future needs, and plans, and
account for one’s performance and
justification of a program. The report upward
is also meant for executive control and
Purposes of
planning.
Reporting
2. For downward purposes, reports are made to
inform the workers about policies, programs,
resources, procedures, and other matters
affecting the organization.
 1. Subject matter reports- finance, personnel, program,
project, research.
a. Client service reports – those working with clients
in any capacity must make reports to their
supervisors regarding each client or client group.
b. Program, project, or research reports – a periodic
Classification of (daily, weekly, and/or monthly report) report to the
head concerning progress towards the goal should
Reports be made.
(Lesikar) c. Personnel reports – the progress or lack of progress
being made by the personnel should be reported.
d. Financial reports – a periodic budget report by
program, project or research directors or by the
agency’s finance executive should be made.
 2. Time interval reports
✓ Many subject matter reports are submitted on a
present time interval such as daily, weekly, monthly,
quarterly, semi-annually or annually.
3. Interim and miscellaneous reports – memoranda are
used within an agency to inform staff and executive of
Classification of activities and as reminders. Miscellaneous reports include:
a. Progress reports- this covers how activities are
Reports progressing.
(Lesikar
b. Improvement reports – may be made by program
and/or project directors concerning their programs
or employees.
c. Recommendation reports – is usually prepared by a
committee formed for particular purpose or from
conferences.
 1.Stating the problem – the problem must
be stated first in general terms and then
analyzed to bring into closer focus.

Ten Steps in 2.Defining the scope of the problem –

Preparing and limits are placed and defined.
Agency Report 3.Planning the methods for obtaining
(Gallagher)
relevant information,
4.Collecting the information.
5.Analyzing the information.
 6. Forming the conclusion(s) – is the final phase of agency
report writing which may be presented at the beginning.
7. Organizing the report – keep in mind who the readers
are. It may be arranged as follows:
a. Summary –purpose and scope, conclusion,
Ten Steps in recommendation
b. Introduction
Preparing and c. Body
Agency Report d. Appendix
(Gallagher 8. Preparing the first draft
9.Editing the first draft
10. Publishing the report
 1. Clear 7. Comparative

2. Pertinent 8. Properly classified

3. Brief but complete 9. Attractive in format

Characteristics
4. Current 10. Objective
of an Effective
Written Report 5. Accurate 11. Presented on
schedule/time

6. Informative 12. Dated and signed

11.Public Relations
 ▪ Organized public relations
✓Practice is the continuing effort to effect a
harmonious adjustment between and institution
and its public.
✓Experience has taught that this adjustment
requires, among other things, a two-way
exchange of opinions and information, which can
Definition result in mutual understanding and mutual
interests.
✓This free-flowing interchange of ideas and
information requires planned effective
communication.
✓In this process the practitioner serves, in turn, the
role of catalyst, counselor, and communicator.
 1. Facilitating and evaluating a free flow of
opinions, attitudes, ideas, and reactions from
all persons, however fare removed or remotely
affected, concerned with the acts and policies
of an organization.
2. Brining these attitudes, opinions, ideas and
Publc relations reactions to bear on the policies and program
as an organized of an organizations to chart a course of that
program will serve the mutual interests of all
concerned.
3. Explaining and dramatizing the chosen course
to all those who may be affected and whose
support is essential to the success of the
organization served by the practitioner.
 ▪ Public relations is the management function
which evaluate public attitudes, identifies the
policies and procedures of an individual or an
organization with the public interest and
Public relations executes a program of action to earn public
understanding and acceptance.
as an organized
program ▪ Public relations is defined as the activities and
techniques used by organization and individuals
to establish favorable attitude and response in
their behalf on the part of the general public or
of special groups.
 ▪ Public relations consists of 90 percent doing
and 10 percent telling about it, “Good conduct
coupled with good reporting” is another.
▪ The work of welfare, heath, and religious
agencies is society’s responses to the
Public relations consequences of its social disorganization .
as an organized Many writers hold that public relations is
program simply the practical application of the Golden
Rule.
▪ Social work is the affirmative answer to the
question,“Am I my brother’s keeper?”
 ▪ The humanitarian urge to give aid and comfort
to those needing it is deep within us all.
▪ Social work has now matured into a professional
Public relations calling.
as an organized ▪ Caught up the turmoil and tension of today’s
program divided world, it is in the midst of difficult
problems and on the threshold of great
opportunities.
 1. Know where and what your goals are. What are your
targets?
2. Know who you want to reach.Who are your publics?
3. Evaluate resources, such as money, facts, manpower,
and skills available.
7 Salient
4. Note how your benefits dovetail with those you
Principles of
reach. Give before you get.
Successful Public
5. Know specific techniques of public relations in
Relations (Elizabeth
Haglund quoted by Skidmore) regard to preparation and participation regarding
advertising, publicity and brochures. Ask the
questions who, what, where, why and how much.
6. Be absolutely honest.
7. Thank people. Show appreciation.
 ▪ Public relations is a function of management.
▪ It is more than just press relations, and the
public relations officer is often responsible to
the board of directors.
▪ The function of public relations is to promote
public understanding and acceptance of an
Functions of agency and its services.
Public Relations ▪ The purpose is to ensure that the “image” or
impression which the public carry of the agency
is a favorable one, so that ultimately there will
be greater acceptance of the services of the
agency.
 1. Integrity
2. A sense of timing and good
journalistic ability.
Qualities of
Public Relations 3. Good knowledge of media, e.g.
Officer television, exhibitions. Press, etc.
4. Ability to get along well with all sorts
of people.
 1. Providing information about the
agency, its programs and services,
inquiries on matters affecting the
agency, its policies, etc.
2. Dealing with all relations with the press
Duties of Public and other public relations
Relations Officer organizations.
3. Organization of visits to other agencies
and exhibitions.
4. Responsibility for house journal, i.e.,
internal agency newsletter or journal.
 ▪ It is important that the agency should decide, as
an important matter of policy, what type of
public image it should project.
▪ To this end, all agency policies should reflect
this overall policy of agency image.
▪ A basic public relations policy can be put
Public Image forward to ensure that the public is influenced to
react to the agency in the desired way.
▪ There are a number of publics: stakeholders, the
clientele, employees (potential and present),
suppliers, and the government.
 ▪ The various “publics” can be influenced by
good relations to regard the organization as:
1. As good organization to work for, or invest
in; and
2. An organization, whose services can be
given with confidence and reliability

Public Image • It is also important to increase morale oth

inside and outside the company.
• If employee are proud of the organization, its
achievement and services to the community,
employees must be aided in their daily
work, that can help social workers become
more confident in their service to clients.
 ▪ Effective public relations can be of help
in the promotion of new service
programs.
▪ A public relations promotes a company
and its services to a wider range of
Public Image public.
▪ There is a problem drawn in trying to
measure the effectiveness of public
relations as its results may not be too
evident or capable of measurement.
 ▪ Agencies are not self-contained units but
are linked to their environment, and an
The Executive executive holds a position which places
as Public him/her in a particular relationship to the
Relations Officer outside world, whether this can be
conceived of as the agency’s immediate
setting or the local community.
 ▪ On a variety of occasions, the executive is the
agency’s official representative, as a member of
the coordinating committee.
▪ In addition to performing the specific tasks on
hand, he/she is also giving expression to a
The Executive relationship between his/her own agency and
as Public those with whom he/she is carrying out its
Relations Officer business.
▪ On such occasions, he/she not only represents
the agency, but to all intents and purposes
he/she is the agency, and on him/her falls
ultimate responsibility for creating its “public
image”
 ▪ No agency functions in isolation.
▪ The agency is at the center of a series of
concentric circles, representing the elements in
the community in which it must maintain a live
The Executive relationship if it is to do its job as an agency.
as Public ✓First, it must establish its identity and its
Relations Officer functions in relation to other organizations.
✓Second, it must establish its identity in
relation to clients – actual and potential.
✓Third, an agency’s identity needs to be
established in the community.
 ▪ There are various ways which a
competent social work administrator
can utilize to interpret their agencies in
the public.
Public Relations ▪ They include television, radio,
and the Media newspapers, brochures, books and
personal contacts among many others
available currently with the advent of
technology.
12. Evaluation and Research
 ▪ All social institutions or subsystems,
whether medical, educational, religious,
economic, or political, are required to
provide “proof” of their legitimacy and
Importance of effectiveness in order to justify society’s
Evaluation and continued support.
Research ▪ Both the demand for and the acceptable
“proof” will depend largely upon the
nature of the relationship between the
social institution and the public.
 ▪ It is not difficult to account for the increasing
pressures upon public service and community
workers to evaluate their activities.
▪ The current desire to judge the worthwhileness
of such programs is but one aspect of modern
society’s belief that many of its social problems
Importance of can be met most effectively through planned
Evaluation and action based upon existing knowledge,
Research including the design of even better solutions to
step with advancing knowledge.
▪ The commitment of the modern world to
planned social change is overwhelmingly
apparent in the national and international
scenes.
 ▪ Underlying this increasing need for evaluation
of public service programs are a number of
highly significant trends in the nature of social
problems, in the structure and functioning of the
Importance of various fields of public service, and in the
Evaluation and b=needs and expectations of the public.

Research ▪ Fundamental changes are taking place in each

of these areas, resulting in a strong demand for
evaluative research to determine the extent to
which current programs are meeting the
challenge of a rapidly changing world.
 ▪ Statements that reflect three definitions of evaluation:
1. Evaluation is a systematic process of collecting
and analyzing data in order to determine
whether and to what degree objectives have
been or are being achieved.
2. Evaluation is the systematic process of
Definition collecting and analyzing data in order to make a
decision.
3. Evaluation is a process which involves
examining a training program in the light of
values or standards, for the purpose of making
certain decision about the efficiency,
effectiveness or impact of the program.
 ▪ Thus, the function of evaluation is to provide
feedback from results to effect organizational
decisions.
▪ Evaluation is the activity that links program
operations to planning and programming, and its
findings can be used to modify current operations
Function of and to plan future programs and policies.

Evaluation ▪ Since the provision of effective services is the

central reason for existence of human service
agencies, it is necessary that some attempts be
made to determine the effectiveness of these
services.
▪ Evaluation, therefore, becomes a central tool in the
decision-making process of an agency.
 ▪ It may be undertaken for management and
administrative purposes, assessment of the
appropriateness of program shifts,
identification of ways to improve the delivery of
interventions, and to meet the requirements of
Reasons for funding groups that have fiscal responsibility
Evaluation for allocation of program resources.
▪ It may be undertaken for planning and policy
purposes, to help decide on either expansion
or curtailment, and to reach decisions on
whether to advocate one program or another.
 ▪ It may be undertaken to test a particular social
service hypothesis or a professional practice
principle.
▪ The particular program studied in this case
may be mainly a matter of convenience.
Reasons for ▪ For all these purposes, the key is to plan and
Evaluation implement an evluation that is as objective as
possible, that is to provide a firm assessment –
an assessment where the results would be
unchanged if done by another group or if
replicated by the same evaluators.
 ▪ Systematic, data based evaluations, are
relatively recent development, coinciding with
the growth of and refinement of social research
method.
▪ The tradition of undertaking systematic
Reasons for evaluations, therefore, is short in an overall
historical perspective, but long in the light of
Evaluation
the history of applied social research.
▪ In discussing the reasons for evaluation, it is
important to remember that evaluation is a
continuous process – it goes on all the time in
all parts of the organization.
 1. Evaluation is essential to ascertain the extent
to which the objectives of the agency are being
achieved.
2. Critical evaluation is an objective and
systematic means of improving a service.
Key Reasons for 3. Evaluation ensures the flexibility essential to
Evaluation the continuous re-orientation of a service to the
changing needs of people in a changing social
setting.
4. Evaluation is a form of social accountability
required by all funding sources and the
taxpayer or contributor at large.
 ▪ Four classes of evaluation research:
✓Research for program planning
✓Research on program monitoring
✓ Research on impact assessment
✓Research on project efficacy.
Types of
▪ A comprehensive monitoring of program would
Evaluation involve at least monitoring, impact assessment
Research and efficiency calculations, and in the case of
new programs and major modification of
longstanding programs, should also include
research for planning.
 1. Program planning questions
a. What is the extent and distribution of the
target populations?
b. Is the program designed in conformity with
its intended goals and are chances of
Four sets of successful implementation maximized?
questions 2. Program monitoring questions
corresponding to a. Is the program reaching the persons,
four types of households, or other target units to which it
research is addressed.
b. Is the program providing the resources,
services or other benefits that were
intended in the project design?
 3. Impact assessment questions
a. Is the program effective in achieving its
intended goals?
b. Can the results of the program be explained
by some alternative process that does not
Four sets of include the program?
questions c. Does the program have some effects that
corresponding to were not intended?
four types of 4. Economic efficiency questions
research a. What are the costs to deliver services and
benefits to program participants?
b. Is the program an efficient use of resources
compared with alternative uses of thr
resources?
 1. Policy Formulation
2. Planning and Programming
3. Organization
4. Staffing
5. Directing
6. Controlling
In Summary: the 7. Coordinating
13 Functions of 8. Communication
Adminsitration 9. Budgeting
10.Recording and Reporting
11.Public Relations
12.Evaluation and Research
13.Supervision
 ▪ The function of administration discussed will not
be complete without introducing one more vital
Introduction to function in any organization: supervision, which
is the act of overseeing the work of another in
Supervision order to improve its quality and spur
productivity.
SUPERVISION IN SOCIAL WORK
 ▪ In its search for sounder concepts and better
techniques, social work as a profession has
placed a special emphasis on supervision, for
the supervisor has always occupied a central
position in social work education and practice.
Overview of SW ▪ A large proportion of the instruction and
Supervision helping in social work training as well as in
practice is carried out in supervision.
▪ In social work mastery or professional practice
requires continuous period of learning and
doing.
 ▪ As an arm of administration, supervision affords
a crucial venue for communication and staff
interaction at all levels that are essential to the
effective functioning of an agency.
▪ The history of supervision goes back to the very
Overview of SW beginning of social work as a profession and is
Supervision inextricably bound up with its development.
▪ While supervision started off as an
administrative activity, soon supervisors
recognized the importance of its teaching and
enabling functions and henceforth included
them as part of their tasks.
 ▪ Thus, supervisors not only directed the work of
students or staff, they taught students and
workers ways of helping people based on their
own experiences.

Overview of SW ▪ The transmission and advancement of a

Supervision profession’s knowledge and skills are difficult
and lengthy tasks,
▪ Dealing with intricate human problems
necessitates knowledge, patience, dedication,
and self-understanding.
 ▪ A variety of methods of staff development can
impart theoretical knowledge and emotional
support to social workers and students, but
individual supervision offers a special
contribution which cannot be found in these
Overview of SW methods.
Supervision ▪ Example: the supervisor’s review of cases
hastens the time when workers and students
can translate their knowledge of theory into
practice.
 ▪ The opportunity for dialectic exchange of ideas
also enables the supervisor to gain intricate
knowledge of the responses of workers and
students to their clients.
▪ Both activities are necessary for improving the
performance of both workers and students.
Overview of SW
▪ In social work, learning is vitalized by subject
Supervision matter.
▪ The discussions deal with living situations and
the welfare of human beings who will be
affected by action taken.
 ▪ Furthermore, the areas of personal
conflict, pathology, and lack of
adjustment that are being handled by
the supervisees may have parallels in
Overview of SW their own life experiences and as such,
Supervision the content itself may stimulate
introspection and subjective reaction.
▪ Hence, learning about the people in
order to help them, is highly charged
emotional experience.
 ▪ Learning in this context then is largely handled
through a positive supportive supervising
relationship, which leads the worker to new
insights about people, including himself or
herself.
Overview of SW
▪ In educational terms, supervision utilizes the
Supervision tutorial method.
▪ The use of this method results in an intensity in
teacher/student relationship which requires
certain knowledge, techniques and skills.
 ▪ Another aspect that makes supervision a
difficult and uncomfortable tool for many
people is the fact that it involves conflict
between the need to teach and the need to be
supportive.
▪ The modern updated supervisors understand
Overview of SW that their effectiveness is dependent on how
Supervision their supervisees perceive them and their
role.
▪ If they are perceived as support providers, the
workers will seek their help and share their
difficulties.
 ▪ If supervisors are perceived as
faultfinders, their workers tend to be
evasive and they may cover up work
difficulties. This kind of behavior and
relationship deter work effectiveness.
Overview of SW ▪ Supervisors should be viewed as
Supervision important team members whose help
and support are readily available when
needed.
▪ Thus, one can readily appreciate that
supervision is a complex undertaking.
 ▪ The desire of supervisors to help their
supervisees become more proficient and
competent according to some
professional standards implies the use
one’s self to cause a change in the
supervisee’s knowledge, attitudes, and
Overview of SW
skills.
Supervision
▪ This knowledge of skills and techniques
will allow supervisors to assess the
supervisee’s respective levels of
competence.
 ▪ This will also allow supervisors
to figure out how to work in
ways to increase their
supervisee’s levels of
Overview of SW competence and periodically
Supervision evaluate the extent of
improvement as well as further
need for or discontinuance of
supervision.
1. Supervision
 ▪ Is a dynamic enabling process by
which individual workers who have a
direct responsibility for carrying out
some of the agency’s program plans
Definition of are helped by a designated staff
Supervision member to make the best use of
their ability so that they can do their
job more effectively and with
increasing satisfaction to themselves
and to the agency.
 ▪Supervision as an administrative
process in the conduct of which
staff development is a major
Definition concern.
(Charlotte Towle) ▪In this process the administrator
has three functions:
administrative, teaching and
helping.
 ▪A traditional method of transmitting
knowledge of social work skills in practice
from the trained to the untrained, from the
experienced to the inexperienced student and
worker (American Encyclopedia 1965).
Definition
▪ Supervision in social work is essentially and
administrative process for getting the work
done and maintain organizational
accountability (based on edition of
Encyclopedia).
 ▪ He clarified that definition would not only
show administrative and educational
components, so he added the additional
responsibility, the expressive and
supportive leadership function.

Definition ▪ He defines supervisor as an agency

(Alfred Kadushin) administrative staff member to whom
authority is delegated to direct,
coordinate, enhance and evaluate the on-
the-job performance of the supervisees
for whose work he/she is held
accountable.
 ▪ As part of the responsibility, the supervisor
performs administrative, educational and
supportive functions in interaction with the
supervisees in the context of a positive
relationship.
▪ The ultimate objective of supervision is to
Definition deliver to agency clients the best possible
service, both quantitatively and qualitatively, in
accordance with agency policies and
procedures.
▪ Therefore, the supervisors perform indirect
service to the clients (Kadushin).
 ▪ Supervision then affords both the
supervisor and the supervisee the
opportunity for development of their
skills, knowledge, and techniques in
social work practice.
Supervision ▪ Such a process is conducive to the
development of the individual’s creativity,
so that both participants in the process
grow and develop professionally, each in
accordance with his/her inherent
capacity and endowment.
 ▪ The ultimate objective of supervision is to
implement agency purposes and plans, and to
continually deepen the quality of the service
through which the agency expresses it purpose.
Objectives of ▪ The immediate aim emerging from and to be
Supervision kept continuously related to this basic overall
objective is that through sensitive guidance and
practical help geared to the know requirements
of jobs and needs of workers holding them,
their efforts become progressively more and
more effective.
 ▪ Like all social work methods, supervision
is founded upon some assumptions which
serve as the guideposts of operation of
the supervisory process and are
indispensable to the attainment of its
Assumptions on goals.
Supervision ▪ These provide the framework of the
system of supervision in the Philippines.
▪ One must know these underlying
assumptions to be able to supervise. (see
next slide).
 1. Supervision aims towards the
agency’s control over services and
practice.
a. Supervision always involves
Assumptions on intellectual teaching.
Supervision b. All supervision has a
psychological component,
which includes emotional
support, power or use of
authority, and self-actualization.
 2. Recognizes the fact that supervision is
essentially a function of administrative
leadership which is aimed at:
a. Accomplishment of the
administrative of the agency rather
Assumptions on than therapeutic goals for
Supervision supervisees.
b. Fusion of administrative and teaching
activities in one dynamic process,
and
c. Judicious use of administrative power
and authority.
 3. Stresses the supervisory process as a
learning process when:
a. There is acceptance of the learner;
b. There is an orderly process of
integration of materials from simple
to complex;
Assumptions on c. There is giving of specific knowledge
Supervision to ease anxiety; and
d. Social work supervision requires
basic knowledge in the social work
methods through formal graduate
training in social work.
 1. A relationship of two or more people working
together not meet each other’s personal needs,
but to administer effective agency services to
clients.
2. An interdependent relationship, with both
parties having corresponding responsibilities.
The Supervisory 3. A professional, not a social relationship. The
Relationship main purpose of the relationship is to help
workers learn how to give services effectively
and to further the professional growth of each
other including the supervisor by enhancing
social work skills, as well as trying to discover
newer and more effective ways of working with
people.
 ▪ The supervisor-supervisee relationship has
crucial significance in the enhancement of
learning as the problem in human relationship
may creep in during the teaching process.
▪ In general, learning can take place with best
results, when the nature of the supervisor-
The Supervisory supervisee relationship is positive, when each
Relationship accepts the other and both are comfortably
relaxed with each other.
▪ Thus, establishing positive relationships
between the supervisor and the supervisee is
highly essential in transmitting knowledge
and skills.
 ▪ Historically, supervision has always been
an important aspect in the performance
of activities in social work, as it performs
necessary and important functions in
Importance of response to the distinctive characteristics
Origin of of the profession.
Supervision
▪ New graduates generally feel the need
for continued supervision as they
consider this an important element in the
process of their learning on the job.
 ▪ It can be recalled that the case workers
were the first ones to recognize, from the
time of the origin, the value of staff
development and the essential role of the
supervisor.
Importance of ▪ Supervision was considered a means of
Origin of transmitting knowledge n order to attain
Supervision and maintain a certain quality of service.
▪ When casework began to evolve as a
definite method, supervision became an
integral part through which workers were
assisted to refine their practice.
 ▪ From the outset, supervision was seen as a
specific process to be performed with
deliberation where one is expected to possess
certain knowledge o supervisory techniques.
▪ The social practitioners and educators focused
Importance of on formulating theory and improving practice
Origin of techniques in the field of supervision.

Supervision ▪ As schools of social work began to develop, the

profession began to take form and within it the
role of the supervisor as a person particularly
concerned with the development of ideas in
many related fields and integrated them to
practice.
 ▪ Social work educators were feeling the impact
of John Dewey’s ideas about learning.
▪ The old educational learning theories by rote
were changing to ideas of learning by doing.
Importance of ▪ Social work educators readily adopted these
Origin of ideas and incorporated these into teaching,
Supervision which was considered as essential part of the
social work curriculum from the beginning.
▪ The student supervisor has been, since the
beginning, considered an important factor in
social work education .
 ▪ Workers who did not have the opportunity for
professional education desired to learn the new
theories and to apply them in practice.
▪ Thus, supervisors had enthusiastically
Importance of incorporated teaching as part of their function.
Origin of ▪ The necessity for organizational structure
Supervision provided a continuing base for administrative
functions, but teaching enlightened by the
knowledge of the “emotional problems
learning” was accelerated, which was the
impact of psychoanalytic theory of Freud.
 ▪ In the efforts of supervisors to leave the workers
free to develop in relation to his emotional
readiness, supervisors during the period often
failed to hold students administratively
accountable, which proved to be a detriment to
Importance of the later working patterns, that was the period
of “passive supervision”.
Origin of
Supervision ▪ The period when supervisors habitually sat
back and said the magic phrase “what do you
think” as a stimulus to thought, this was
valuable, but workers and students floundered
from lack of administrative decision and direct
teaching.
 ▪ The supervisor assumed increasingly a helping
role that was focused on the workers and their
problems, and for a while, the supervisor
assumed the role of a therapist.
▪ The most important factor this development was
the practitioners and educators started to look
Importance of at supervision as a method with skills similar to,,
Origin of but still distinct from casework.
Supervision ▪ It became clear that the supervisor could not
and should not take on the role of general
therapist to the worker, although, in a area
strictly limited to problems connected with
work, help of a professionally skilled nature
should be available.
 ▪ The marriage between administration and
teaching had always been an uneasy one, as
supervisor who saw his job as largely
administrative usually did not mind a bit of
teaching, but a supervisor who saw the job as
Importance of largely teaching “put up” with minimum
Origin of necessary administrative aspect.

Supervision ▪ The general development of thinking on

supervision started in the US, where Great Britain
social workers availed of training, until later
social workers from US and Canada were invited
to give seminars on supervision and to
participate in formulating plans for supervision.
 ▪ In reviewing the history of supervision, it can be
recalled that the case workers were the first to
recognize the values of staff development and
the essential role of the supervisor.
Importance of ▪ As social services grew and departments
Origin of became larger, supervision in at least the
administrative aspects became a necessity.
Supervision
▪ Administration cannot be divorced entirely from
casework services, teaching and enabling
functions were also incorporated into the
supervisor’s role.
 ▪ From its inception, social work has been
organizationally based, and as such, it has more
prolonged concern with supervision.
▪ The whole orientation of the profession
1st recognizes this centrality of the agency.
Distinctive ▪ Most of the social workers perform professional
Characteristic of functions within an agency setting, and since to
Social Work operate efficiently there is a need to coordinate
and integrate the various tasks that are
necessary to run a complex structure,
supervisory structure and control is deemed
vital in an effective administrative set-up.
 ▪ The need for supervisory apparatus in welfare
2nd agencies is further enhanced by the fact that
Distinctive funds for welfare service are coming from the
Characteristic of public, and s such, social workers are vulnerable
to pressure from the community for a systm of
Social Work
accountability regarding agency activities.
 ▪ The problem situations which social workers are
offering services for e.g. crimes, dependency,
family breakdown, etc., invoke responses which
involve the embodiment of society’s values, its
3rd ideological commitments in sensitive areas such
Distinctive as family structures, legal conformity, sexual
Characteristic of mores, work ethics, etc.
Social Work ▪ This fact then leads to the need for external
control of agency policies and in internal
agency control of worker autonomy through
supervisoy controls.
 ▪ The problems encountered by social workers in
one way or the other, the social worker may have
to struggle within his/her own situation.
▪ In addition, the principal instrumentality for
3rd helping the client is the worker himself, so that
continuation… failure to help may be integrated as a personal
failure which necessitates support,
encouragement, reassurance, and restoration of
morale from someone – a need that can be met
by supportive supervisor.
 ▪ The conditions through which social workers may
work – where there is great uncertainty as to how
to proceed, where the risk of failure is high as
4th effects of interventions can be highly
Distinctive unpredictable, the need for the availability of an
Chracterisitic of administrative representative with whom they
Social Work can share responsibility for decision-making, and
from whom they can seek support and direction,
is greatly felt by the worker, thus again, the
desirability of having a supervisor.
 ▪ Unlike other professions, the outcome of social
work activity is not so self-evident or observable
and as such, effects of malpractice may not be
5th
readily perceived.
Distinctive
Characteristic of ▪ For protection of the client, a procedure for
Social Work explicit periodic review of worker activity is
necessary, again a function of supervision.
 ▪ Two additional aspects of social work
delivery system create a need for
6th supervision.
Disctinctive a. The agency provides the workers with
Characteristic of their clientele, and
Social Work
b. The clients are often ‘captives’ of the
agency
 ▪ The need for agency organizational controls
embodied in supervision is made more
imperative in social work by the absence of
7th effective professional organizational controls.
Distinctive ▪ Other professional associations can control their
Characteristic of members through expulsion from the profession.
Social Work ▪ As such, they can police their members to limit
abuses of professional autonomy and guarantee
professional practice.
 ▪ The absence of an effective professional
7th control groups in social work thus argues
continuation… for an alternative control system such as
agency supervision.
 ▪ The limited knowledge base and technology
available even to fully trained workers is such
that the professionals often find themselves
8th encountering situations in which they cannot
Distinctive operate with full confidence such that they know
Chracteristic of exactly what to do and how to do it.
Social Work ▪ There is a greater need on the part of these
workers to share decisional responsibility with
their respective supervisors and as such there is
less resistance to a supervisory structure.
2. Role and Functions
 ▪ The supervisor is in mid-position in a social
agency whose main function is to provide a
social work service.

Role and ▪ The social work supervisor is a member of an

Functions of agency team all members of which are
employed to accomplish the agency’s purposes
Supervisor and functions.
▪ The supervisor carries out responsibilities
within an allotted segment of the agency.
 ▪ Supervisors are usually given responsibility for a
certain number of workers and/or students.
▪ In relation to these workers or students that they
have the responsibility of seeing to it that the
work of the agency gets done and done well, that
services are provided to clients, that workers and
Role and students are enabled to improve their skills to
Functions of the limits of their ability at any given stage in
Supervisor their development.
▪ Their responsibilities lead to the conclusion that
these can only be accomplished through a
combination of administration, teaching, and
helping functions enhanced throughout by clear
communication.
 ▪ The supervisors carry out their middle
management role, responsible to and helping
those above and below them in the hierarchy of
their agency, utilizing their client’s needs and
Role and problems to help administration function
Functions of effectively in order to meet the said needs and
address problems, using their knowledge and
Supervisor skill in social work practice.
▪ Any agency functioning is improved through
teaching, stimulating, and enabling staff to carry
out their responsibilities most effectively.
 ▪ The demands are in social work knowledge and
ability, administrative ability, teaching ability, the
Role and ability to communicate clearly, the ability to form
Functions of variety of relationships, patience, enthusiasm
Supervisor and, above all, the ability to keep one’s head
when all around them are losing theirs and
blaming them for it.
 ▪ The supervisor exercises administrative
functions by:
1. Holding the workers to account for a certain
quality and quantity of production.
Administrative 2. Seeing to it that services to client is adequately
Functions rendered with agency regulations and
procedures properly carried out, and
3. Enabling the worker to follow procedures and
regulations, thus, the supervisor has to be
clear in his/her communication to workers.
 ▪ The administrative functions of a supervisor include:
✓ planning and assigning work;
✓Organizing, coordinating, and facilitating manpower
and agency resources available o complete the work;
✓Reviewing work performance to ensure thar it is
Adminstrative adequately done quantitatively and qualitatively in
accordance with agency procedures;
Functions of
✓Placing the worker
Supervisor
✓Acting as a vertical and lateral channel of
communication and as an administrative buffer;
✓Helping in the formulation of agency policy
✓Facilitating intra-agency coordination.
 ▪ Supervisors are concerned with helping the
workers and students assigned to them to learn
what they need to know so that they can do their
assignments effectively.
▪ Supervisors share their knowledge, stimulates
thinking , lead out with new ideas, hold workers to
Teaching grapple with new ideas, encourage conscious
Functions of thinking, give workers the opportunity to discuss
their work and appraise it to arrive at decisions and
Supervisor to learn helping skills.
▪ The supervisor has the responsibility of teaching
the workers content regarding people, problems,
process and developing self-awareness of
personnel with regard to aspects of functioning that
are clearly job related.
 ▪ Regularly scheduled individual or group
supervisory conference is the primary
methodology utilized forteaching in
supervision.
Teaching ▪ The content is the supervisee’s performance.
Functions of ▪ Pre-planning and preparation are extremely
Supervisor necessary and both the supervisor and the
supervisee engage in the critical analysis of the
work that was submitted by the supervisee in
their supervisory conference.
 ▪ Teaching functions are carried out through:
1. Planning – the supervisor has to plan work
experience for a supervisee which will give the
opportunity to learn and to progress as a
Carrying out worker.
Teaching 2. Providing a climate for learning – the
Functions supervisor teaches sensitivity to the needs of
the worker at both the intellectual and feeling
level which will enable the worker to integrate
feeling and intellectual functioning in the
practice of social work.
 ▪ Teaching functions are carried out through:
1. Planning – the supervisor has to plan work
experience for a supervisee which will give the
opportunity to learn and to progress as a
Carrying out worker.
Teaching 2. Providing a climate for learning – the
Functions supervisor teaches sensitivity to the needs of
the worker at both the intellectual and feeling
level which will enable the worker to integrate
feeling and intellectual functioning in the
practice of social work.
 1. Start with a familiar and move to the unfamiliar.
2. Start with the simple and move on the
complex.
3. learning should be done in an orderly
Some Points for progression.
Effective 4. Repetition reinforces learning.
Teaching 5. Learning by doing increases motivation and
(Kadushin)
provides opportunities for the correction of
misunderstood principles or theories.
6. Recognition of good work stimulates further
learning.
 ▪ People learn best if:
1. They are highly motivated to learn.
2. They can devote most of their energies to
Conditions learning.
necessary to ensure 3. Learning is attended by positive satisfaction.
effective learning in
the context of 4. The learners are actively involved in the
positive relationship learning process.
5. The content to be learned is meaningfully
presented.
6. The uniqueness of the learner is ccnsidered.
 1. Supporting and sustaining the worker through
stressful situations.
2. Providing a positive climate for learning.
3. Managing the supervisory relationship in a helping
way.
Helping 4. Making sure of what he/she knows about people
Functions of and their behavior in working with others.
Supervisor 5. Helping workers to identify and modify feelings and
other obstacles which are impeding their process.
6. Helping the supervisee deal with job-relayed stress.
7. Develop attitudes and feeling in the workers which
are conducive to job performance.
3. Types of Supervision
 ▪ Consists of a supervisor and a supervisee in a one-
to-one relationship.
▪ It is probably the most useful model for workers who
are inexperienced and who like the security of a
relatively close monitoring of their performance.

1. Tutorial ▪ This is to guide the supervisees in their initial and

inexperienced translation of theory into practice.
Model
▪ Problems and other difficulties encountered by the
supervisee during the course of work are discussed
during individual supervision.
▪ Supervisory conference are usually scheduled on a
regular and frequent basis, e.g. one hour a week.
 ▪A designed supervisor and a group of
supervisees.
▪ This model is practiced by agencies which lack
the necessary number of trained supervisors to
2. Group handle the supervision.

Supervision ▪ The advantage of group supervision lies in the

fact that members of the group learn from one
another as well as derive mutual support in the
course of discussion.
 ▪ For group supervision to be affective it is done
only with a homogeneous group where the
members share similar level or facility of
communication.
▪ The group meets regularly with the supervisor
Group
with a predetermined agenda.
Supervision
▪ Cases are discussed both to provide direct
help to the worker involved and to serve as a
springboard for the discussion.
 ▪ Thee is a designated consultant and the worker
schedules the contacts as needed.
▪ The worker is primarily responsible for the
focus of the meeting.
▪ Consultations are case focused.
3. Case
▪ The worker is responsible for decisions about
Consultation
the case, and the consultation is always non-
restricting, that is, it must be clear to both
parties that the worker is not bound by the
opinion of the consultant unless he/she
considers them useful.
 ▪ There is no designated supervisor, and
all the members of the group participate
as equals.
▪ Consequently, among the requirements
4. Peer Group for the group’s success is that the
Supervision members are mature and experienced
enough to make vital contributions to
case discussion.
▪ They must also share common areas of
competence.
 ▪ A peer group meets regularly and the agenda
for the meeting is determined by mutual
agreement.
▪ The group leader moderates the discussion.
▪ The case discussion is left to the individual
Peer Group members who use the group as a sounding
Supervision board for the ideas and as a way to enlarge their
understanding of a case and extend the number
of opinions to be considered in any situation.
▪ Members are not under any obligation to act in
accord with the ideas proposed in group
discussion of their cases.
 ▪ This developed out of the peer-group model.
▪ In this case, two group members decide to function
apart from the group. Neither is designated as
supervisor.
▪ Both are experienced workers who respect the ability
and opinions of the other.
▪ As a tandem, they meet informally whenever either
5. Tandem one has a case for consideration.
Supervision ▪ Decisions are the responsibility of the person to
whom the case is assigned, but as the tandem work
together for a while, both members become familiar
with each other’s cases and the decision tends to
become more collaborative.
▪ At times members could cover each other’s cases.
 ▪ This model consists of varied members within
the agency structure.
▪ They meet on a regular basis, with the agenda
proposed by the members in advance.
▪ Any members has the liberty to add a case to
the agenda for discussion.
6. The Team
▪ It is the task of the team to arrive at the
discussions about a case through the group
process during the meeting.
▪ The decision in every case, regardless of which
member is responsible for implementing it, is
the team’s.
4. Staff Supervision
 ▪ Staff supervision is a dynamic and
enabling process where the workers are
guided and trained by a competent
supervisor to perform their functions
Staff effectively.
Supervision ▪ Staff supervision in social services exists
Definition to ensure that clients are given the best
possible service and that the work of the
department is carried out evenly and
effectively.
 ▪ Staff supervision is an administrative activity
done with workers within an agency.
Staff ▪ In staff supervision, the professional growth of
Supervision the worker is not an end but a means to an end:
Definition it is “by-product and not the purpose of
supervision”.
 ▪ Availability of resources, human and material, and
the assurance that these are used to the best
advantage.
▪ Monitoring and raising social work standards in
both the quality and quantity of work undertaken.
▪ Allocation of appropriate cases to individual social
Importance of workers.
the concerns of ▪ Assurance that social workers are making realistic
supervisor decisions about scarce resources of skill and time.
▪ Appraising the total scene, i.e. team’s commitment
an output.
▪ Attention to the details of workers’ performance or
clients’ functioning.
 ▪ Agency’s understanding and
sanctioning of the principles of
supervision - The sanction of the agency
Conditions wherein supervision takes place is all
required for important in establishing the right
sound supervision climate for supervision. The agency must
be clear about its objectives and must
believe that a good supervision improves
the quality of social work practice.
 ▪ Supervisor’s capacity – staff supervision
is one of the few learning opportunities
available to social workers. How this
opportunity is realized will depend on
the capacity of the supervisor. To help
Conditions
required for people learn, he/she mus ask questions
sound supervision in such a way as to lead to well-
considered and appropriate decisions for
theoretical knowledge and practical skills
and experience as a competent social
worker.
 ▪ Worker’s capacity – supervision must
start with the worker’s knowledge, skills,
Conditions
experiences, and everything he/she can
required for
sound supervision possibly share in the process.
 ▪ Supervisors are encouraged to think through
their functions and tasks, to offer some
theoretical knowledge about adult learners, to
give guidelines for use in practice, and to test
how the principles of supervision operate in the
Functions of organization.
Supervisor ▪ Supervisor’s function should be disciplined,
systematic, and objective, yet will stimulate
reflective thinking, leading to the development
of individual styles and ways of working.
 a. Obtain suitable working conditions for the staff;
b. See to it that there is an administrative back-up
to enable sound practice;
c. Declare poor condition and work towards
improvement through communicating upward
1. Management the consequences of unsatisfactory working
Function conditions;
d. Ensure a steady flow of data about the changing
needs of the community toward the agency and
inter-agency relations. These data can be used
in formulating the agency’s program and
policy.
 e. Detect variations in procedure and assist the
workers in developing a consistent, yet
flexible application of agency policy.
f. Promote the creative participation of the
workers in the administrative process by
encouraging them workers to examine the
1. Management effects of policy on their daily practice, to
Function contribute their ideas about changes that are
needed;
g. Evaluate workloads and make appropriate
adjustments between the needs of the agency
and the capacity of each worker to manage a
caseload.
 ▪ The supervisor has to get a balance putting in
2. Teaching and drawing out: putting in what is not yet known
but essential to immediate practice; and drawing
Function out what is already known to the worker.
 ▪ Learning cannot be easily accomplished
without support.
▪ Support enables the leaner to evaluate past
practice, consider innovations and alternative
3. Support approaches.
▪ Support means asking challenging questions by
stimulating the worker’s thinking and by the
recognition that he/she has the strength and the
capacity to respond and develop.
4. Supervision of
Paraprofessionals
 ▪ The increasingly growing complexity of modern
life and the presence of a great disparity of
wealth distribution bringing about widespread
poverty all over the world has increased greatly
the demand for social services.
Overview ▪ The limited number of qualified social work
practitioners makes it difficult, if not impossible,
for them to cope with the demands of their
broadened responsibilities in the delivery of the
required social services.
 ▪ All over the world, here is growing recognition
that there is a shortage of trained social work
personnel to adequately and effectively respond
to the increasing demands for their services.
▪ This situation brought about the emergence of
Overview aids or assistants who work with trained social
workers.
▪ These belong to a new type of workers called
“paraprofessionals”, an umbrella term which
includes all those who assist the worker in
certain social work activities.
 ▪ Paraprofessional in the context of social
welfare is “a person who is highly
motivated and committed to share his/her
Definition of
Paraprofessional knowledge, skills and service to selected
(Sylvia P. Montes) individuals, specific groups in a given
place or a community for humanitarian
cause and civic efficiency”.
 ▪ Paraprofessional is defined as “the worker
assisting the social work staff in direct service
functions under the supervision of the
professionally trained worker.
Definition of ▪ He/she may be a community leader or volunteer,
Paraprofessional a graduate of a certificate course in community
(Evelina A. Pangalangan)
work, or a professional of another discipline, who
works alongside a trained social worker under the
latter’s direction and supervision”.
 ▪ Another aspect of paraprofessional is a
development worker who does not have formal
Definition of education in social work or community
Paraporfessiona development but who performs a multitude of
l activities – assisting, supporting, and facilitating
the functions of professional workers.
 ▪ Two types of paraprofessionals in practice:
1. The college graduates of allied disciplines or
social sciences who occupy the positions of
welfare aides in public agencies. When they do
not practice their disciplines but assist in social
Types of work activities.
Paraprofessionals
2. The community workers, indigenous members
of the community, auxiliary workers, residential
aids without college degrees who have been
co-opted to participate in the delivery of social
services. They may not have taken non-degree
training course for community workers.
 1) Serve as bridge, a human link between the
agency and the community or individuals
needing its services.
Functions of 2) Assist in filling out forms, distribute aid, make
Paraprofessionals home visits, conduct surveys, compute data,
develop simple reports, maintain records,
attend meetings, contact leaders, organize
groups, interpret programs, and tap resources.
 ▪ Interviewing
▪ Conducting surveys
▪ Making me visits
▪ Preparing simple project proposal
Delegated Tasks ▪ Distributing financial and/or material assistance
to
▪ Making referrals
Paraprofessionals
▪ Conducting information campaign
▪ Organizing groups
▪ Filling up or accomplishing needed forms
▪ Writing reports
 ▪ The supervisors of paraprofessionals have the
same role and functions as the supervisors of
trained social workers.
Supervisory ▪ These include the administrative, teaching, and
Process for helping functions.
Paraprofessionals ▪ Since these paraprofessionals have no formal
social work background, these functions have to
be modified and simplified to suit them.
 1. An integration to other workers in the agency as to
where the new worker fits in and his/her specific
job assignment.
2. Introducing the paraprofessionals to the clerical as
well as professional staff.
3. Advocating the paraprofessionals’ entitlement to
Administrative agency resources.
Supervision for 4. Assisting the paraprofessionals in learning and
Paraprofessional accepting the role of being workers in an
organization, with readiness to be on the job at
certain times, follow directions, adhere to
procedures, accept evaluation, discharge
responsibility and relate to hierarchical authority, as
functionally justifiable and useful requirements by
supervisor.
 5. Helping the paraprofessionals to successfully
manage the dual aspects of their role – their
responsibility to the agency and their
responsibility to client group of which they may
Administrative formerly have been members.
Supervision for 6. Including paraprofessionals in staff meetings
Paraprofessional unless there is an explicitly defined reason for
their not being included.
7. Making sure that all pertinent communications
are shred with paraprofessionals.
 ▪ General principles of learning are equally
appropriate and applicable with
paraprofessionals.

Elements of ▪ The procedures and techniques that facilitate

Educational learning for supervisee with professional
Supervision of education also facilitate learning for
paraprofessionals.
Paraprofessionals
▪ Supervisors have to pay close attention to the
following (see next slide):
 1. Language may present a problem – the same
words may have different connotations to
supervisors and to paraprofessionals so that
explicit care needs to be given to word usage
in educational supervision.
Elements of 2. With older paraprofessionals, their relevant
Educational life experiences, which will lead to “give and
take” is his relationship, should be employed.
Supervision of
Paraprofessionals 3. If the paraprofessionals have been out of
school for a long time, the supervisor needs to
de-emphasize reading as a source of learning
and to depend more on didactic, repetitive,
personal discussions with the
paraprofessionals.
 4. Straightforward instructions are more
acceptable to them.
5. The need to partialize learning is greater here.
The supervisor needs to select limited objectives
Elements of for each supervisory session, therefore, shorter
Educational time and more frequent conferences are
Supervision of desirable.
Paraprofessionals 6. Didactic, repetitive presentation can be more
effective if materials can be diagrammed or made
visual in some other way.
 7. Materials to be taught need to be clearly
structured and precisely defined. Theory has to
be translated into action terms, and the behavioral
Elements of implications or principles have to be specified.
Educational The supervisor should know the background of
Supervision of the paraprofessional so that he/she does not
Paraprofessionals overly simplify.
8. Many illustrations should be used, details
should be carefully spelled out and assumptions
should be explicitly stated.
 9. Presentation should be well-organized, few
digression permitted, and frequent summaries
Elements of made available. Breaks in continuity should be
Educational held to a minimum or else explicitly
Supervision of designated.
Paraprofessionals 10.Role-playing is heavily emphasized as a
preferred teaching procedure.
 ▪ The paraprofessionals’ lack of social work
knowledge and the fact that they have to
perform some social work tasks and activities
may somehow create a feeling of anxiety in
them.
Helping Component ▪ This means that they require more supervisory
in Supervision of time devoted to support and maintain morale.
Paraprofessionals
▪ The nature of tasks often assigned to
paraprofessionals may increase the risk of
discouragement and job dissatisfaction which
calls for the helping function of the supervisor –
to support and maintain the workers’ role:
 1. In assigning tasks to any supervisee, the
supervisor must try to maintain the balance
between stimulation that encourages learning
new skills and excessive requirements that
Helping may undermine self-confidence. In the case of
Component in paraprofessionals whose self-confidence is
Supervision of initially tenacious, greater care needs to be
Paraprofessionals given in maintaining this balance.
2. Paraprofessionals may have to be supported
in professionalizing their relationship with
some clients, out of self-protection.
 3. The supervisor must reward the good
performance of the paraprofessional with
frequent praise. A professional who has no prior
training is even more uncertain than other
Helping supervisees about whether his/her performance
Component in has been satisfactory. The active effort of the
Supervision of supervisor is praising good work reassures the
Paraprofessionals worker.
4. Paraprofessionals may also need support and
protection from their own high expectations and
consequent disappointments.
5. Supervision of Volunteers
 ▪ Volunteer is one who gives skills, knowledge
Definition of and services to an agency without any provision
Volunteers or consideration of getting remuneration from
the agency.
 ▪ The specific tasks and activities assigned to
volunteers differ from agency to agency, may be
classified as follows:
1. Identifying human conditions or problems
requiring social welfare services.
Tasks and 2. Initiating and making policy in agencies
Activities of created to prevent, control, or treat social
conditions.
Volunteers
3. Contributing services based on knowledge,
skills and interest..
4. Soliciting public and voluntary support.
 5. Acting as spokesperson and interpreters of
agency programs and problems to which they
are directed.
Tasks and 6. Reporting community reaction, critical and
Activities of positive to the agency’s program.

Volunteers 7. Collaborating in community planning

activities for the purpose of modifying or
designing services to meet changing social
conditions.
 ▪ Volunteer work can be categorized in relation to
three levels of functioning:

Types of 1. Executive and policy making, such as the level

of the board of trustees or directors.
Services of
Volunteers 2. Administration
3. Direct service – volunteers who come in close
contact with the agency’s clients.
 ▪ Volunteers, though not remunerated for their
services to the agency, are also expected to
give their best to ensure that agency programs
are affectively carried out, both to the
Process in satisfaction of the agency and the volunteers
Supervision of themselves.
Volunteers ▪ The crucial roles of the supervisors have to be
emphasized.
▪ Like the paraprofessionals, the tasks of the
volunteers have to be specified (see next slide).
 1. The supervisors in their administrative role, first
and foremost, have to delineate the functions of
the volunteers from the paraprofessionals.
2. They have to help the volunteers get “placed” in
the agency. This is done by introducing the
volunteers to the professional and clerical staff of
Process in the agency.
Supervision of 3. They have to acquaint the volunteers with the
Volunteers policies, procedures, programs, and services of
the agency.
4. They have to assign tasks along the capacity and
expectation of the volunteers. Tasks assigned
should not be too overwhelmed for the
volunteers.
 ▪ Volunteers may also need to be supported in
professionalizing their relationship with some
clients out of self-protection.
▪ Conflicts encountered in meeting
organizational demands at the expense of
clients’ needs may generate feelings in
Educational volunteers of betraying the interest of the
Supervision of clients. Volunteers may then feel a sense og
Vounteers being marginalized both by the agency staff
and the client group. These are morale
problems calling for supportive supervision.
▪ Volunteers may also need support and
protection from their own high expectations
and consequent disappointment.
6. Supervision of Students
 ▪ Student supervision is a very important part of
supervisory practice.
▪ Student and supervisor carry out their
respective roles specified within the agency’s
administrative structure but both have other
functions and responsibilities as well.
Supervision of ▪ His/her full-time job is being a student, and only
Students part of this is to learn practice within the agency.
▪ The supervisor is one of the teachers and. As
such, is accountable to those in charge of the
course that covers education in practice.
▪ The supervisor, has a dual responsibility to the
agency and to the educational establishment.
 ▪ The goal is to enable the student to develop
knowledge and skill as a professional person.
▪ It is in the field placement that the student is
enabled to apply theory in practice.
▪ The student learns in the field, and the
Supervision of supervisor teaches.
Students ▪ Class and field teaching form a closely
interwoven pattern.
▪ The students learn theory first in the class and
the supervisor reinforces the teaching while the
student tries to apply the theory in practice.
 ▪ Other times, it is the supervisor who first
introduces theoretical concepts to the student in
relation to the work being carried out and the
learning is later reinforced by classroom
teaching and discussion.
▪ There is not much dichotomy between “theory
Supervision of in the classroom” and “practice in the field”.
Students ▪ The student supervisor’s chief function is to
teach the elements of professional practice.
▪ They utilize the specific job (the student’s
functioning within the agency) as a base for
teaching the knowledge and skills needed for
the professional practice.
 ▪ The teaching must take into account the total
educational experience of the student.
▪ A student supervisor must gear one’s demands
on the student in relation to the other demands
of course work and examination.
▪ Supervisor also relates teaching to that of others
Supervision of on the course so that the student’s learning is
Students integrated into a whole and perceivable pattern
of professional development.
▪ A very important part of the supervisor’s
teaching will include ensuring that the client’s
needs are met and that the student works
correctly within the agency functions and
policies.
 A. As an Educator
✓Planning – the experiences and work chosen will
depend upon the stage of the student’s
development, the purpose of the placement and
the work available in the agency.
✓Creating a climate for learning – students need to
Responsibility of be at ease with their supervisor.
Student ✓Teaching – academic courses, must be carefully
planned, cannot be expected to meet all the
Supervisor needs of the student in just a short time.
✓Sensitive to feeling – the area of feeling must be
taken into consideration from the very beginning
of professional education, if the student is to
develop that sensitive awareness of feeling which
is so essential to good social work practice.
 B. As a Helper
✓The purpose of student placement is to
further the students’ learning as future social
workers.
✓The primary task of the supervisor is to help
Responsibility of
the students learn, which responsibility in
Student helping the students deal with the difficulties
Supervisor that block progress.
✓The supervisors have to be prepared to take
on a helping role and will lean on their
knowledge and experience as social workers
to do so.
 ▪ Three main sources from which difficulties may arise
for students.
1. Dependence – feelings of dependence are
liable to arise from the role of the students in
fieldwork settings.
2. Past life experience – like anybody else,
Responsibility of students are influenced by their experiences,
Student and by the important relationship they have
Supervisor made. They have probably incorporated the
attitudes and values of people they have loved
and admired , and will have developed their
own particular methods of dealing with stressful
situations, that they bring as a part of
themselves.
 3. Involvement and detachment – students
want their sympathy and concern for people in
Responsibility of trouble, their knowledge and skills, they want
Student to give the richness of their own lives and the
understanding they have gained from the hurts
Supervisor and frustration they may have experienced.
 C. As an administrator
✓The supervisor is in a position to help the
students look realistically at the agency, its
functioning, and policies.
✓The supervisor is able to help the student
Responsibility of identify themselves with the agency when
Student they are working in the agency.

Supervisor ✓The supervisor enables the student to see

where policy and procedures of the agency
might be improved.
✓Supervisor prevent the students from
projecting on the agency faults which lie in
their own work.
 ▪ To make teaching from records effective, certain
procedures and principles of teaching need to
be observed:
✓There should be a regular individual
supervisory conference once a week.
Teaching from
✓Students should be responsible for making
Records prompt recordings o be submitted the the
field instructor at least two days prior to the
supervisory conference. Recording should
be utilized as the basic learning-teaching
tool in the conference.
 ✓Recording should reflect what the students see,
hear and feel. What they perceive, however,
would depend largely on the extent of the
knowledge at their disposal and their
Teaching from understanding of the problem being faced by
Records the clients. Contents of recordings may include:
• Data related/relevant to the objective
• Significant comments on factors to be
considered in the interviews.
 ▪ Client’s use of relationship and a description of
the interaction between clients and students. It
is important that the students make explicit
their own contributions and response, and
Teaching from declare their effect on the interview.
Records ▪ Diagnostic statement and treatment plan.
▪ Movement or lack of movement should be
spelled out.
7. Games People Play in
Supervision
 ▪ Game is defined as a secret plan or trick to
beat others at their own game by using
someone’s own methods to outdo them.
▪ It is a scheme, or artfulness utilized in the
pursuit of some objective or purpose.
Definition ▪ Play is a segment of a game.
▪ The purpose of engaging in the game, of using
the maneuvers , snares, gimmicks, and ploys
that are in essence the art of gamesmanship in
the pay off.
 ▪ The supervisory situation generates different
kinds of anxieties for the supervisees.
▪ Social work supervision is often directed
towards a change in behavior, and personality.
▪ Change creates anxiety.
Why Games are ▪ The threat of change is greater for the adult
Played student because it requires dissolution of
patterns of thinking and believing to which they
have become habituated.
▪ The supervisory tutorial is a threat to the
students’ independence and autonomy.
 ▪ Learning requires some frank admission of
dependence on the teacher.
▪ Readiness to learn involves giving up some
measure of autonomy in accepting direction
from others and in submitting to the authority
Why Games are
of the supervisor-teacher.
Played
▪ The supervisor-supervisee relationship is
evocative of the parent-child relationship, and
as such, may tend to reactivate some anxiety
associated with this earlier experience
relationship.
 ▪ The supervisor is in a position of authority and the
supervisee is, in some measure, dependent on the
supervisor.
▪ The supervisor has the responsibility of evaluating
the work of the supervisee and, thus controls
access to important rewards and penalties.
Why Games are ▪ These threats, anxieties, and penalties are the
Played losses that might be incurred in entering into the
supervisory relationship .
▪ A desire to keep losses to a minimum and
maximize the rewards that might be derived from
the encounter explains why the supervisee may
play games in supervision, why he/she may feel a
need to control the situation to one’s advantage.
 ▪ It might be important to note that not all
supervisees play games and not all of the
behavior they engage in is indicative of an
effort to play games.
Supervisee’s
▪ However, even h best supervisee may not play
Game
games some of the time while the poorest
supervisee may not play at all given the chance.
▪ Some of the games play by supervisees (see
next slides):
 ▪ This is generally played by intelligent, intuitively
gifted supervisees who are impatient with
routine agency procedures.
▪ Forms, reports, and recording excite their
contempt.
▪ The more sophisticated the supervisee
Manipulating manifests it by suggesting that there is a conflict
demand level between the bureaucratic tasks and the
professional orientation of the agency’s mission.
▪ The supervisee points in recording and that
client’s need is more important than time spent
in recording and that writing reports tends to
rob time from direct work with the client.
 ▪ This is designed to mitigate the level of
demands made on the supervisee, but here the
game played depends on the ambiguity of the
supervisory relationship and redefining it.
Redefining the
relationship ▪ One kind of redefining the supervisor-
supervisee relationship suggests a shift from
teacher-learner in an administrative hierarchy to
worker-client in the context of therapy.
 ▪ This is designed to reduce anxiety by
reducing the power disparity between
supervisor and worker.
▪ One source of the supervisor’s power is
position in the administrative hierarchy that
remains a constant in the game.
Reducing power
of disparity ▪ The other source of power that is vulnerable in
the game is the supposed greater level of
supervisor’s expertise, knowledge, and skill.
▪ When the supervisee can establish the fact
that the supervisor is not so smart after all,
some of the power differential is mitigated.
 ▪ This is designed to place control of the
supervisory situation more explicitly and directly
in the hands of the supervisee.
▪ For example, the supervisee comes in with a
Controlling the series of questions about assigned work and
projects a strong desire to discuss.
situation
▪ A good player here formulates the questions in a
manner that highlights their relevance to
problems in which the supervisor has greatest
professional interest or about which he/she has
done considerable reading.
 ▪ The supervisee does not really feel obliged to
listen to the answers or interact.
▪ As the supervisee allows the supervisor’s level
of participation to increase, by letting her/him
Controlling the do much of the talking, the supervisee, in turn
situation decreases her/his own participation.
▪ Through the supervisee’s control, both content
and direction of the conference interaction are
affected.
 ▪ Supervisors play games out of felt threats to
their position in the hierarchy, uncertainty about
their authority, and out of some hostility to a
supervisee that is inevitable in such a complex
intimate relationship.
Supervisor’s ▪ One of the classic supervisory games is called
Games “I Wonder Why You Really Said That?”
▪ This is the game of redefining honest
disagreement so that it appears to be
psychologically resistance.
▪ Another is “One Good Question Deserves
Another”.
 ▪ The simplest and most direct way of handling or
dealing with the problems of games introduced by
the supervisee is to refuse to play. Refusing to play
requires the supervisor to be ready and able to
fortify her/his self-advantage.
▪ A second response lies in gradual interpretation or
open confrontation. Confrontation implies a refusal to
accept the game being proposed by seeking to
Response to express and make explicit what the supervisee is
Games doing.
▪ Another approach is to honestly share with the
supervisee one’s awareness in what he/she is
attempting to do, and then focus the discussion not so
much on the dynamic of the supervisee’s behavior or
one’s reaction to it, but on disadvantages of playing
games.
 1. Apply what we know
In Summary: Five 2. Connect the employee to the mission
Keys to 3. Build a support structure
Exceptional 4. Be a leader
Supervision 5. Promote success
(Nancy Summers)
 Administration and Supervision in Social Work
(with a special section on Beginning Family
Therapy and related supervision)
Revised Edition
Authors:
Reference
Erlinda A. Cordero
Consuelo A. Gutierrez
Evelina A. Pangalangan