Computers and Electrical Engineering 87 (2020) 106776

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Computers and Electrical Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/compeleceng

Intelligence, security, and vehicular sensor networks in

internet of things (IoT)-enabled smart-cities: An overview ✩
Fadi Al-Turjman a,b, Joel Poncha Lemayian c,∗
a
Research Centre for AI and IoT, Dept. of AI Engineering, Near East University, 99138 Nicosia, Mersin 10, Turkey
b
Research Center for AI and IoT, Near East University, Nicosia, Mersin 10, Turkey
c
Dept. of Comp. Eng., Antalya Bilim University, 05190 Antalya, Turkey

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Security in Vehicular Sensor Networks (VSNs) is a critical subject that must be addressed
Received 2 December 2019 in the emerging Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS). Users share confidential information
Revised 12 March 2020
that can be used against them by attackers. Popular attacks include Malwares and Spams,
Accepted 15 July 2020
Black Holes, Wormholes, and Physical/Electronic Outages. Such VSN attacks can lead to
loss of life due to road accidents and breach of privacy. In this paper, we overview the
Keywords: VSN concept in a vehicular IoT-based smart city paradigm, focusing on the security as-
VSN pects. In addition, we discuss the design features of VSN, its robustness, and reliability. We
VANETs also discuss relevant communication technologies and their security concerns. We high-
Internet of things light the main open research issues in literature and provide hints for overcoming them.
Smart city This analysis concludes that VSNs play a key role in developing efficient ITS. Nevertheless,
Intelligent transport
current VSNs security standards must be improved for a reliable, and safe transportation
Security
system.
Sensors
Vehicular sensor © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
V2V
V2X

1. Introduction

Vehicular Sensor Networks (VSNs) provides connected sensor devices to collect data and use it in providing safer and
more fluid traffic on the roads. Contemporary vehicles have been fitted with various sensing devices such as actuators, GPS
devices, and micro embedded computers. Consequently, many vehicles can collect and process data. Moreover, the vehicles
can communicate with other vehicles or with road-side infrastructure using communication protocols such as Hypertext
Transfer Protocol (HTTP), Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), Wireless Application Protocol (WAP), and Next-Generation
Telematics Protocol (NGTP) [1].
The communication paradigm allows the vehicles to receive and send the processed data to other vehicles or infras-
tructure units securely. As a result, vehicular technology such as remote engine shutdown and remote vehicle diagnos-
tics [2], anti-collision systems and road sign notifications among others have been developed. These technologies utilize
VSNs to enhance road user’s safety, convenience and comfort. The data collected by sensors used in VSNs is confiden-
tial and can be used to harm innocent users. Security in the VSN paradigm is therefore critical. Securing VSNs is the

✩
This paper is for CAEE special section VSI-mis. Reviews processed and recommended for publication to the Editor-in-Chief by Guest Editor Dr. Chan-Yun
Yang.
∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: fadi.alturjman@neu.edu.tr (F. Al-Turjman), lemayian.joel@std.antalya.edu.tr (J.P. Lemayian).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compeleceng.2020.106776
0045-7906/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 F. Al-Turjman and J.P. Lemayian / Computers and Electrical Engineering 87 (2020) 106776

process of securing the sensor network against malicious attacks using modern technologies. Advances in the Internet
of Things (IoT) have provided opportunities for tremendous technological growth in VSNs. Therefore, to analyze the se-
curity aspect in VSNs, we feel that we must briefly discuss one of the VSN’s main future enabler which is IoT and its
security features. Subsequently, providing the reader with a clear understanding of the importance of securing the VSN
paradigm.
IoT is a unique system attaining rapid recognition in the world of contemporary wireless telecommunication. IoT will
consist of billions of devices, people, objects and services seamlessly communicating and exchanging information about
themselves and their environment. As stated by [3], the next generation of computing will be completely different from the
common desktop interactions. The basis of this concept is the rich and ever-growing presence of smart objects and things all
around us. Most of these objects will be in the network in one form or another. Such objects include tags, Radio-Frequency
Identification (RFID) devices, switches and so on. With their unique addresses, these "things" can interact with each other
and exchange information and hence work together to attain a common goal. For instance, in the recent past, a few cloud-
based systems used to provide a plethora of services have been put forward. The cloud-based service connects different
devices and provides services to the users. For example, the authors in [4] proposes ITS-cloud, a new vehicular cloud-
based paradigm used to improve vehicle-to-vehicle communication and security. ITS-cloud provides many services through
applications such as correspondence application, cloud backup, business application, and research application. Security in
IoT devices is of utmost importance. Devices should be equipped with inbuild security barriers to impediment, isolation,
recognize, diagnose, and execute countermeasures against successful infringements. Currently, VSNs are being employed in
a smart city setting.
The smart city implementation can be perceived as a way of mitigating the challenges sparked by the exponential pop-
ulation growth in urban developments. A forecast done by the United Nations Population Fund suggests that 60% of the
world’s population will inhabit urban environments in just 10 years. Consequently, 27 megacities with a population of about
10 million are expected to exist in the next 10 years [5]. Vehicular traffic-related problem such as traffic congestion is one
of the biggest challenges that is faced by most major cities around the world. According to [6], vehicles in the 75 largest
urban areas in the US accumulated about 3.6 billion hours of delay in the recent past. Moreover, this led to 5.7 billion
gallons of wasted fuel which translated to $67.5 billion in production loss. As a result, various ways of reducing the cost
of transportation are being invented. Utilizing VSNs in the transport sector will save a lot of money by providing a secure
data collection and communication system to enable deployment of services such as efficient traffic routing and accident
preventions. Nevertheless, high-security precautions must be employed in VSNs’ paradigms while providing much-needed
services.
This work is unique in comparison to others such as [7] in that we discuss the latest VSN technologies available in the
wake of the IoT and 5G era and we comprehensively highlight their security concerns. We examine current communication
technologies and their security challenges. Moreover, we provide up to date open research issues facing the progression of
VSN technology. The rest of this paper is organized as follows. Section II talks about the importance of VSNs in the current
ITS. Section III discusses the diverse applications of VSNs and their security aspects. In section IV we discuss distinctive com-
munication technologies in VSNs and their security aspects. Design features of VSNs are discussed in section V. In section VI
we discuss numerus attacks and attackers targeting VSNs. Furthermore, we investigate the ongoing research efforts on VSN
VANETs applications, and we provide open research issues and hints to combat them in Section VII. Finally, the conclusion
and future works are given in section VIII.

2. The demand for VSN towards an enhanced its

There is a growing market demand for VSN in order to enhance the current transport system. For instance, the growing
number of self-driving vehicles require special and high functioning sensor networks compared to conventional systems. Au-
thors in [6] claim that automated guided vehicles (AGV) in the streets and factories are the center of the exponential growth
of the fourth industrial revolution. Additionally, the authors investigate the requirement for AGV for small and medium sized
enterprise (SMEs) in Korea. The authors conclude that most SMEs in Korea require AGV to substitute manpower, moreover,
authors further claim that vehicles need to collect a plethora of information about their environments using onboard sensors
utilizing image detection and deep learning. Other requirements for AGV discussed by [6] include precise vehicle location
acquisition and fast V2X communication paradigm. Moreover, authors in [8] says that the market for electric vehicles (EV)
has been growing consistently over the last few years. Nevertheless, the success of the EV market highly depends on the
available infrastructure to eliminate “range-anxiety” in customers. Authors further propose a wireless, fast and secure charg-
ing system for EVs. The charging infrastructure is powered by distributed solar panels which integrate well in a smart city
setting. Many VSNs models have been designed for numerous functions. European researchers in collaboration with the ITS
community have converged on a common Cooperative Vehicular Communication System for commercial and mass produc-
tion depicted in Fig. 1. Nevertheless, there is a need to secure VSN against threats, Fig. 2 summarizes some modern IoT-VSN
device’s security threats. Table 1 provide a summary of the used abbreviations in this article to improve readability. Table 2
provide an analysis of the current security threats faced by the VSN industry. In the next section, we will further discuss
the security concerns in VSNs application.
 F. Al-Turjman and J.P. Lemayian / Computers and Electrical Engineering 87 (2020) 106776 3

Fig. 1. European Common Cooperative Vehicular Communication System.

Fig. 2. IoT-VSN devices security threats.

3. Security in VSNs’ applications

In this section, we highlight some of the most well-known VSN applications. Moreover, we discuss some security con-
cerns associated with these applications. According to [9], Vehicular technology has been mainly classified into three main
sections depending on the following functionalities: Safety, efficiency and comfort applications. Fig. 3 highlights these classi-
fications. VSNs are designed to provide convenience and safety to the users. Nevertheless, it is critical that in all applications,
the information collected by VSNs is secure.

3.1. Safety applications

Safety application reduces the risk of an accident. Moreover, it limits the severity of an accident if it happens. This
is achieved by installing systems such as road sign notifications, collision avoidance systems and incident management
4 F. Al-Turjman and J.P. Lemayian / Computers and Electrical Engineering 87 (2020) 106776

Table 1
Nomenclature.

Abbreviations Definitions

BPSK Binary Phase Shift Keying

CAR Connectivity-Aware Routing
CoTEC Cooperative Traffic congestion detection
DSRC Dedicated Short-Range Communications
EEBL Extended Electronic Brake Light
ICA Intersection Collision Avoidance
IoT Internet of Things
ITS Intelligent Transport System
LP-WAN Low Power-Wide Area Network
MAC Medium Access Controls
NFC Near Field Communication
P2P Point to Point
PDR Packet Delivery Ratio
RCM Road Condition Monitoring
RFID Radio-Frequency Identification
RFID Radio Frequency Identifiers
SNO Sigfox Network Operators
T&T Tracking and Tracing
V2I Vehicle to Infrastructure
V2V Vehicle to Vehicle
V2X Vehicular to Everything
VANET Vehicular Ad-Hoc Network
VSN Vehicular Sensor Network
WAVE Wireless Access in Vehicular Environments

Table 2
Security threats and their descriptions.

Security Threat Description

Physical Attacks
Side Channel Attacks
(SCAs)
Environmental Attacks
Cryptoanalysis Attacks
Software Attacks
Network Attacks
Adversaries can gain access and full control over a VSN sensor node (sensor node
capture). Most sensor nodes are equipped with JTAG, which is a system designed to
assist in testing. Attackers equipped with the correct adapter and a portable
computer can gain easy access of the sensor node using JTAG. Bootstrap loader is a
method used to program some nodes using a USB where an authorized person
needs to provide a password. Attackers can gain access to the node by computing
the password using brute force method.
SCAs are used to gain access to sensor nodes by measuring the node’s physical
parameters. Such parameter includes supply current, execution time, and
electromagnetic emission. Moreover, there is a possibility that side channels can be
used to sabotage sensor network. Hence side channels can be used to transfer
common malware.
Environmental hazards such as extreme temperatures, cold, and rain pose a
significant threat to VSN. These hazards can cause sensor nodes to lose their
anticipated functionality and become susceptible to other risks.
Cryptoanalysis is the study of cryptographic systems to look for weaknesses and leak
of information. In VSNs, cryptoanalysis attacks are mainly used to acquire illegally
encryption keys.
Software attacks are used to adjust code and take advantage of the vulnerabilities of
software design.
The primary way of compromising the functionality of wireless sensor devices is
through network attacks. Such attacks include hacking, eavesdropping, identity
spoofing, and cross-layer attacks.

systems. Collision avoidance helps the driver to avoid collision accidents. For instance, using an in-vehicle system that keeps
the vehicle at a safe distance from others. This system must have a high data rate and low latency to allow for quick
reaction. Additionally, intersection collision avoidance helps the driver to make a left or a right turn when an accident is
imminent. The system also alerts other vehicles in the vicinity of the accident. Similarly, this system requires low latency
and high data rate for effective application.
Road sign notification assists the driver to be aware of the road signs before the vehicle gets to the sign. For instance,
an in-vehicle signal is used to inform the driver of an approaching red light or zebra crossing. Therefore, this system needs
average data rate, low latency and high reliability within a communication range of 500 m. Additionally, curvature speed
limit systems are used to warn drivers about the speed limit of a curve. This in-vehicle system uses information relayed
from sensors deployed on an approaching curve. The information depends on the condition of the road and information
about the curve. This system will be able to notify the driver about the recommended speed required to pass the curve. The
system should operate with low latency, medium data rate, and high reliability.
 F. Al-Turjman and J.P. Lemayian / Computers and Electrical Engineering 87 (2020) 106776 5

Fig. 3. Vehicular technology classification.

In the case that an unfortunate accident has occurred, systems should be put in place to manage such incidents and fast
track rescue operations. An emergency vehicle warning system is used to alert the driver about an oncoming ambulance.
This system requires medium data rate, low latency, and medium reliability. Additionally, post crush systems give warnings
to drivers about a vehicle that has had an accident or mechanical damage and it is stuck on the traffic lane. This system
requires a communication range of about 1 km, low latency, and high reliability.
Systems for safety applications can be sabotaged by hackers where false information can be planted to reflect on the
sensors. Smart vehicles such as driverless vehicles heavily rely on their sensors to provide safety for its users. Any false
information from sensors could cause an accident. For example, a higher speed limit than the actual limit of a curve can
be read due to device malfunction or intentionally injected into the system. Additionally, sensors used in anti-collision
systems can be tempered with to read false distances and hence cause a collision accident. For example, the authors in
[10] develop an anti-collision system using microwave. In their work, the authors claim that a system malfunction will occur
if the sensors fail to register an obstacle. Additionally, using high power in the microwave system could result in radiation
of harmful waves to the public. Moreover, smart vehicles that use VSNs to read road signs are at a risk of providing false
information form attackers to drivers, which may cause accidents. Therefore, VSNs used in safety applications must be highly
secured.

3.2. Efficiency applications

This category allows for efficient use of roads. Systems are put in place for efficient traffic flow management to improve
road efficiency applications. For instance, an intelligent traffic flow control system periodically collects information about
traffic from nearby vehicles. This information is then used to control traffic lights in real-time. Such a system requires
medium data rate, with a communication range of about 200 m. Free flow tolling systems are used in roads that require
tolls. This system communicates with the driver to electronically collect tolls. Hence, vehicles do not need to stop, resulting
in free-flow traffic. This system requires a communication range of about 7 m, medium data rate, and high messaging
reliability.
Monitoring applications help in monitoring vehicles and road traffic. A good example of a monitoring application is the
vehicle tracking and tracing (T&T) system [10]. This system is also used to remotely detect speed limit violations, vehicle
classification, origin and projected destination of the vehicle. This system is dependent on infrastructure applications, which
need a channel to support long-range communication. Cellular networks are therefore a good fit for such an application
because it needs sufficient data rate, average latency, and increased data reliability. Moreover, Road Condition Monitoring
(RCM) systems are used to analyze and monitor road conditions. The information collected is used for the vehicle safety
application. For instance, the use of an in-vehicle system that collects and analyses road condition information using sensors.
The system then sends a warning signal to approaching vehicles using a wireless communication channel. RCM systems
usually require direct or indirect V2V communication. Hence requiring medium range with medium data rate and latency.
Traffic data collected from privet vehicles can provide information about routes used by motorists. This information can
be used by perpetrators to intercept individuals or locate privet addresses. Toll systems can also easily be masked by false
6 F. Al-Turjman and J.P. Lemayian / Computers and Electrical Engineering 87 (2020) 106776

Fig. 4. V2X communications using MmWave.

systems, which will be able to acquire bank information of such VSN users. It is therefore critical that all systems used in
efficiency VSN application are as secure as possible.

3.3. Comfort applications

The goal for comfort application is to provide entertainment such as music or games to passengers. This is achieved by
enabling internet access in the vehicle. For instance, the authors in [11] propose a system for high-speed mobile internet
access for vehicles. The framework is called MobTorrent. The mobile nodes in the framework utilizes WALAN as control
channels to access roadside WiFi access points. For a detailed analysis of the architecture of current vehicular internet
access, the reader is advised to study [11]. Entertainment consists of services such as distributed games where a commuter
in one vehicle can play games with passengers on other vehicles. Moreover, entrainment also comprises of in-vehicle mobile
devices that allowed passengers to download and listen to their favorite music. Such type of applications demands high
internet access. High latency and low data reliability can be tolerated.
Contextual application enables the driver to familiarize himself with the route. For instance, packing booking allows the
driver to find a nearby parking area and book the slot. Moreover, this system can provide an application that assists the
driver to find nearby restaurants. The application can provide information about the restaurant such as the price and type
of food available. Contextual application systems need to be connected to RCUs to collect updated information. The range
required for the case of packing booking is short. Therefore, a short-range communication network is required. However, the
latter case requires a long-range communication channel Internet connection, such as a cellular network, or WIMAX-based
Internet.
Nevertheless, comfort applications such as games can be very distracting to the driver and can lead to accidents. More-
over, since the vehicles have internet access for downloading music and videos, it means that the vehicle is susceptible to
malware attacks which can disrupt systems in smart vehicles and cause accidents. Therefore, security in the comfort VSN
application must be enhanced to provide users with a secure driving experience.

4. Communication technologies and security in VSN

A reliable communication system is the key to realizing dependable and secure VSNs of tomorrow. There are two main
sub-sections of communication technologies: long-range and short-range communication systems. Both are critical for the
growth of VSNs. In this section, we discuss some of the communication technologies available today that are implemented in
vehicular technology. For example, Fig. 4 depicts the use of millimeter-wave (mmWave) systems in a smart city environment
to create V2V and V2I communication links. As can be observed from the figure, Vehicles exchange information with each
other, such information may include their proximity from each other in order to avoid collision. Moreover, we can also
observe vehicles communicating with roadside units such as traffic lights, to get more information about the environment.
 F. Al-Turjman and J.P. Lemayian / Computers and Electrical Engineering 87 (2020) 106776 7

4.1. Short-range communication

Short-range communication technologies are communication systems, which can communicate over a short distance.
Some examples of such systems include RFID, NFC, Wi-Fi, Li-Fi Bluetooth, and mmWave vehicle communications. The auto-
motive industry is working very hard to implement dedicated short-range communication (DSRC) technology in V2V and V2I
communication. Authors in [12] effectively prevented forward-collision using DSRC by stopping the vehicle, produce warning
signals when a blind spot is encountered, provided intersection movement assistance, produced do not pass warnings and
loss of control warnings. The authors in [13] present a study about the use of mmWave to support massive communica-
tion between vehicles. In their study, the authors claim that the ability of mmWave to deliver gigabit-per-second data rate
presents it as the only feasible candidate for vehicles that require high bandwidth systems. After several evolutions of Blue-
tooth technology, we now have Bluetooth 4.0 (Bluetooth/LE). This technology provides a high data rate of about 24 Mbps
and simpler paring functionality. Moreover, the system consumes low power and its main purpose is to connect sensors and
actuators in an IoT environment.
The uplink acquisition of data from vehicles is one of the most challenging processes in VSN. Currently, cellular networks
are used to perform this task, consequently creating more traffic and hence resulting in the degradation of cellular network
performance. The authors in [14] propose the use of IEEE 802.11p as a substitute for cellular networks during short-range
communication. Moreover, the authors claim that IEEE 802.11p contain favorable aspects for short-range V2V and V2I com-
munications. In VSN, onboard sensor units are expected to periodically broadcast their position and identity. This is done
to acquire real-time knowledge of the neighboring environment. IEEE 802.11p provides several non-overlapping charnels of
10 MHz. This number varies according to different courtiers, for instance, 7 channels in the USA and 5 in Europe. Each chan-
nel is broadcasted in a DSRC band of about 5.9 GHz. Moreover, one of these channels is reserved for control purposes while
others utilized for different services. Vehicles are among the fastest-growing number of connected things. Therefore, a better
and reliable communication network must be developed for V2X. The authors in [15] analyze the network challenges such
as the maximum number of vehicles connected, specifically when coverage is provided by Long Term Evolution Advanced
(LTE-A) network. The authors analyze the network’s performance through extensive simulations and conclude that a new
resource allocation and interference prevention system is required to achieve high-reliability requirement, especially during
heavy traffic.

4.2. Long-range communication

Long-range communication systems are systems that can communicate over short and long distances. As a result of
the exponential growth of connected things in the current communication networks, low power long-range communication
networks are in high demand. At the forefront is Low Power-Wide Area Network (LP-WAN). This communication protocol
enables Long Range (LoRa) communication which promises wide coverage of about 10 km and low power consumption.
LoRa is a long-range wireless communication paradigm utilizing radio modulation system to transmit minute volumes of
data packets. LoRa has a low power consumption rate, low bandwidth usage and high resistance to noise. Moreover, LoRa
uses unlicensed frequencies which are freely accessible. Some of the widely used frequencies include 868 MHz for Europe,
915 MHz for North America, and 433 MHz band for Asia. LoRa’s long-range and low power features make it perfect for
battery-operated sensors and low-power applications in the Internet of Things (IoT), Smart home and Machine-to-machine
communication.
Sigfox is another LPWA communication technology used in vehicular communication systems. Sigfox Network Operators
(SNPs) utilize base stations which have software-defined cognitive radios. This system uses Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK)
modulation to enable communication with its end users. Sigfox uses Ultra Narrow Band (UNB) modulation in its physical
layer. However, the design of the application layer is confidential. Moreover, Sigfox claims that each gateway can connect up
to a million objects, with a communication range of between 30 and 50 km and 3 to 10 km in rural and urban environment
respectively. Additionally, Sigfox offers a well-utilized bandwidth, very low noise levels, and ultra-low power consumption.
Cellular networks have also been widely used for long-range vehicular communication in the recent past. For instance,
5 G is an emerging platform that aims to support numerous applications that require ultra-reliable low-latency communica-
tion. Vehicular communication is one such application that will benefit from tremendous advantages of 5 G which include
high data rate, higher bandwidth, low latency, higher spectral efficiency, and higher network capacity [3]. The authors in
[16] provide a detailed study of the key building blocks and features employed in 5 G that support vehicular commu-
nications. Moreover, the authors propose an automatic vehicle location paradigm using cellular communication networks.
According to the authors, a cellular device located in the vehicle is activated by radio signals to calculate and sent back the
current position of the vehicle. The radio signals from a base station are received whenever the vehicle passes through a
cellular region.

4.3. Communication security

In general, security in VSN is a complex subject. In this subsection, we give an overview of the current security de-
velopments in VSNs’ short-range and long-range communication technologies. IEEE 1609.2 describes standard means for
validating and encrypting messages. Moreover, security in VSNs depends on more than the aspects defined in IEEE 1609.2
8 F. Al-Turjman and J.P. Lemayian / Computers and Electrical Engineering 87 (2020) 106776

Table 3
Range and security of VSN communication.

Communication systems which can communicate over

Communication Range Short-range communication technologies. a short distance.

Long-range communication technologies.
Communication Security Symmetric Algorithms\ Secret-key Algorithms
Asymmetric Algorithms\ public-key algorithm
Hash functions
Systems that can communicate over short and long
distances.
In this system, two bodies use a secret key to encrypt
and decrypt a message. The communicating bodies
are typically known as Alice and Bob
This encryption system uses a pair of mathematically
linked public and private keys
They are functions used to map input data of
arbitrary size onto output data of fixed size known as
hash values.

protocol only [12]. Security in VSN communications can be developed based on the following criteria: a) The type of com-
munication used between the vehicle and the security infrastructure. b) The type of Public Key Infrastructure (PKI), e.g.
certificate validity, encryption, and annulment. c) The physical security of VSN devices and d) Detecting and reporting mal-
functioning VSN devices. Communication in VSNs faces a specific range of security challenges because of their wide range of
applications. For instance, security application is a time-critical application, therefore bandwidth and processing cost must
be minimized. In other applications, the network may consist of hundreds of vehicles, therefore, the authentication system
must be scalable and flexible enough. However, in whatever application, we must protect the network from spying, bluff-
ing, alterations, and replay. IEEE 1609.2 standard also provide authenticating mechanisms for VSNs’ wireless communication
message management. The mechanism is used for messages that do not require obscurity as well as message encryption to
an identified recipient. Moreover, the authors in [17] claims that in VSN communication systems, cryptographic mechanisms
provide the necessary security requirements where the main components are secret-key algorithms, public-key algorithm,
and hash functions.

4.3.1. Symmetric algorithms\secret-key algorithms

Two bodies use a secret key to encrypt and decrypt messages in this system. The communicating bodies are typically
known as Alice and Bob. Alice uses the key to encrypt a message that is sent to Bob, having the same key, Bob uses it to
decode the message. To ensure authenticity and integrity Alice uses the key to generate a cryptographic signature, which
only gets recognized if Bob uses the correct key. Moreover, messages can be encrypted-only, authenticated-only, or both.
The strength of the symmetric key depends on the size of the key. Keys with longer data sets are stronger than those with
shorter. There are several examples of strong and weak keys. For instance, RC2, DES, 3DES, RC6 using one 64-bit key, Triple
DES (3DES) using three 64-bits keys and AES using about 128Gbits key.

4.3.2. Asymmetric algorithms \public-key algorithm

This encryption system uses a pair of mathematically linked public and private keys. The keys are mathematically mod-
eled such that it is very difficult to decrypt. The system is designed such that Alice can send an encrypted message to
Bob using a public key. And Bob, having the corresponding privet key is the only one who can easily decrypt the message.
Moreover, Alice provides a privet key signing for an authenticating message to Bob. Public key encryptions generate a digital
code known as a digital signature attached to an electronically transmitted document. In communications, digital signatures
are useful particularly in verifying the authenticity of new devices commonly found in a dynamic population. Several public
keys algorithms for communications have been proposed in literature. For example, the authors in [18] propose a public-key
encryption algorithm based on Chebyshev maps. The authors claim that the algorithm is safe, practical and can be used in
decrypting messages as well as providing digital signatures.

4.3.3. Hash functions

Hash functions are functions used to map input data of arbitrary size onto output data of fixed size known as hash
values. A cryptographically secure function creates unique hash values such that no two-input data have the same output.
The author in [19] concur that the backbone of IoT is the connection and communication of devices designed by different
vendors for diverse applications. Moreover, the authors conclude that a high level of security is needed for such a commu-
nication paradigm. As a result, an optimized elliptic curve Cryptography algorithm that uses hash functions was proposed
in [19]. The algorithm is used to secure communication networks used by IoT devices such as sensors used in VSNs. More
detailed studies about the current proposals for using hash function to secure communication networks can be found in
[19]. Table 3 provides a summary of the discussed subjects on this section.

5. Design features of VSN

To design an efficient IoT vehicular communication system in a smart city paradigm, several design features must be
considered. In this section, we briefly highlight these features.
 F. Al-Turjman and J.P. Lemayian / Computers and Electrical Engineering 87 (2020) 106776 9

Table 4
Design features of VSN.

Design features Description

Coverage Area size where a given VSN device remains functional.

Connectivity Ability to connect to maximum number of VSN devices.
Lifetime How long such a system remains effectively functional.
Robustness Ability to handle high number of connected devices.
Reliability Reliability in vehicular technology depends on the services offered by
that technology
Security To protect information contained in VSNs from malicious attacks and
misuse of assets

5.1. Coverage: Coverage is an important design feature in vehicular technology. As mentioned in [20], vehicles are mobile
by definition, they can get to different distant places within a very short time. On the other hand, wireless com-
munication, which is the backbone of vehicular communication is limited to coverage. Therefore, it is imperative to
consider coverage when designing a specific vehicular technology.
5.2. Connectivity: Connectivity is another important aspect of vehicular technology. Highly connected systems can collect
more information and use it to get accurate responses. The authors in [20] propose a system called Connectivity-Aware
Routing (CAR). This is a vehicular technology which uses intravehicular communication technology to find routes to
a specific destination. The system not only locates the source and the destination but also uses the connectedness of
the system to find connected and alternative routes and update the original route on the go.
5.3. Lifetime: The lifetime of a given vehicular technology is defined as the period where such a system remains effectively
functional. This mostly depends on the source of power used. The authors in [21] discuss an energy management
system used in vehicular technology. The study focuses on vehicular technology which uses fuel cell and has two
more emergency energy sources (battery and ultra-capacitor (UC)).
5.4. Robustness: The high number of linked devices in a smart city implies that there will be high traffic generated. There-
fore, vehicular IoT technology in a smart city paradigm must be robust. It should be able to handle a high number
of connected devices. For instance, authors in [22] conducted a study to investigate the low power consumption and
robustness of Bluetooth technology in intravehicular technology. The authors concluded that Bluetooth technology has
a robust connection system. It is capable of handling interference and sudden signal loss for a distance of up to 50 m
and it can handle different driving conditions.
5.5. Reliability: Reliability in vehicular technology depends on the services offered by that technology. Some services re-
quire very high reliability while others require medium reliability. The authors in [23] claims that DSRC-based com-
munications are used in vehicular safety applications such as Intersection Collision Avoidance (ICA) and Extended
Electronic Brake Light (EEBL). Consequently, such a system requires very high reliability. On the other hand, com-
fort systems in vehicular technology, such as distributed games and music downloads do not require high reliability.
Nevertheless, vehicular technology reliability is an important design feature that must be carefully considered.
5.6. Security: This is perhaps one of the most significant design features in VSNs. Information contained in VSNs is sus-
ceptible to malicious attacks and misuse of assets. As stated by authors in [24], the use of digital footprints by VSNs
to gain authenticity from Road-Side Users (RSUs) is flawed when the number of RSUs increases. Therefore, better
security systems with the ability to handle many users must be designed for future VSNs. In light of this, we dis-
cuss major possible security threats faced by future VANETs in the next section. Table 4 provides a summary of the
discussed subjects on this section.

6. Attackers and attacks in VSN

As it is not realistic to envision and name all the potential attack avenues that can be set in the future of VSN, we strive
to give a universal category of both the possible forms taken by the perpetrators and the type of attack identified in the
literature. We take into account the attacks aimed at communications as opposed to vehicles. This is because the physical
security of the vehicles’ OBUs is out of this article scope.

6.1. Attackers

Understanding the nature of the attacker is important for classifying the types of attacks that VSN VANETs might be
subjected to. This classification is straightforward and is commonly accepted amongst researchers and engineers dealing
with the subject.

6.1.1. Insider/Outsider: An authenticated vehicle of the VSN which can broadcast and receive messages from other members
is an insider. It has access to a certified public key and can easily navigate the network protocols to inject attacks.
Meanwhile, the outsider is considered as a foreign object by the vehicular network members and as an intruder.
Hence, it is severely limited in interactions by the applied security protocols.
10 F. Al-Turjman and J.P. Lemayian / Computers and Electrical Engineering 87 (2020) 106776

6.1.2. Malicious/Rationale: A malicious attacker is not looking for personal gain from his or her victim. The main issue
is that this type of attacker does whatever it takes to get what it wants at any cost, hence making the attacker
unpredictable and potentially dangerous. On the other hand, an attacker that seeks personal profit is rational and will
not overextend the resources for any intangible gain. This makes this type of attackers more predictable regarding the
attack means and the attack targets.
6.1.3. Active/Passive: Active attackers create intruding and misleading signals that can help in discovering the identity
and/or unauthorised data access. Unlike, the active attacker, a passive attacker inserts himself by spying in the wire-
less channel.
6.1.4. Local/Extended: An attacker may have inadequate choices, even if he/she is in charge of nodes, which makes him/her
local, limiting his/her impact at large. The extended attacker can manipulate numerous units that are scattered across
the vehicular network, allowing him/her to be active on a larger scope. The differentiation between local and ex-
tended is not easy to make and depends heavily on the size and coverage of the vehicular network in question. This
distinction can be especially important in tracking privacy-violating activities and potential suspects in VSN.

6.2. Attacks

The following examples are the types of attacks discussed in the literature. Some of them are simple to set-up and might
even be unintentional or just natural misbehaviors in the network rather than the result of a conscious effort to disrupt
the active system. We should also assume that as the intricacy of the attack method increases the skill of the perpetrator
increases accordingly. Attacks that deal mainly with tampered hardware are not part of the scope of this review.

6.2.1. Masquerade: The vehicle is actively masking its own identity to appear like another vehicle by using false identities,
such as public keys. This technique is usually employed in conjunction with other types of attacks.
6.2.2. False Information: A vehicle can transmit erroneous information and data in the network, which might affect the
behavior of other vehicles. It can be both intentional and unintentional.
6.2.3. Location Tracking: The observer can monitor the routes of selected vehicles and can use this information to achieve
various missions, both malicious and mundane. RSUs next to the main target are at risk of an attack as well.
6.2.4. DoS: An attacker can break down a vehicular network, jam signals, or may even cause a collision by using malicious
nodes to forge a significant number of bogus identities, such as Internet Protocol (IP) addresses, with the final objec-
tive of disrupting the proper functioning of data and information exchange between vehicles. An example would be
jamming the communication channel.
6.2.5. GPS Spoofing: GPS satellites, or their equivalent, maintain a locational table with the spatial locations and identifiers
of vehicles in the network. Attackers may produce misleading and incorrect GPS output with the purpose to deceive
vehicles, leading them to assume that they are actually in a different spot. It is relatively easy to dupe any number
of vehicles with some restrictions. It is also quite possible to use a GPS satellite simulator to produce and broadcast
stronger signals than those emitted by real satellite systems. Hence leading the vehicle receivers to prefer it over the
actual satellite.
6.2.6. Physical/Electronic Outage: When a GPS signal disappears in an outage due to obstacles, it can be exploited using the
temporary loss of connection to the system to inject falsified data and positioning information. Once the vehicle has
a Line of Sight (LoS) with the GPS satellite, it assumes that this is the actual position and will read as such before it
receives an updated position from the satellite. A nonphysical outage could be created using proper channel jamming
that broadens the potential applications of such an attack.
6.2.7. Wormhole: Traditionally, this is accomplished by tunneling packets between two remote members of a vehicular
network. The perpetrator should control at least two nodes separate from each other and with a very high-speed
connection between them to tunnel packets from one location to broadcast them in another. This could be accom-
plished with pre-established RSUs or by using fast mobile technologies such as 4 G or 5 G. Wormholes enable the
attacker to broadcast properly authenticated but false information to targets. A way to protect the vehicle from worm-
hole attacks is the Timed Efficient Stream Loss Tolerant Authentication (TESLA) with instant key disclosure. Another
potential solution discussed in the literature is the Ad hoc On-Demand Distance Vector Routing (AODV) routing pro-
cedure, where hop-by-hop effective authentication protocol is a useful approach that allows us to notice wormhole
attacks.
6.2.8. Black Hole: Data packets get lost while crossing through a black hole, which in effect is a member that has some
nodes or no node that refuse to broadcast or forward data packets to the next hop. Preventing black hole attacks is
generally achieved by making use of redundant paths kept between the sender and the receiver. Another potential
way to defend against black holes is the use of an information-carrying sequence number in the message header. The
receiver can then potentially discover missing a packet in the case of any discrepancy or loss, identifying the situation
as a suspicious case.
6.2.9. Malware and Spam: Attacks like spam and viruses can lead to severe disruptions in vehicle operations. They are
typically the work of malicious insiders rather than outsiders who have access to vehicles and RSUs when they are
performing software updates. They can potentially result in an increase in broadcast latency, which can be lessened
 F. Al-Turjman and J.P. Lemayian / Computers and Electrical Engineering 87 (2020) 106776 11

Table 5
A list of VSN Attacks.

Attacks Description

Masquerade Vehicle masking its own identity to appear like another vehicle by using
false identities.
False Information A vehicle transmitting erroneous information and data in the network
Location Tracking The observer can monitor the routes of selected vehicles.
DoS Using malicious nodes to forge a significant number of bogus identities.
GPS Spoofing Attackers may produce misleading and incorrect GPS output.
Physical/Electronic Outage Inject falsified data to electronics.
Wormhole Tunneling packets between two remote members of a vehicular network.
Black Hole Data packets get lost while crossing through a black hole (node that
does not transmit data to the next node).
Malware and Spam They are typically the work of malicious insiders rather than outsiders
who have access to vehicles and RSUs.
Man-in-the-middle attack (MITM) Attackers can eavesdrop on intra-vehicular communication and implant
false information.
Illusion Attack When an attacker broadcasts warning messages that do not correspond
to the current situation.
Impersonation Attack A vehicle can broadcast a security messages as if it was the origin of
other vehicles.

Table 6
VSN Attackers.

Attackers Description

Insider/Outsider An authenticated vehicle of the VSN which can broadcast and receive messages.
Malicious/Rationale This attacker does whatever it takes to get what it wants at any cost.
Active/Passive It creates intruding and misleading signals that can help in discovering the identity
and/or unauthorised data access.
Local/Extended They manipulate numerous units that are scattered across the vehicular network.

using centralized management. Proper maintenance of infrastructure and a centralized administration should be em-
ployed to prevent such attacks.
6.2.10. Man-in-the-middle attack (MITM): Malicious attackers can eavesdrop on intra-vehicular communication and implant
false information or distort messages between them. Solutions so far are relying mainly on strong cryptography,
secure authentication, and data integrity verifications. However, that is not enough to prevent such attacks.
6.2.11. Illusion Attack: When an attacker broadcasts warning messages that do not correspond to the current situation, it
produces an illusion to the vehicles in their neighborhood. The propagation of the phantasm mainly depends on the
vehicle’s responses, which can lead to data traffic jams and a general degradation in the system behavior.
6.2.12. Impersonation Attack: During vehicle-to-vehicle communication, a member can broadcast the security messages as
if it was the origin of other vehicles that can potentially influence the performance of the network control and the
other vehicles of the network. For example, a malicious vehicle transmits a message on behalf of another member
to cause confusion or any other security attack while masquerading. To guard the identity of each vehicle, a pseudo-
identification code and a private key is shared with vehicles in the network. This type of attacks mainly disturbs the
identity keys, and it is paramount for identifying the origin of broadcasted messages. Tables 5 and 6 outlines the
attacks and attackers discussed in this section.

7. OPEN research issues

Evident from the discussion above, IoT vehicular technology has the means to provide effective and safe transportation
on our roads by enabling VSNs. Moreover, the technology is capable of bridging the gap between today’s connected vehicles
and autonomous vehicles of the future. Nevertheless, current vehicular communication technology faces many limitations.
As cited by [25], it is clear that the current vehicular communication offers limited performance capabilities compared to
what is required to achieve more advanced ITS of the future. In this section, we highlight emerging research constraints and
open questions facing VSN’s full implementation in safety and non-safety applications.

7.1. Constrained medium access controls (MAC)

MACs used in VSN are designed for specific applications only, therefore limiting the wide range of applications envisioned
for VSNs. For instance, as stated by [26], VANET is designed to provide services such as internet access to road users.
However, most MACs are designed for a special purpose only, such as sending signals at specific times to neighbor vehicles.
Additionally, the authors in [26] claim that minimum work has been done on this field, hence the results are not conclusive.
The majority of MAC protocols used in VSNs are designed to be used in highways. This becomes problematic when VSN
12 F. Al-Turjman and J.P. Lemayian / Computers and Electrical Engineering 87 (2020) 106776

systems are utilized in urban environments where different traffic conditions such as buildings and sharp bends exist. Future
VSN systems should be able to handle both highway and urban scenarios.

7.2. Rate of data transmission

Low transmission data-rate is another major constraint facing the VSN industry. According to [27], autonomous vehicles
are required to communicate and exchange data more frequently in the V2X mode. For instance, an HD map of a single trip
can be in the size of gigabits and this map needs to be updated and exchanged multiple times to avoid recent obstacles
such as traffic accidents. Moreover, the author in [28] claims that a single autonomous vehicle can generate about 4 TB of
data per day. Therefore, neither DSRC nor LTE-V2X can support real autonomous vehicles yet.

7.3. Delay and routing

Other open research issues include Low Packet Delivery Ratio (PDR), high latency, Limited multi-hop routing, and Limited
Ad Hoc network. The IEEE 802.11 design standard cause the CA system to have high charnel contention in vehicles in a dense
network. Consequently, this causes low PDR and high latency. Moreover, the technique of multi-hop packet routing is not
fully implanted in DSRC or LTE-V2X. Approximately 15 millions of 100 million connected vehicles sold annually will be
autonomous. Therefore, there is a need to develop an Ad Hoc network to improve intravehicular communication and RSUs
of the future.

7.4. Secure positioning

Vehicular positioning is one major application of VSN. Vehicles need not only know their current position, but also the
position of all neighboring vehicles and things. The use of GPS signals is not reliable because the signals can be weak, can
easily be spoofed, and are prone to jamming. Additionally, vehicles can easily send false location signals. Therefore, there is
a need for a better and secure vehicular positioning paradigm.

7.5. Data verification

Vehicles are expected to constantly exchange information. It is therefore critical that we can recognize credible data and
fake data. One way to verify received data is through data correlation. Data correlation is a system used to compare all
collected data relating to a particular event. Authors in [29] present a model vehicle that uses data correlation to verify data
and classify it as real, fake or unintentionally accurate.

7.6. DoS resilience

Denial-of-Service (DoS) attacks such as jamming can easily be executed on VSNs, and the repercussions can be very de-
structive. Current solutions include frequency hopping and the use of multiple transceivers working at different frequencies.
Nevertheless, a more efficient and reliable method is required to combat DoS attacks.

8. Conclusions and future work

In conclusion, the results of this work indicate that current security levels of vehicular sensor networks in smart cities
are not ready to support the next generation of intelligent transport systems. As discussed above, there are several security
threats that must be addressed in order to enhance the current transport infrastructure. Future works of this paper entails
further analysis of the overviewed open research issues and propose better systems to provide better quality of service in
VSNs. Moreover, we will analyze how Artificial intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) are influencing the design of
smarter VSNs in smart cities. The main work addressed in this paper is as follows:

1. Security concerns of VSNs: In safety, comfort and efficiency applications.

2. Design features of VSNs: Such as robustness and reliability.
3. Communication technologies and their security issues: Short and long-range communication systems.
4. Attack in VSNs: Attackers and attacks.
5. Open research problems: Such as secure positioning, data verification, delay and routing.
6. Hints in overcoming open research problems.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

 F. Al-Turjman and J.P. Lemayian / Computers and Electrical Engineering 87 (2020) 106776 13

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Fadi Al-Turjman received his Ph.D. from Queen’s University, Canada. He is a full professor and a research center director at Near East University, Nicosia.
He is a leading authority in the areas of smart/intelligent systems. His-publication history spans over 250 publications in journals, conferences, patents,
books, and book chapters, in addition to numerous plenary talks at flagship venues.

Joel Poncha Lemayian received the B.Sc. degree in electrical and electronics engineering from Middle East Technical University Cyprus, in 2017. He is
presently pursuing the master’s (M.Sc.) degree in electrical and computer engineering. He is currently with Antalya Bilim University, Turkey. His-research
interests include 5 G Communication networks, Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning, and the Internet of Things (IoT) applications.