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1972 Nucl. Fusion 12 215

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 NUCLEAR FUSION 12 (1972)

Review Paper

TOKAMAK DEVICES
L.A. ARTSIMOVICH
I.V. Kurchatov Institute of Atomic Energy
Moscow,
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

ABSTRACT. This survey deals with research on plasma in toroidal systems with strong longitudinal
fields(Tokamak devices).
The author first of all considers the movement of single particles in these systems and then reviews
the theoretical work on equilibrium, transport coefficients and plasma stability. The design of the
various Tokamak devices is described, as are the methods of plasma diagnostics employed with them.
The main experimental results are summarized and compared with theory. Possible methods of heating
plasma are considered and the prospects of the Tokamak program discussed.

1. INTRODUCTION are greatly extended along the plasma loop. Such

a magnetic structure should have great stability
The name "Tokamak" is applied to axially sym- against large-scale resonance perturbations of the
metrical toroidal systems in which the hot plasma field which can cause an undesirable splitting of
is contained by the magnetic field of a current the magnetic surfaces. Moreover — and this is
circulating in it, and in which a very strong longi- its chief merit — it provides stability of the plas-
tudinal magnetic field parallel to the current is ma loop against magnetohydrodynamic deformationa
used to suppress the main magnetohydrodynamic Hitherto, in all experimental investigations
instabilities. The longitudinal field intensity, H0 performed on Tokamak devices, the heating of the
must be many times greater than the intensity of plasma loop has relied entirely on the Joule heat
the azimuthal field produced by the current, H . produced by the current flowing through the plas-
This constitutes the principal difference between
Tokamak devices and systems with relatively weak
longitudinal fields, such as the well-known English
Zeta device. Hf
The resulting magnetic field, in an annular plas-
ma column and close to its surface, has ideally
a simple helical structure (Fig. 1). In a first ap-
proximation, the cross-sections of the magnetic
surfaces in a plane passing through the main axis
of the system can be considered circular in
Tokamak devices (Fig. 2). In fact, however, an
analysis of the equilibrium conditions for a plasma
loop shows that with a sufficiently high value of
$(p = Sirp/lly (where p is the gas kinetic pressure
of the plasma) a noticeable change in shape of the
magnetic surface occurs. It should also be noted
FIG.l. Helical structure of magnetic field in a Tokamak device.
that the magnetic field in actual Tokamak devices
does not in fact possess perfect axial symmetry.
This field is produced by means of coils located
on the outer surface of the toroidal chamber in
which the plasma loop is formed. The clearances
between adjacent coils cannot be made too narrow
as they have to accommodate the diagnostic ap-
paratus and the pumping ports. However, with a
large number of coils the magnetic system still
maintains good axial symmetry. The relative
amplitude of oscillations in HQ on the annular mag-
netic axis of the plasma loop, for devices current-
ly in operation, is 0. 5-1%. Because the ratio
H v /H e is small (in normal experimental conditions
it is less than 0. 1), the angles of rotational trans-
form of the lines of force of the magnetic field in
Tokamak devices are also small and the field lines FIG.2. Magnetic surfaces in a Tokamak device.

215
ARTSIMOVICH
ma. However, we should not exclude the possi-
bility of resorting to other methods of plasma
heating as time goes on — for example high-
frequency electromagnetic fields. These may
prove much more effective than Joule heating at
high plasma temperatures.
The study of plasma properties in Tokamak sys-
tems is an important aspect of the general pro-
gram of research on high-temperature plasma
physics and controlled nuclear fusion in the USSR.
Work in this field has been going on for many
years, always with close liaison between theore-
tical calculations and experiments.
Let us start with the main results of theoretical
analysis of plasma behaviour in Tokamak systems.
2. THE MOVEMENT OF CHARGED PARTICLES
IN THE PLASMA LOOP
Let us consider the kinematics of charged par-
ticles in a helical toroidal field. In a magnetic
system of this kind the movement of the centre
of the Larmor orbit of a particle is a combination
of its displacement along the line of force and of
the magnetic drift due to non-uniformity of the
magnetic field. Two different types of trajectory
must be distinguished. Firstly, there are the
trajectories of the so-called "transit" (or "free")
particles whose velocity vector forms a suffi-
ciently small angle with the vector H, as a result
of which they are displaced freely along the lines
of force with no reflections in the regions of
higher toroidal magnetic field (note that He ~ l/R,
where R is the distance from a given point to the
major axis of the toroid). Secondly there are the
trajectories of the so-called "trapped" particles.
The angle between the velocity of these particles
and the magnetic field direction is relatively
large, so that they oscillate along limited sections
of the helical line of force between the regions of
higher magnetic field. To describe the trajecto-
ries of free and trapped particles in the helical
field, we introduce a system of co-ordinates x, y,
6 (Fig. 3). Let us assume that the radius of the
plasma loop cross-section a is small compared
with the toroid radius Ro (the "weak toroidality"
assumption). The axis of the plasma current
intersects the plane of the drawing at point 0. At
this point x = 0 and y = 0. It is assumed that the
FIG.3. Displacement of free particle trajectories.
216
current field intensity depends only on r = •v/x'2 +yl<J
and is very small compared with He. The value
of HQ can be taken as approximately equal to
H0(l - x/R 0 ). The movement of the centre of the
Larmor orbit in this field is the sum of the dis-
placement along the helical line of force with
velocity vM and the drift movement with velocity uw
If we assume that the condition Hv « H 0 r/R is
fulfilled, the effect of the current field on the mag-
netic drift can be neglected and the pattern of
movement of the centre of the Larmor orbit is
considerably simplified. In this case, the drift
velocity ud at any point of the trajectory is along
the y axis and is equal to (v2 +(l/2)v^)/wHR, where
v± is the Larmor velocity and uH is the Larmor
frequency in the field H e .
Let vn » v x . For such a free particle v,, is
practically constant along the trajectory. The
equation which determines the projection of the
trajectory in this case should take the form
dr He. _
(2.1)
dx
(here it is assumed that the xy plane rotates around
the major axis of the toroid with angular velocity
v(| /R). If aQ = (ud /vM ) • (He/H^) is considerably
less than unity (in experimental conditions this is
always observed), the projection of the trajectory
on the xy plane will be a closed curve, only
slightly displaced relative to the circle describing
the projection of the magnetic surface. The equa-
tion for the trajectory can be written in a first
approximation in the form
(x-a- 0 r 0 ) 2 +y 2 =r 2 (2.2)
This is a circle, the centre of which is displaced
along the x-axis by a distance aQr0 relative to the
point 0. In typical experimental conditions on
Tokamak devices the displacement or0r0 is a few
per cent of rQ for hydrogen or deuterium ions.
This shows that the free particles are well con-
fined in the device.
Now we shall explain how the trapped particles
move, confining ourselves to the simplest case,
where v2 « v 2 . As it moves along the line of
force the trapped particle will be reflected from
the intensified field zones and oscillate along the
line of force between points Mj and M2 (Fig. 4).
FIG.4. Projection of a trapped-particle trajectory.

In the xy-plane, in the absence of drift, the pro-
jection of its trajectory would represent an arc
of the circle. Allowing for drift we come back to
Eq. (3.2), but now v,, cannot be regarded as a
constant. From the adiabatic invariance of v^/H
it follows that vn = ± vo%/x- xm/*fR, where xm is
the abscissa of the reflection points. When
v,;2 « v^, the drift velocity ud can also be taken to
be virtually constant. The equation for the pro-
jection of the trajectory is obtained by integration
of expression (2.1) with allowance for the depend-
ence of v,| on x. If with y = 0 absolute value of
a0 exceeds unity, this projection takes the form
of a loop adjacent to the arc A1BA2. Such trajec-
tories are often termed "bananas" in the litera-
ture. The maximum displacement is
(2.3)
v0
where <pm is the azimuthal angle of the point of
reflection A. In practice the toroidal drift can be
regarded as suppressed if Ar m /r 0 « 1. For ions
belonging to the main part of the Maxwellian dis-
tribution, Ar m /r 0 does not exceed 0. 1 on Tokamak
devices. Thus it can be assumed that trapped par-
ticles are also adequately confined by the magnetic
field of the plasma current (provided the ratio
v,, /v x is not too small).
It should be noted that drift compensation in the
movement of the trapped particles occurs because
the points of rotation of the trajectory, Mj and M2,
are located symmetrically in relation to the equa-
torial plane of the plasma loop.
The magnitude of the displacement Ar m for
trapped particles considerably exceeds the dis-
placement typical of free particles (the ratio of
Arm for the two limiting cases is ~ s/R 0 /r 0 ).
All that has been said above regarding the laws
of movement of charged particles in Tokamak de-
vices is valid provided the field possesses strict
axial symmetry. Actually, owing to the presence
of gaps between the coils, the longitudinal field
strength periodically varies as a function of the
angle 6 with a period equal to 27r/N, N being the
number of coils. Since the amplitude of these
variations is very small, they have practically no
effect on the movement of the free particles, or
indeed on the movement of trapped particles with a
large oscillation amplitude along the line of force.
However, if we consider the behaviour of a par-
ticle for which the ratio vn /vx is very small along
its whole trajectory, then it is not difficult to see
that owing to the periodical structure of the to-
roidal field, the shape of trajectory of such a par-
ticle may change completely. The amplitude of
the oscillations along the line of force will de-
crease since the points of rotation will change
their position (they will be symmetrically disposed
relative to the centre of the gap between adjacent
coils). For particles belonging to this group the
drift movement along the y axis will not in general
be compensated and their trajectories should be
open (see the schematic representation of such a
trajectory in Fig. 5). The presence of particles of
TOKAMAK DEVICES
FIG.5. Projection of a trapped-particle trajectory with disruption of
the axial symmetry of the magnetic field.
this group will inevitably lead to additional diffu-
sion and thermal losses from the plasma, since
their average radial velocity is of the order of the
drift velocity. However, an assessment of the
role which these losses can play in the material
and energy balance of the plasma shows that,
under normal experimental conditions on Tokamak
devices, their contribution is negligibly small.
As we shall see below (Section 7), the presence
of particles moving on open drift trajectories can
manifest itself in certain experimentally observed
effects (in particular an asymmetrical dependence
of the ion energy distribution on y).
3. PLASMA EQUILIBRIUM LAWS
Let us now turn to a description of the equi-
librium laws of a plasma loop. Although super-
position of the fields created by a toroidal coil
and plasma loop may serve as an ideal trap for
individual charged particles, in itself such a mag-
netic system is inadequate for keeping the plasma
loop in state of macroscopic equilibrium. Through
the action of electrodynamic forces the current-
carrying loop tends to expand. The presence of
an expansion force in this case follows from the
general laws of electrodynamics, according to
which a ponderomotive force acting in a current-
carrying conductor is always so directed that it
tends to increase the inductance of the conductor.
In a ring conductor this means an increase in its
radius RQ. The gas kinetic pressure of the plas-
ma further increases the expansion force. To
obtain equilibrium, it is necessary to introduce
an additional magnetic field parallel to the major
axis of the toroid (see Fig. 6). Through interaction
with the current I the Hx field will create a radial
force equal to 27rRIHx/c (over the whole length of
the ring). With a correct choice of sign the inter-
acting force of the supplementary current-carrying
vertical field will be directed inwards and can
compensate the expansion force.
217
ARTSIMOVICH
FIG.6. Plasma loop in chamber with conducting casing.
In Tokamak devices a toroidal copper casing (S
in Fig. 6) is used to compensate the internal forces
expanding the plasma loop. The expansion forces
are compensated because, when the loop moves
outwards, eddy currents arise in the casing which
interact with the plasma current to produce a
force pushing the plasma inwards (reduction of R).
On the assumption that the casing S has ideal elec-
trical conductivity we shall give the results of an
analysis of equilibrium conditions.
In this case the boundary of the plasma loop is
described by a circle of radius a in the meridional
cross-section. The cross-section of the casing
is a circle of radius b. To compensate the forces
acting on the plasma loop it is necessary for the
centres of the cross-sections of the plasma surface
and the copper casing to be displaced a certain
distance 6 0 . The normal component of the mag-
netic field vanishes on the outer boundary of the
plasma and on the inner surface of the casing. By
theoretical analysis, one can find the equations for
equilibrium, establish the distribution of the mag-
netic surfaces inside the plasma loop and deter-
mine the components of the magnetic field strength
in the space between the plasma and the casing
[1,2].
The plasma loop considered as a whole has two
degrees freedom, to which the geometrical para-
meters a and 60 correspond. The equilibrium
equations for these two parameters are
H
ea ~ Hej 2 (3.1)
In these formulae p is the mean gas kinetic pres-
sure over the plasma cross-section, assumed
isotropic, H 6a is the longitudinal field strength
at the plasma boundary with azimuth <p = -n/2, H 2 .
is the mean value of the square of the longitudinal
field strength within the plasma, and KJa.) is the
current field strength on the plasma boundary at
the point where cp = TT/2 (the value of H^a) is 2l/ca).
218
The constant A{ denotes the internal inductance of
the plasma loop per unit length and depends on
the current distribution over the plasma cross-
section. A further term 6H appears if an additional
field B.±1 not associated with eddy currents, is
introduced to control the position of the loop in
the chamber. The value of 6H is bH^/H^b). The
components of the current magnetic field strength
along the azimuth cp and the radius r in the space
between the plasma surface and the casing S,
accurate to within terms of the order of (a/R) 2 and
higher are given by the following expressions:
+ In — If cos cp (3.3)
a_ 8?rp - 1
H - TJ / o \ ~ J 1 —
+ In — f s i n cp
2R H2(a)
(3.4)
Equations (3. 1) - (3.4) are used in processing
the basic results of magnetic measurements. In
particular, Eq. (3. 1) provides a theoretical basis
for measuring p by the diamagnetic effect, and
formulae (3. 2) - (3. 4) serve for analysing experi-
mental data obtained with magnetic probes. It
should be remembered that the results of the theo-
retical analysis presented here were obtained on
the assumption of ideal conductivity of the casing
S. In particular, expression (3. 2) for the magni-
tude of the displacement is valid only when the
life of the plasma loop is small compared with the
skin time for the conducting casing. This means
that the following condition must be fulfilled:
47TCTS
t « (3.5)
C2
where t is time from the beginning of the process,
d the casing thickness and as the electrical con-
ductivity of the material from which it is made.
In the contrary case, when t considerably exceeds
the time of leakage of the magnetic field through
the wall of the casing, the latter ceases to play a
part in providing equilibrium of the plasma loop.
In this case equilibrium can be maintained if an
external transverse field is set up having a
strength equal to
8R -3
H ,n - —rr (3.6)
where ^ ^
The above condition must be observed if
t > 2TT(JS Rd/c 2 . In practice, in the experiments
on the largest of the Tokamak devices (T-3),
performed with discharge pulse lengths of 20-
70 ms, we encountered an intermediate case
where
27rcrsRd 4?rad2
> t> (3.7)

In the above range of values of t the displacement
is determined by the following equation [3]:
£ l [6(t)- 60] = i - (3. 8)
In this formula 60 denotes the displacement cal-
culated from expression (3.2) for an ideally con-
ducting casing, and Hx(t) is the intensity of the
additional transverse magnetic field acting on the
plasma loop at2 the instant t. The constant
r k = 27ras Rd/c . Equation (3. 8) is convenient for
processing experimental data, since the quantities
figuring in it, 6 0, H±o and Tk, can be calculated
and the transverse field strength Hx(t) can be
measured directly without initiating a discharge
in the chamber.
In actual experimental conditions the effect of
the conducting casing on expansion of the plasma
loop may be greatly reduced by the longitudinal
and transverse slits which have to be made in the
casing for design and technological reasons (in
particular, to avoid shorting the feed voltage for
the discharge). The effect of these slits (and also
of stray fields from the iron transformer) on the
performance of the casing must be ascertained
individually for each new experimental device.
A consideration of equilibrium conditions would
be incomplete if we did not deal with the distri-
bution of the magnetic surfaces in the plasma [1].
In toroidal geometry the transverse sections of
the magnetic surfaces should not, generally speak-
ing, be described by concentric circles. The
lack of concentricity occurs because plasma carry-
ing a longitudinal current, enclosed within any of
the internal magnetic surfaces, finds itself —
with respect to the external layers of the plasma
loop enclosing it — in conditions rather similar
to those which determine the equilibrium of the
loop with respect to the conducting casing S.
Therefore, the centres of the set of circles which
represent the cross-sections of the magnetic sur-
faces in the meridional plane should be shifted
towards layer R values in proportion as their
radii decrease. The maximum displacement rela-
tive to the centre of the section of the conducting
casing corresponds to the position of the magnetic
axis of the plasma loop. Calculations supply the
following formula for determining the distance
6x(p) by which the centre of the section of a mag-
netic surface of radius p is displaced relative to
the magnetic axis,
p
6 (p) =
i /ix(r)dr (3 9)
-
where
In the formula for A(r) the quantity p(r) denotes
the mean pressure within a circle of radius r,
TOKAMAK DEVICES
p(r) the pressure at the periphery of this circle
and J2; (r) the internal inductance for a plasma
with cross-section radius r, calculated per unit
length of the plasma loop. The distance from
the magnetic axis to the centre line of the casing
S is obviously equal to 60 +6x(a), where 60 is
calculated from formula (3. 2) or, in the more
general case, from formula (3. 8).
To illustrate this point we may cite two concrete
examples.
(a) Let the plasma pressure vary according to
the law p =po(l - r2/a2) and the current density be
uniform everywhere over the plasma cross-
section. The following expression is then obtained
for the relative displacement of the internal mag-
netic surfaces
2
£_
2R (3.11)
(b) Taking the same law for the dependence of
p on r, let us assume that an analogous relation-
ship is also valid for the current distribution over
the cross-section, i.e. j =jo(l - r 2 / a 2 ) . In this
case, the expression for 6X (p) becomes more
unwieldy. We shall give only the formula for
6x(p) where p = a:
{
> <*> • W
0.32 (3.12)
Investigation of the equilibrium conditions for a
toroidal plasma loop on Tokamak devices has
indicated that the quantity jS^ must not exceed a
certain limiting value, because as /3^ increases
there occurs a more and more severe distortion
of the magnetic surfaces in the plasma loop. Ac-
cording to Shafranov [4] and Yurchenko [5] the
limiting value for 0^ is j3y ~ R/a. At larger
values of ^ the magnetic surfaces will split
(Fig. 7), and this inevitably results in a sharp
increase in velocity and energy losses. The li-
miting value of the ratio between the gas kinetic
pressure of the plasma and the pressure of the
longitudinal magnetic field is
_ R H$(a) _
H| " a H2 " (3.13)
where q(a) =(H0/H(;p(a))(a/R) is the so-called
"magnetohydrodynamic stability margin". In
FIG. 7. Splitting of the magnetic surfaces.
219
ARTSIMOVICH
practice,however, (3^ and /3e are determined in
experimental devices not by the equilibrium con-
ditions but by the energy balance rules for the
plasma column (see Section 11 below).
4. DIFFUSION AND THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
IN TOKAMAK SYSTEMS
ACCORDING TO CLASSICAL THEORY
In recent years a large number of theoretical
investigations have been devoted to analysing the
diffusion and thermal conductivity processes of
plasma in toroidal systems. The research of
Pfirsch and Schliiter [6] and Kadomtsev and
Shafranov [7,8] allowed significant corrections to be
made in the formulae of the classical theory of
transport in high-density plasma. Then the work
of Galeev and Sagdeev [9] appeared, in which a
"neoclassical" theory was proposed for transport
phenomena in plasma with relatively rare colli-
sions. These papers disclosed for the first time
that trapped particles can significantly affect dif-
fusion and heat transfer in Tokamak-type systems
(owing to the fact that longitudinal oscillations of
trapped particles can cause their trajectories to
deviate markedly from the magnetic field lines).
This theory was further refined in the work of
Kovrizhnykh [10]. It should be noted that in
Tokamak devices, owing to the longitudinal electric
field E0 supporting the current, there occurs si-
multaneously with the plasma diffusion process a
contrary process of "pinching" or self-constriction
of the plasma due to the drift of charged particles
in the crossed E0 and Hy fields. An expression for
the resultant rate of expansion of the plasma pinch
in the case of a dense plasma has been derived by
Shafranov [8]. Recently, Galeev [11] also calcul-
ated the rate of self-constriction for the case —
much more important in practice — of a plasma
characterized by rare collisions, where trapped
particles come into play. This question has also
been considered by Ware [12]. Rosenbluth and
co-workers [12a] have refined the coefficients
in the transport equations for a plasma with rare
collisions. Below is a short review of the results
of these theoretical investigations.
If the "self-constrictive" effect is discounted,
the magnitude of the transverse diffusion coef-
ficient D± as a function of the frequency of electron-
ion collisions vei should behave in the manner
schematically shown in Fig. 8. It is possible to
distinguish three different ranges of values of i/ei ,
for each of which the character of the D±(i/ei)
function is different. The behaviour of the diffu-
sion coefficient in these ranges is shown by the
solid lines in the figure. In range I (very infre-
quent collisions) D±(vei) is given by the expression
D x (i/ ei ) s PtOP\l T3 (4.1)
Here p is the mean value of the Larmor electron
radius in the current field H v . The value of H v is
taken for a given point in the plasma at a distance
220
r from the ring axis. The coefficient rj is equal
to Tj /T e . Formula (4. 1) is derived for the case
where the electron mean free path Xe considerably
exceeds r(H e /H (/ ,)(R/r) 3 / 2 . The point of this con-
dition is that, when it is fulfilled, the momentum
of the trapped particle cannot be changed enough
by Coulomb collisions for the particle to have a
chance of being converted to a free particle in the
course of one oscillation.
In range II (neither very rare nor very frequent
collisions) the diffusion coefficient can be cal-
culated from the formula1
.3/2
(4.2)
where
A = Jl (1 +rj)m 1 e / 2 k 3 / 2 c 2 e" 2 s 230(1 +n)
The above formula is valid if the mean free path
falls within the limits
He (4.3)
« r
The experimental conditions in Tokamak devices
fall within this range of values of Xe in most
cases.
The effect of trapped particles on transport
processes can be disregarded only when
Xe « rHg/H^. In this case (range III) a correct
application of the classical theory yields the
following expression for Dx:
D± = D 0 [l+q 2 (r)] (4.4)
where Do is the value of the diffusion coefficient
for a rectilinear plasma cylinder in a uniform
magnetic field Hg and q(r) = (H0/H(/,(r))(r/R).
The boundaries between ranges I, II and III in
Fig. 8 are shown by a broken line. The values of
the function D±(vei) in the boundary regions can
be found at the present time only by quite arbi-
trary interpolation. The simplest method of inter-
polation is to replace the smooth curve of the
function D±{vei ) by a broken line, extending the
rectilinear sections until they intersect each other.
I
I.
1=1
FIG. 8. Variation of plasma diffusion coefficient with collision
frequency.
Here and in what follows T e and Tj denote electron and ion tempera-
tures in degrees. The temperature in electron volts is denoted by T and
Tlv.

The flux of particles from the plasma can be
produced not only by the density gradient, but
also by the temperature gradient (thermal diffu-
sion). The general expression for a particle flux
with bothgradne and grad Te , which may be used
in normal experimental conditions on Tokamak
devices, takes the form
dlnTi
1. 5
nPvr = - -r- lnne '~dF
(4.5)
where Dx is the diffusion coefficient determined
from expression (4. 2). In expression (4. 5) the
coefficient r\ is equal to Tj /T e . In rough esti-
mates the value of r] can be taken to be constant
over the plasma cross-section. If, in addition,
it is assumed that the temperature and density
distributions over the radius are similar in form,
formula (4.5) can be rewritten as
nevr = -
Thus, allowance for thermal diffusion increases
the diffusion flow rate in a first approximation by
a factor of about 2. 5
The self-constriction effect should appear at low
plasma pressures. In the case of dense plasma,
when the diffusion coefficient is determined by
expression (4.4), the ratio of diffusion rate to
compression rate is - c(dp/dr)(l +q2(r))/{jQB.(p(r)).
The diffusion may be fully compensated and ex-
pansion of the plasma pinch should give place to
compression when fi^ § 1/(1 +q2). The effect of
self-constriction becomes particularly significant
in the case of a dilute plasma with relatively rare
collisions. According to Galeev [11], in the con-
ditions which usually prevail in experiments
allowance for self-constriction adds a further
term to expression (4. 5) for nevr , as a result of
which it takes the following form (the ratio T{ /T e
being taken as constant over the plasma cross-
section):
n v =-
dr dr
To clarify the role of the correction term, let us
consider two particular examples.
1. The plasma density depends on r in accordance
with a parabolic law, i. e. n e = ne(O)(l - r 2 /a 2 ),
whilst the plasma temperature and current density
are constant over the whole cross-section. Then
2r 1. 15
a"2"
The quantity in brackets is independent of r.
When j3v < 1. 15, it is negative, i. e. the plasma
is compressed over the whole cross-section. Note
that in Tokamak devices )3V < 1 over most of the
discharge pulse.
TOKAMAK DEVICES
2. The plasma density and temperature vary
uniformly in accordance with a parabolic law and
the current density is constant over the cross-
section. In these conditions we have
^ne(O)DxKl)(l-M^ (4.9)
<*• \ Pip X
-1
Let /3V s \ (as is usually the case in experiments
on the T-3 device in that phase of the process
where the temperature is at a maximum). Then
normal diffusion flow should prevail when r/a<0.6.
At greater distances from the axis the plasma
should be compressed. It is evident that in this
case the shape of the density distribution must
vary with time.
The transverse thermal conductivity of the
plasma pinch, according to classical theory both
in its old and contemporary forms, is due to
ion-ion collisions so that the coefficient of thermal
conductivity KX must be a function of the ion-ion
(4.6)
collision frequency vi{ . This function is similar
to that shown in Fig. 8. Different expressions have
to be used to calculate KX in ranges I, II and III.
In range I, the formula for KX is
(4.10)
where is the mean Larmor ion radius in the
current field (p =N/2mc2kTi /e'^H^). In the inter-
mediate zone II, .whose position is determined by
the inequalities in expression (4. 3), the value of
K, is:
,3/2
(4.11)
1/2,
where B= J7J2 mj' k (Aiis
the atomic weight of the substance).
In ranges I and II the main contribution to the
thermal conductivity is made by trapped particles.
In range III (dense plasma) the coefficient of
transverse thermal conductivity is calculated from
the formula
(4.7)
(4.12)
where KjJO) is the coefficient of transverse ther-
mal conductivity in a straight plasma column
located in an He field. The magnitude of KX(0)
is equal to gn2/H2)N/"T~. In this expression g is
a numerical coefficient which can be taken to be
about 2 xlO"16 for a hydrogen plasma in Tokamak16
experimental conditions; for deuterium gs>3xlO" .
It should be emphasized that all the formulae for
(4.8)
Dx and KX given above were derived on the as-
sumption that binary Coulomb collisions play a
major part in the diffusion and thermal conduc-
tivity mechanisms. However, it is not out of
the question that these formulae could be general-
ized for the case where charged particles undergo
collisions with electric field fluctuations resulting
221
ARTSIMOVICH
from the development of various instabilities. In
this case the quantities vei and vu must represent
certain effective collision frequencies, including
non-Coulomb ("collective") interactions.
In concluding this section we should mention
one important consequence of the neoclassical
theory of transport processes. Evidently, col-
lisions between free and trapped particles change
the form of the electron velocity distribution func-
tion so much that an additional longitudinal elec-
trical current appears. The direction of this cur-
rent coincides with the discharge current, and the
current density for range I (infrequent collisions)
is given by the expression [13,12a]
0.27 d
fdr inT,' (4.13)
In denser plasma this additional current is low.
In principle we can conceive of a case where the
additional current would exceed the discharge
current, the density of which is crEE: this should
occur at large values of |3. In such a case it would
be impossible to ignore the influence of the addi-
tional current on the magnetohydrodynamic stabili-
ty of the plasma loop. According to Galeev and
Sagdeev [14] this effect is bound to reduce the
maximum permissible value of /3e by a factor of
v/R/a relative to the value determined from
formula (3.13). The possibility afforded by the
density gradient of maintaining the current in the
plasma permits the hope that a steady-state reactor
operating on the Tokamak principle with injection
on the magnetic axis will eventually become prac-
ticable [14a, 14b].
5. PLASMA LOOP STABILITY
The conservation of thermal energy in a plasma
ring depends on the stability of the plasma against
the various perturbations which may develop in it.
The different instability excitation mechanisms
may be classified according to the rate of develop-
ment of the perturbations associated with them,
i. e. deviations from the equilibrium condition.
The greatest threat to the maintenance of mag-
netic thermal isolation is presented by perturba-
tions of the magnetohydrodynamic type. There
are two such perturbations in Tokamak systems.
Firstly, there are large-scale helical deforma-
tions of the plasma pinch boundary which occur
when a zone of low electrical conductivity exists
between the plasma and the conducting casing.
The onset of these helical or screw deformations
is due to the storage of excess energy in the plas-
ma associated with the magnetic field of the longi-
tudinal current. Secondly, there are flute perturb-
ations of the plasma localized in the vicinity of
the closed lines of force. The source of these
flute deformations lies in the diamagnetic charac-
222
teristics of the plasma. A theoretical analysis
of the conditions in which helical instabilities
may occur in Tokamak devices, and of methods
of suppressing them, is to be found among
Shafranov's papers [15, 16]. The basic conclu-
sions of his work may be put as follows.
The stability of the plasma pinch depends on
the parameter
r
q(r) = (5.1)
R
To stabilize helical deformations having m periods
round the minor circumference of the torus, it is
sufficient for the condition q(a)>m to'be fulfilled.
The maximum value of m which has to be in-
serted in this inequality depends on the law of
current density distribution over the radius. If
the current density increases towards the peri-
phery (or, more specifically, if q(r) decreases),
the theoretical number m representing the mode
of the perturbations which have to be stabilized
is unlimited and, consequently, the plasma pinch
is unstable for any finite q. If the current density
drops towards the periphery, on the other hand,
the maximum value of m is limited: the more
rapidly the current density drops, and conse-
quently the larger the zone of conducting plasma
with low current density in the outer part of the
plasma pinch, the smaller this number will be.
This conclusion does not extend to the perturba-
tion mode with m = 1, which is not sensitive to the
law of current distribution. Therefore the condi-
tion q(a)> 1 is always necessary to ensure stability
against helical kinking of the plasma pinch.
For the stabilization of local flute perturbations,
according to Suydam's criterion, it is sufficient
to have comparatively small shear 2 : 6S > 2-f^,
x H2/H|. Mercier [17] has shown that for a
current uniformly distributed over the plasma
cross-section these perturbations are stabilized
if q(0)> 1. This is because in the Tokamak a con-
figuration with minimum mean H on the plasma
pinch axis is achieved automatically.
The condition for stabilization based on minimum
mean H with an arbitrary current distribution
takes the form q(r)> 1 [18]. With current density
decreasing along the radius the condition q(r)> 1
is more rigorous than q(a)> 1 because in this case
q(a)>q(0). For example, with a parabolic current
distribution q(a)/q(0) = 2.
Thus, one of the main results of the theoretical
investigations is that magnetohydrodynamic per-
turbations cease to be dangerous when the stability
margin q(a) is sufficiently large. It should be
added that if the plasma pinch boundary coincides
with the surface of the conducting casing , severe
helical deformation should not develop. In this
2
The amount of shear, determined by the expression 9shi? |(d/dr)
X.(H(P/HQ)\ , depends on the form of the function j@(r). If we assume the
current density distribution to be bell-shaped, the amount of shear will
increase,from zero on the centre line to a value of the order of H«/Hg
near the plasma boundary.

case, where the plasma has an "immobile bound-
ary", instabilities should manifest themselves
differently, as q diminishes, from the way in which
they show up in a plasma with a "free" boundary.
It may be possible to check this conclusion on the
Tokamak-6 device, where the boundary of the
plasma can be brought close to the surface of the
conducting casing.
Apart from rapid deformations of the magneto-
hydrodynamic type, towards which the plasma
behaves like an ideally conducting fluid with
frozen-in field lines of force, it is also possible
in a toroidal plasma pinch for slower perturbations
to occur, whose development is significantly in-
fluenced by electrical conductivity. With finite
electrical conductivity, large-scale helical per-
turbations manifest themselves in the form of a
tearing mode having a stability criterion close
to that of the ordinary helical modes [16, 16a].
If a current flows through the plasma and there is
a temperature gradient in a direction perpen-
dicular to H (this is so in Tokamak systems), we
have the conditions required for development of
the current- convection type of instability, which
has been investigated by Kadomtsev [19]. This
form of instability involves a build-up of skew-
type deformations in the plasma: the most impor-
tant part is played here by interconnected tempera-
ture and conductivity (not density) perturbations.
Hence the current-convection instability can result
in increased heat transfer from the plasma but
should not have much effect on the diffusion pro-
cess. The growth rate of perturbations due to
the current-convection instability is given by
1 do_ E
7=- K,, lc, +H k
r - ^dr
- (5.2)
e e
where K,, is the longitudinal thermal conductivity
of the plasma, k^ and k0 are the components of
the perturbation wave vector in the azimuthal
direction and the longitudinal field direction, and
aE is the longitudinal electrical conductivity of
the plasma. It follows from this expression that,
in a low-temperature plasma with correspondingly
low electrical conductivity, perturbations can
grow over quite a wide range of k v /k 0 values. In
a high-temperature plasma the longitudinal thermal
conductivity, given not too low values of k 0 ,
smooths out the temperature perturbations so that
7 can have a positive value only when kQ- 0. How-
ever, in the presence of shear perturbations with
low kg are localized in very narrow regions along
the radius r, which means that their influence on
heat transfer is greatly reduced. According to
Kadomtsev [19], the current-convection instability
should not play a significant part in the .energy
balance of Tokamak systems under normal experi-
mental conditions.
Theoretical considerations seem to indicate that
heat transfer can be badly affected by one variety
of the universal drift instability in non-uniform
plasma — namely the "temperature-drift instab-
ility", which has been investigated by Kadomtsev
TOKAMAK DEVICES
and Pogutse [19], This instability is due to a ra-
dial ion temperature gradient which develops when
the condition |dln T e /dlnn e | > 1 is satisfied. The
coefficient of "anomalous" thermal conductivity,
governed by a build-up of temperature-drift
oscillations in the plasma, can be estimated only
in orders of magnitude. The following expression
can be used for very rough estimates:
,3/2
(5.3)
Here K_L is the anomalous thermal conductivity
coefficient averaged over the plasma (hydrogen,
deuterium or tritium)cross-section and Tj is the
mean ion temperature. The thermal conductivity
coefficient calculated from this formula for normal
experimental conditions on Tokamak devices is
several times larger than the value obtained from
the classical calculation using formula (4. 11).
However, the above condition for development of
the temperature-drift instability is evidently not
satisfied in the hot inner zone of the plasma loop
(see below, Section 12).
A further instability mechanism which may show
up in Tokamak systems is associated with the
presence of trapped particles. Among the trapped
particles a group can be discerned comprising
particles which move along the outside of the mag-
netic surfaces, where the magnetic field intensity
decreases with increasing r. This group is un-
stable against flute deformations. The instability
associated with trapped particles has been in-
vestigated theoretically by Kadomtsev and Pogutse
[19, 20]. Rough estimates suggest it would affect
the energy balance to an appreciable extent only
in a plasma of very low density, and that it is
therefore of no consequence in normal experi-
mental conditions.
Finally, it should be noted that beam instabilities
can also occur in the plasma loop under certain
conditions owing to acceleration of electrons in the
longitudinal electric field. If the current density
j e =neVne exceeds the value at which_the mean
directional velocity of the electrons vlie is equal
to the speed of sound in the plasma, ion-acoustic
oscillations may develop as a result of the energy
of longitudinal movement of the electrons. A
necessary condition for this is the fulfilment of
two inequalities, v,,e > veN/me/m{ and Te 25> T,.
If Te and Tj are approximately the same, the
development of ion oscillations is impeded by
Landau ion damping. The implications of this
form of instability have been studied by Rudakov
and Zavoisky [21] and by Rudakov and Tsytovich
[22], This phenomenon may explain the anomalous
increase in the electrical resistance of the plasma
that has been observed in experiments. Neverthe-
less, the generation of ionic sound should not lead
to a significant increase in the rate of transport
processes in the plasma.
223
ARTSIMOVICH
6. DESIGN OF TOKAMAK DEVICES
Experiments have now been in progress on the
Tokamak devices for many years and various im-
provements have been made to the design. In
the very early stages ceramic, glass and quartz
discharge chambers were employed. However,
contamination of the plasma by various impurities
greatly reduced its temperature. This situation
changed when devices were introduced having thin
metal chambers capable of being degassed by pre-
liminary heating and conditioning in electrical dis-
charges. Another important advance was made
when due attention was paid to the need for care-
ful correction of the magnetic fields to eliminate
applied field components which could give rise to
uncontrollable displacements of the plasma laop
in the chamber.
The design of a typical Tokamak device is shown
schematically in Fig. 9. A toroidal discharge
chamber is mounted on the iron core of the trans-
former, by means of which a voltage is produced
which induces a longitudinal current in the plasma.
FIG.9. Schematic drawing of a Tokamak device.
The chamber consists of two casings with indi-
vidual evacuation. The material of the inner casing
(liner) is stainless steel 0. 2 - 0. 3 mm thick. The
liner is welded from separate bellows-type
cylinders with no insulation between the sections.
Before the start of each series of experiments the
liner is outgassed by prolonged heating in a high
vacuum at a temperature of about 400°C. After
heating the chamber is preconditioned by frequent
discharges in hydrogen, using heavy currents in
a weak longitudinal magnetic field. Inside the
liner there is a diaphragm of tungsten or molyb-
denum which limits the cross-section of the plasma
loop. This reduces the interaction between the
plasma and the liner wall, which would otherwise
burn out the wall. The diameter of the aperture in
the diaphragm is a few cm less than the inner dia-
meter of the liner. The outer casing of the cham-
ber is made of thick sheet copper. Its main func-
tion is to keep the plasma loop in equilibrium
through the formation of eddy currents. It has
longitudinal and transverse slits to avoid shorting
out the voltage which maintains the current in the
224
plasma and the azimuthal voltage which is pro-
duced when the quasi-steady longitudinal magnetic
field is switched on. The copper casing is insul-
ated from the liner by ceramic elements fitted in
the clearance between them and is water-cooled.
The liner and the space between it and the copper
casing are evacuated by separate vacuum pumps
(for evacuating the liner the use of oil pumps,
whether of the high-vacuum or pre-evacuation
type, is inadmissible).
The inside of the copper casing has conductors
attached to it; these generate within the chamber
a time-variable field which controls the position
of the plasma loop in the chamber. The location
of these conductors is shown schematically in
Fig. 10. For design reasons the conductors have
to be placed close, to the surface of the copper
casing, with the result that the field they produce
is severely weakened (approximately in the ratio
1 - bj/b 2 , where bx is the distance from the con-
ductor to the centre of the casing cross-section).
Therefore the currents in the controlling con-
ductors are quite high, creating problems with
mechanical stresses at bends and lead-out points.
Apart from the conductors inside the copper casing
for controlling the loop position, there are also
conductors outside the chamber producing a quasi-
steady transverse field (see Fig. 10). The coils
which create the longitudinal field are located on
the surface of the chamber. Their number and
design vary in different Tokamak devices. Cur-
rently they are usually made in the form of units
sealed in epoxy resin. In most of the devices
powerful capacitor banks provide the electrical
supply for the coils. The only exception was the
T-3, the largest of the Tokamak family. Here
the longitudinal magnetic field of up to 38 kOe was
produced by a generator with a pulse capacity of up
to approximately 75 000 kW. The same generator
will supply the new T-4 device.
The parameters of the devices on which the
basic program of experiments has been performed
in the last few years are given in Table I.
The T-4 device is at present being erected on
the site of the T-3. In this new facility, the longi-
tudinal magnetic field strength is to be raised to
50-55 kOe without any significant change in the
geometric parameters compared with the T-3.
FIG. 10. Position of control coils.

TABLE I. PARAMETERS OF THE
TOKAMAK DEVICES
R b a
max Hg max
Model
(cm) (cm) (cm) (kOe)
T-3(T-3A) 100 25 15 38
T-5 62 25 15 12
TM-3 40 12 8 30
The T-5 device has been dismantled and replaced
by the T-6, whose design incorporates important
modifications, the principal being that the metal
casings of the double-skin chamber have changed
places. The thick copper casing, covered on the
inside with a layer of vaporized gold (to improve
the vacuum properties), is in direct proximity to
the plasma loop. It consists of four sections
separated from each other by transverse slits. In
addition, each section has longitudinal slits (see
Fig. 11). The outer casing is welded up from
stainless steel bellows. The sections of the inner
casing are electrically insulated from the outer
casing, but they form a whole as regards the
vacuum. This design was chosen with the aim of
establishing the most favourable conditions for
suppressing magnetohydrodynamic instabilities of
the plasma loop. It can be assumed a priori that
the positioning of the conducting casing close to
the surface of the plasma will make it easier to
stabilize high magnetohydrodynamic perturbation
modes. We hope that experiments will shortly
confirm or refute these hypotheses.
LINER
CASING
COILS
TRANSFORMER
CORE
R=70cm
b=25cm
FIG.11. Schematic drawing of T-6 device.
7. PLASMA DIAGNOSTICS IN TOKAMAK
The main physical parameters describing the
plasma properties are T, , T. , the loop cross-
section radius a, and the current density j Q . Also
significant are characteristics such as the thermal
energy content of the plasma W, the mean confine-
ment time for thermal energy r£ and the mean
lifetime of the charged particles T . In addition,
TOKAMAK DEVICES
to understand a number of physical processes
occurring in the plasma, it is important to have
information on the density of neutral hydrogen
'max 1
max
atoms (or deuterium atoms) and the heavy impu-
rity ion density. As investigations have proceeded
(ms) (kA)
on the Tokamak program, the methods used
70 140 for determining these parameters have become
6 50 more sophisticated and their number has gradually
increased. Since in plasma physics it is not al-
6 40
ways possible to give an unambiguous interpreta-
tion to the results of individual measurements, it
is necessary as a matter of principle to have avail-
able as many independent experimental methods
as possible. By comparing the data obtained with
these methods we can cross-check our results
and arrive at fairly reliable conclusions.
Definite progress has been made in this direc-
tion in recent years but, all the same, the state
of the art of diagnostics in the Tokamak experi-
mental program cannot be considered fully satis-
factory. Many of the methods employed enable
us to measure the integral characteristics of the
plasma loop, but from these results we cannot
obtain information on the local values of such
parameters as ion temperature, current density
and impurity content. Only recently measure-
ments of electron temperature by laser scattering
were carried out on the T-3 device, enabling Te
to be determined as a function of r [23]. Such
measurements have not yet been performed on
other Soviet devices. For these reasons we
usually have to be content, when interpreting the
experimental data, with values averaged (by one or
another method) over the cross-section of the
plasma loop. This often results in some ambiguity
in the conclusions resulting from experimental
work.
Now to a description of the experimental methods
used in investigations on Tokamak devices. For
each current pulse it is usual to record a certain
standard group of oscillograms and also the read-
ings of the particular detecting elements used in
the experiment. A standard set contains oscillo-
grams of the current in the plasma and the cham-
ber e. m. f. plus the readings of a microwave-
interferometer measuring the mean electron den-
sity in the plasma loop [24]. In fact the microwave
interferometer is used to measure /nedJ>, where
the integration is performed along the vertical
close to the diameter of the plasma loop. There-
fore, to determine the mean linear value, one
must know the diameter of the plasma cross-
section, i. e. the quantity 2a. Microwave-inter-
ferometer measurements are usually performed
on a wavelength of 2 mm. Since the position of
the narrow beam of microwaves cutting the plasma
is fixed, variation of the quantity 6 during the pro-
cess will mean that the microwave-interferometer
readings at different moments of time will relate
to slightly different areas of the plasma cross-
section. However, this does not unduly affect the
interpretation of the measurements, since nor-
mally 6/a « 1. The ratio between the density
found by microwave-interferometric measure-
ments, averaging n e over the diameter of the loop
225
ARTSIMOVICH
cross-section, and the value found by averaging
ne over the whole volume of the plasma depends
on the form of the function n e (r). If it is assumed
that ne depends on r according to a parabolic law
(such an assumption is quite in line with the ex-
perimental data), the mean electron density found
by microwave interferometry should be 4/3 n e ,
where ne is the density averaged over the whole
plasma volume.
To measure the plasma density profile, i. e.
the function n e (r), multichannel microwave
interferometers are used to pass beams through
the plasma in two perpendicular directions [25]
(see Fig. 12). On the T-3 device up to 24 separate
beams were used for these measurements (because
they are so extensive and cumbersome these data
are not included in the standard set). By process-
ing the data from microwave probe measurements
one can determine ne as a function of the co-
ordinates and of time.
FIG.12. Multichannel microwave interferometer.
FIG.13. Positions of magnetic probes.
226
To measure the position of the plasma loop re-
lative to the chamber walls, magnetic probes are
used [26]. The magnetic probe is a small coil
which measures the azimuthal component of the
magnetic field H^. Two such probes (gx and g2
in Fig. 13) are placed in the same transverse
cross-section in the equatorial plane of the cham-
ber at equal distances from the copper casing 3 .
During the discharge pulse oscillograms are taken
of the sum of the signals from the two probes, u x ,
and their difference, u 2 . Using the results of
theoretical calculations relating to the equilibrium
of the plasma loop, it is possible to establish a
relationship between the magnetic probe readings
and the magnitude of the displacement 6. Assum-
ing that the copper casing has ideal conductivity
and neglecting the effect of the slits in it on the
eddy current distribution, we have the equation:
_ d(b 2 -a 2 ) u2 a£ a^_ b d£
" b* + d2 u7 +
b2"6H+2Rlna+2R
(7.1)
where d is half the distance between the probes.
In deriving this formula we assumed that the
probe signals deriving from the vacuum trans-
verse field Hx are compensated in the measuring
circuit.
Substituting expression (3. 2) in this equation for
6, we obtain an equation which relates the induct-
ance of the plasma pinch, Sf = 47rR[ln(b/a) 4-^/2]
and the parameter (i^ to the ratio u 2 / u j :
(7.2)
However, because of the finite conductivity of
the copper casing and the presence of slits in it,
the application of formulae (7.1) and (7.2) can re-
sult in a significant error in the determination of
the parameters of the plasma loop. Formulae
containing corrections for the non-ideality of the
casing are given in Section 9, where we discuss
the results of an experimental investigation of
plasma equilibrium in Tokamak systems.
Very important in Tokamak experiments are
measurements of the so-called "diamagnetic
effect", as they yield information on the total
thermal energy content of the plasma. The dia-
magnetic effect is a decrease in the flux <j> of the
longitudinal magnetic field through the plasma
loop cross-section with increasing plasma pres-
sure, given fixed values of He and I. Let 6$ de-
note the variation in the flux of the longitudinal
field across the plasma loop cross-section occur-
ring during a discharge in the chamber. In
3
In cases where it is necessary to check the vertical position of
the plasma loop, i . e . its displacement relative to the equatorial plane,
probes g 3 and g4 are also used.

Tokamak devices |60/0| « 1. Given this condition
it follows from Eq. (3. I ) 4 that
2TT
60 = [ 2 -27ra 2 p)
Strictly speaking, this equation is valid only for
a cylindrical plasma column. However, as has
been shown by Shafranov [27], the correction for
toroidality is insignificant under normal experi-
mental conditions.
Measurement of 60 enables us to find the value
of a 2 p and, consequently, the thermal energy of
the plasma, since
a2p = ^
where W is the thermal energy content per unit
length of the plasma loop. In principle, 60 can
be found by measuring the voltage across the ring
conductor which surrounds the plasma pinch.
Here we have to allow for the fact that the total
flux of the longitudinal field set up by the external
coils must not vary with the appearance of 60,
since the impedance of the feed sources is very
low. The main difficulty with these measurements
is that the relative flux variation is only of the
order of 10- 3 . Therefore, even very slight fluc-
tuations in the longitudinal field strength He during
the discharge pulse can be severely reflected in
the measurements. This method of determining
60 has a further drawback: the results of the
measurements can be severely distorted with only
slight changes in the orientation of the plasma loop
in relation to the measuring circuit. This dis-
advantage is almost entirely absent from another
method of measuring 60, based on the fact that
variation of the magnetic flux produces an e. m. f.
in the plasma which changes the current passing
through the longitudinal field coils. If the coil is
connected to a current source whose resistance
may be neglected, the following equation should
apply:
N60+
where N is the total number of turns in the coils,
5fk is their total inductance and Ik is the current
flowing in them. Figure 14 shows a circuit dia-
gram of the system used for measuring the dia-
magnetic effect in the T-3 device [28]. The
primary winding of the measuring transformer is
connected in series with the coils which generate
the longitudinal field. The terminals of the sec-
ondary winding are connected to two channels:
I the reference channel, and II the measuring
channel. The capacitances 0 ^ 0 2 and C3 are
selected so that the reference channel passes the
signal from the slowly rising field in the coils
(time constant s i s ) and filters out the diamagnetic
signal (time constant of the order of several tens
Assuming isotropic distribution of electron and ion velocities.
TOKAMAK DEVICES
(7.2a)
FILTER AXIAL flELO TRANSFORMER
COIL
FIG. 14. Circuit diagram for system used in measuring the diamagnetic
effect on the T-3 device.
(7.3)
FIG.15. Diamagnetic signal.
15 t,ms
of milliseconds). The biggest difficulty with these
measurements lay in the fact that the initial cur-
rent pulsations occurring during operation of the
ignitron rectifier (frequency 600 Hz) exceeded the
expected value of 6Ik by two orders of magnitude
under normal discharge conditions. To reduce
these pulsations a special LC-filter was inserted
in the longitudinal magnetic field supply circuit and
this was switched on and off during the experiment
by means of a pulse switch (as required for the
protection of the supply circuit). The filter enabled
the current pulsation amplitude to be reduced ap-
proximately a thousand times.
In the measuring circuit described above, the
oscillograph receives a signal which is proportional
to the derivative of 6Ik with respect to time. An
(7.4) additional circuit can be used for preliminary
integration of this signal, but in practice it is
more convenient to obtain oscillograms of the
derivative of 6Ik; it is then simpler to introduce
the necessary corrections in the data (for example
the correction for the effect of the conducting
liner). Figure 15 shows, by way of illustration,
the results of measurements of the diamagnetic
signal for the discharge pulse on the T-3 device.
The difference between the curves for 27rI2/c2H
and 60 gives the value of W.
Knowing the energy contained in the plasma we
can calculate the quantity |3V contained in formula
(3.6) for the displacement of the plasma loop
(j3^ = (4c 2 /3)W/l 2 ). Thus, two unknown para-
meters remain in this formula — the plasma cross-
section radius, a, and the internal inductance of
the plasma, i 4 . If the natural assumption is
made, that in the phase where the current distri-
bution has become steady it can be represented as
227
ARTSIMOVICH
a bell-shaped curve, ^ should be near to unity.
On this assumption it should be possible to find
the radius, a, from the displacement data ob-
tained by the magnetic probe method. However,
the requisite corrections must be made in the
formulae to allow for the effect of such factors
as the non-ideality of the conducting casing, the
presence of slits in it and the effect of stray fields
from the iron transformer. These corrections
depend on the design features of each experimental
device and also on the experimental conditions (in
particular the current pulse length in the plasma).
Inaccuracy in their determination can bear the
main responsibility for errors in the calculation
of the plasma cross-section radius and for the as-
sociated uncertainty in estimates of mean plasma
temperatures and electrical conductivity (see
below, Section 11).
A direct method of determining Te is to measure
the scattering of a laser beam by the plasma.
Such measurements were made on the T-3 de-
vice by a group of scientists from the Culham
Laboratory (Robinson, Peacock, Forrest,
Willcock), together with staff of the Atomic
Energy Institute (Strelkov, Gorbunov, Ivanov,
Lysenko, AnashinandSannikov)[23, 29]. Figure 16
shows the layout of the measuring equipment.
LASER DUMP
COLLECTING OPTICS AND
VERTICAL SCAN TORUS
PLASMA |
EBERT
SPECTROMETER VIEWING •
\ DUMP |
MAJOR AXIS
SCATTERING
VOLUME
OSCILLOSCOPES
FIG. 16. Measurement of laser scattering on T-3 device.
The light beam from the ruby laser passes through
the T-3 chamber in the vertical direction. The
light scattered by some small element in the
plasma volume (of the order of 0. 1 cm3 ) at angles
close to 90° is directed by means of an optical
system to the input of an Ebert spectrometer with
a diffraction grating. The spectrum of scattered
radiation on the short wave side is divided into
10 channels with a range of wavelengths 78 A wide
allocated to each of them. By means of fibre
optics the light pulse from each channel is trans-
mitted to the input of a separate photomultiplier.
In view of the large background set up by the in-
herent radiation of the plasma, the laser is used
in a giant pulse regime. The optical system makes
it possible, with the aid of a prismatic periscope
and lenses arranged in the path of the scattered
228
beam, to scan the scattering in the vertical direc-
tion, i. e. to measure the spectrum of radiation
scattered by elements of the plasma volume situ-
ated along the path of the primary laser ray at
different distances from the equatorial plane (the
laser beam is directed along the diameter of the
plasma loop cross-section). Thanks to this it is
possible to find the dependence of Te on r.
Another method of determining Te is based on
measurements of the diamagnetic effect. These
measurements supply directly the value of the
integral /n e (T e +7Tj )dS, where 7 is the ratio of
ion density to electron density and dS is an ele-
ment of area of the plasma cross-section. For a
pure hydrogen or deuterium plasma 7 = 1. How-
ever, the presence in the plasma of multiply-
charged impurities reduces 7. According to a
number of estimates its value fluctuates from 0. 8
to 0. 9 in actual experimental conditions. In most
of the previously reported investigations carried
out on Tokamak devices, calculations of the mean
value of Te on the basis of measurements of the
diamagnetic effect relied on the following as-
sumptions :
(a) The dependence of the electron temperature
on r obeys a parabolic law: Te (r) = Te (0)(l - r 2 / a | ) ,
where a T is the "temperature radius" of the plas-
ma. In principle it can be calculated by comparing
data derived from magnetic probes with the results
of measurements of the diamagnetic effect.
(b) The ratio Ti /T e and the coefficient5 7 are
independent of r.
I (c) The dependence of the electron density on r
also obeys a parabolic law: n e (r) =ne(0)(l - r 2 / a 2 ),
an being determined by multi-beam probing of the
plasma with microwave beams. The experimental
data obtained by this method do not differ much
from the accepted assumptions as to the form of
the function n e (r). However, the radius of the
plasma loop measured from the electron density
differs slightly from the "temperature" radius aT ,
an being greater than a T . The difference between
an and aT is easy to explain: an gives the limiting
size of the zone occupied by the plasma whereas
a T gives the radius of the hot zone within which the
current flows. The hot zone is narrower than the
total cross-section of the plasma owing to the pre-
sence of the diaphragm. The plasma in the zone
where r extends beyond the limits of the diaphragm
orifice has a very low temperature because of the
intensive cooling, although n e may not be very low
in this zone. The interaction of the plasma with
the edges of the diaphragm has the result that a
large proportion of the thermal flux associated
with thermal conductivity and diffusion (i. e. with
the charged particles) is released at the diaphragm
o
within the limits of a narrow annular zone. There-
fore, if in the determination of a T we do not use
the data obtained with magnetic probes (the inter-
pretation of which is complicated by the need to
introduce a series of corrections), it may be
5
Arbitrariness in selecting the value of y is only weakly reflected in
the value of T e , since the ion temperature is always considerably (usually
several times) lower than the electron temperature.

assumed that the temperature radius is approxi-
mately equal to the distance from the axis of the
plasma loop to the edge of the diaphragm). Given
the above assumptions, we have
n e (T e +yTl )dS = §7
(7.5)
where n e (rad) denotes the mean electron density
measured by single-beam probing:
Using formula (7. 5) we can find the mean value of
Te +TTJ . The greatest error in the above pro-
cedure is associated with the arbitrary choice of
a value for a T . The effect of this can be con-
siderably mitigated if, instead of calculating the
mean temperature over the cross-section, we find
the mean temperature per individual plasma elec-
tron. Then the calculations are independent of our
choice respecting the functions Te (r) and Tj (r).
With this method of calculation we have
(7.7)
__
Here we can take for Ne either the total number
of electrons per cm length of the plasma loop or
the number of electrons per cm within the inner
section of the diaphragm. The resulting inaccuracy
in the calculation of the mean value of Te + yTj is
no more than 15%. In normal experimental con-
ditions 7T. « Tj , so that a certain degree of un-
certainty in the selection of the mean value of ?Tj
(in the experiment we measure the maximum value
of Tj ) does not_introduce any appreciable error
in the value of Te as determined from formula
(7. 5) or (7. 7). The mean value of Te calculated
for one plasma electron exceeds the value of Te
averaged over the volume of the plasma loop, the
ratio of these two means being 1. 35-1.45. In what
follows we will normally give the electron tempera-
ture averaged over the particles (not over the
volume).
The method of calculating Te from the diamag-
netic effect has been in use for many years. In
terms of accuracy and the amount of information
obtained, it is rather inferior to the direct method
relying on Thomson scattering of a laser beam;
but it is simpler to perform and will therefore
probably continue to be used for approximate cal-
culations in the future.
For ion temperature measurements in Tokamak
devices a method originally developed by Afrosimov
and co-workers is employed [30]. This involves
measuring the energy spectrum of fast neutral
atoms of hydrogen or deuterium produced during
charge-exchange of plasma protons (or deuterons)
on slow atoms which enter the plasma loop from
the surrounding space (mainly through desorption
of gas from the liner walls). The flux of fast
atoms passes through a collimator with narrow
slits and into the measuring device, which is con-
TOKAMAK DEVICES
nected to the outlet stub of the discharge chamber.
The collimator separates atoms flying along the
narrow channel close to the horizontal diameter of
the plasma loop cross-section. In the measuring
device the beam of atoms at first passes through a
section in which a transverse electrical field
screens the charged particles. Then the beam
passes into a chamber filled with nitrogen at a
pressure of 10' 3 - 10"4 Torr. In this chamber
some of the fast atoms are ionized in collisions
with nitrogen molecules (the so-called stripping
process), and the ions thus recovered are analysed
for mass and energy by their deflection in the
electrical and magnetic fields. They are recorded
either with an open electronic multiplier or with a
scintillation counter into which pass secondary
electrons knocked out by the ions from the target
and accelerated by the electric field. In both
cases a count is made of the pulses produced by
the impingement of separate particles. The ion
temperature is determined from the energy spec-
trum of the charge-exchange atoms. This is a
legitimate procedure provided that a local Maxwellian
distribution characterized by uniform temperature
for both free and trapped particles of any velocity
direction has time to become established in the ion
component. In actual fact, when we use this
method we measure the energy spectrum of ions
whose velocities form very small angles with the
plane of the plasma loop cross-section. These are
trapped particles of a special type, for which the
quantity a = (ud/vM )(H0/H(/)) may considerably ex-
ceed unity; their trajectories accordingly differ
in form from the normal "banana" trajectories.
In particular, these trajectories must be greatly
affected by even relatively slight deviations from
symmetry of the longitudinal field (cf. Section 2).
The large vertical displacements due to drift can
make the distribution of particles belonging to this
group asymmetric over the plasma volume. The
greater the energy of the particles the more pro-
nounced this asymmetry should be, since with
increasing particle energy the drift velocity rises
and the displacement along the y axis associated
with it becomes larger. Some indications of
the existence of such an effect have been obtained
in various experiments [31]. However, the data
obtained on the asymmetry effect so far are frag-
mentary and we are accordingly disinclined to
interpret them. From what we have said the con-
clusion might be drawn that the results of ion
temperature measurements should be treated with
circumspection. However, recent measurements
on the T-6 device confirmed the validity of the
above method of determining T{ (0). The value of
Ti (0) was found to be the same for free and
trapped particles.
In experiments with a deuterium plasma — under
conditions where sufficiently effective heating of
the ions is achieved — the maximum Tj in the
plasma pinch can also be measured from the
intensity of the neutron flux. Neutron radiation
has been recorded in experiments on the T-3 de-
vice [32]. It can be assumed fairly certainly that
this is due solely to the thermonuclear effect. In
229
ARTSIMOVICH
the deuteron energy spectrum the proportion of
very fast particles is too small to generate any
appreciable neutron radiation through the "target"
effect, i.e. through collisions with slow plasma
deuterons or with deuterium atoms adsorbed on
the liner walls and on the edges of the diaphragm.
Simple estimates have indicated that the "target"
effect, in the conditions of the experiments per-
formed so far, is several orders of magnitude
lower than the recording threshold. For recording
neutrons, boron counters in a paraffin assembly
have been used. In check tests it has proved quite
easy to separate neutron radiation from the back-
ground of hard X-rays.
To find the maximum temperature of the plasma,
T. , from the neutron flux it is normally necessary
to know the shape of the T4 (r) functions and the
radial density distribution (this is known from the
microwave-interferometric data). However, given
the exponential dependence of the reaction rate on
ion temperature, any arbitrariness in the choice
of a law of temperature distribution over the loop-
cross-section will be reflected slightly in the cal-
culated values of Tj (0) at the relatively low ion
temperature values which are characteristic of
experiments performed on the T-3A device.
Tj(O) values calculated from neutron radiation
intensity have shown good agreement with data
based on analyses of the energy spectra of charge-
exchange atoms. Figure 17 presents, for compari-
son, curves showing the variation of Ti (0) during
the discharge, plotted from analytical data on
charge-exchange atom energies and from measure-
ments of neutron yield, using two different assump-
tions regarding the shape of the Tj (r) function.
Ti.eV
500
300
100
1 1 H 1 V— I 1
10 20 30 50 60 70
t ms
FIG. 17. Variation of ion temperature during discharge:
Curve 1 - from data obtained by measuring the energy spectrum of
charge-exchange atoms;
Curve 2 - from measurements of neutron yield, assuming a parabolic
curve for the function Tj(r):
Curve 3 — from neutron measurements, assuming constant Tj over
plasma cross-section.
The agreement between data obtained with the two
methods described increases our confidence in the
validity of both and relieves those doubts which
were expressed earlier regarding the method
based on analysis of fast atom energy spectra.
To get a rough estimate of the value of Tj in the
plasma volume we can also use measurements of
Doppler broadening of the spectral lines of hydro-
gen and deuterium. Experiments staged for this
purpose have been described by Mirnov and
230
Semenov [33]. At a specific moment a jet of
hydrogen is injected into a deuterium plasma by
means of a pulse valve, penetrating the plasma
pinch from above. During charge exchange of
the slow hydrogen atoms on deuterium ions, deu-
terium atoms are formed in the surface layer of
the plasma pinch which possess sufficient velocity
to penetrate deep down into the plasma. The ap-
pearance of an additional flux of neutral atoms in
the hot zone of the deuterium plasma causes a
sharp increase in the intensity of the Balmer lines
of the deuterium series, broadened by the Doppler
effect. The radiation is observed from a zone
several centimetres below the equatorial plane of
the plasma loop in order to reduce the contribution
from processes taking place in the region where
the hydrogen jet is bombarding the plasma surface
(in this region the excited deuterium and hydrogen
atoms should have a low temperature).
We would assume that, if the width of the deu-
terium and hydrogen lines can be measured soon
enough after the opening of the pulse valve, the
deuterium lines should be broadened much more
than the hydrogen lines (since the hydrogen atoms
will be concentrated for the most part close to the
periphery of the plasma loop and will penetrate
only slowly towards the centre). By measuring
the distribution of intensities over the profile of
the observed Da or Dp line we can venture an
estimate of the mean ion temperature. A draw-
back of this method of determining the mean value
of Tj is the slight uncertainty in the interpretation
of the results obtained. The measured spectral
profile results from a superposition of lines oc-
curring in different elements of the plasma volume.
The contribution of individual elements to the
profile of the recorded line depends on the unknown
neutral atom distribution over the plasma cross-
section. Therefore the measured Doppler broad-
ening supplies a value for Tj corresponding to a
kind of average not very precisely determined —
taken over the various sections of the plasma
volume. None the less, the data from such
measurements can be very useful, since they
serve as an indicator — and permit a comparison —
of the efficiency of ion heating in different experi-
mental conditions. Hitherto this method has
produced only fragmentary results, so that it is
still difficult to perform a quantitative comparison
of these results with those supplied by the much
more widely used method based on analysis of the
energy spectra of charge-exchange atoms. On the
qualitative side there are no contradictions be-
tween the two groups of data (the mean value of Tj
measured by Doppler broadening is about half the
value of Tj (0) measured by the normal method).
Apart from the experimental methods outlined
above, which make a fundamental contribution to
our information on plasma behaviour in Tokamak
devices, the following diagnostic methods are
also employed:
(a) Intensity measurement of the spectral lines
of hydrogen and multiply-charged impurity ions
[34,35].
 TOKAMAK DEVICES

(b) The bolometer method of measuring energy

losses from plasma due to electromagnetic radia-
tion and the flux of charge-exchange atoms. Low
inertia, semiconductor bolometers are used for
these measurements [36].
(c) Measurements of magnetic-field perturba-
tion and the flux of charge-exchange atoms. Low
inertia, semiconductor bolometers are used for
these measurements [36], .
6 and <p [37].
(d) Measurements of the intensity of soft X-rays
produced in bremsstrahlung (electron absorption)
and in radiative recombination processes [38]. 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40

i (e)
8. RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS z 1
ON TOKAMAK DEVICES

Let us now proceed to the experimental data ac- 10 20 30 40

t,ms
cumulated in the course of investigations onTokamak
devices. The aim of these investigations is to FIG. 18. Oscillograms of T-3 discharge:
devise, by elucidating the physical mechanism of (a) current
(b) voltage
transport processes in a plasma loop (diffusion, (c) mean electron density
thermal conductivity, passage of current), effec- (d) energy content in J/cm
tive methods of obtaining a dense plasma with a (e) H a line intensity.
high ion temperature and a long energy confine-
ment time. To make a correct assessment of the
experimental data, we must bear in mind that
differences in the design and operating conditions
of the various Tokamak devices greatly affect the
choice of initial discharge conditions and are also
reflected in the characteristics of the processes
being studied.
This makes it somewhat difficult to correlate the
results obtained on the various devices.
To correlate the results of the experiments with
the basic problems of the scientific program
performed on the Tokamak devices, we shall present
the experimental material in the following order:
1. The general characteristics of the discharge
processes;
2. Results of investigation of plasma equilibrium
conditions;
3. Results of investigation of plasma stability
conditions;
4. Energy balance laws, for the plasma as a
whole and separately for the ion component;
5. Data characterizing the diffusion rate and the
particle confinement time in the plasma; and 4 5 6 t.ms
6. Results of measurements of the electrical FIG. 19. Oscillograms of TM-3 discharge:
conductivity of plasma. Curves for variation of current, displacement 6, voltage, electron density
Because of the close connection between equilib- and Hg line intensity.
rium, stability and energy balance in plasma the
above division of experimental information is microwave-interferometer data and a curve showing
somewhat artificial, but it has its advantages for a variations in the total thermal energy content of
general survey of the investigations. the plasma, derived from an oscillogram of the
Figure 18 shows experimental data relating to diamagnetic effect. In this case we are concerned
typical experimental conditions on the T-3 device with the formation of a stable plasma loop. The
[29] (initial hydrogen pressure 10~4mm, longitudi- oscillograms show clear fluctuations only during a
nal field strength 25 kOe, maximum current 90 kA, brief period after the commencement of the pro-
current pulse length 40 ms). Apart from the oscil- cess. The intensity of radiation of neutral hy-
lograms of current, voltage and Ha line intensity, drogen in the zone far from the diaphragm de-
we present a graph showing the variation of max- creases in 5-10 ms by more than 20 times com-
imum electron density ne(0) calculated from pared with the maximum value observed in the

231
ARTSIMOVICH

I field strength He- Also of significance are the

q=2
transverse controlling field strength H±,the current
pulse shape in the plasma and the vacuum con-
dition of the discharge chamber walls, which is
difficult to allow for. With an initial hydrogen
pressure exceeding pmax (see Fig. 20) many times,
the non-steady phenomena disappear. However,
in this range, because of the high plasma density,
its temperature is relatively low. The conditions
/ OHMIC WITH under which non-steady phenomena are observed
' LOW TEMPERATURE will be discussed in more detail in Section 10.

9. PLASMA EQUILIBRIUM IN TOKAMAK

FIG.20. Zones of stable and unstable discharges.

The equilibrium conditions for plasma loops have

been studied mainly on the T-5 device [2,39,40].
A transverse cross-section of the chamber of this
device is illustrated in Fig.22. Inside the chamber,
in the space between the liner and the copper casing,
are located the control coils by means of which it
is possible to generate any time-variable Hx field
required. In particular, by varying Hx in propor-
tion to I, it is possible to obtain a time-constant
additional displacement of the pinch, 6U =bH./H (b),
of a given value.
Variation of the characteristics of the plasma
pinch during the discharge pulse has the result
that the equilibrium displacement of the pinch 6 is
a function of time. Figure 23 shows signals from
the magnetic probes u 2 , which determine 6 for
FIG.21. Current and voltage oscillograms for non-steady conditions. steady and non-steady conditions in the T-3 device
[41]. These data correspond to a case where the
supplementary transverse magnetic field H± inside
initial discharge phase. In the region of the dia-
phragm the radiation intensity also drops sharply LINER
over the same period but stays an order of magni-
tude higher than in the other sections of the dis- CASING
charge chamber.
Figure 19 shows similar oscillograms obtained
CONTROL COILS
under stable conditions on the TM-3 device. The
data relate to "normal" processes, during which
the plasma pinch interacts slightly with the edges LOBES OF
DIAPHRAGM
of the limiting diaphragm throughout the discharge
pulse. Processes of this type occur in a relatively
narrow range of initial experimental conditions.
Figure 20 shows schematically the range of values
of I and p0 corresponding to stable conditions when
H0 = const. The restriction at low pressures is
FIG. 22. Schematic drawing of T-5 device.
associated with the absence of breakdown in the gas
whenp o <p min (in our experiments p min was
~ 5X 10" 5 Torr). Excursions beyond the limits
STABLE PLASMA
of the hatched zone with increasing discharge
current, just as with increasing initial hydrogen
pressure, have the effect that the process becomes
very unsteady. Figure 21 shows voltage oscillo-
grams for the non-steady process with the re-
current characteristic voltage collapse. At the
same instants intense flashes of plasma lumino-
sity are observed in the region of the diaphragm. UNSTABLE PLASMA
The range of I and p 0 values at which the process
has a steady-state character depends on several
factors, principally the geometrical dimensions of U 8 12 16 20 t.ms
the plasma pinch and the longitudinal magnetic FIG.23. Displacement of plasma in stable and unstable conditions.

232

1.2
0.8
OX
I I I where Hj. is the transverse field set up in the
10 20 30 t,ms
FIG.24. Variation of 0^ during discharge.
the discharge chamber was close to zero. In
steady conditions there is a gradual increase in
the displacement of the plasma loop outwards. In
non-steady conditions relaxation-type oscillations
are observed on the displacement curve 6 (t). The
smooth outward drift of the plasma pinch is inter-
rupted by a sharp veer inwards followed by a fresh
outward drift, and so on. The inward veering of
the pinch coincides in time with sharp undershoots
on the voltage oscillogram.
Substituting the magnetic probe readings in for-
mula (7.2), one can establish that the outward
movement of the pinch is associated with an in-
crease in the sum (5f/47rR)+/3(/); when the pinch
veers inwards the value of this sum abruptly
decreases.
As already indicated, /B^ can be determined in-
dependently from measurements of flux variations
6 0 in the longitudinal magnetic field. A typical
curve for the change of jS^ with time in steady
conditions on the T-3 device is shown in
Fig. 24. /3«p varies little during the phase of current
rise in the plasma and increases rapidly in the
final stage of the discharge pulse when the current
in the plasma is decaying. In non-steady con-
ditions the value of /3<p fluctuates; it increases
before the moment of voltage collapse and drops
thereafter. The amplitude of these oscillations,
as a rule, is very low.
A detailed comparison of the results of probe and
diamagnetic measurements shows that variations
of $v alone cannot explain the the above features in
the behaviour of the sum (Sf/^irR)+^(p, i . e . it must
be concluded that the inductance of the plasma
pinch £? varies during the discharge. In steady
conditions S? is an increasing function of time.
In non-steady conditions the pinch inductance in-
creases in the intervals between voltage collapse
and decreases abruptly at the moment of collapse.
Analysis of the experimental data shows that these
variations in inductance must be due mainly to
changes in the cross-sectional radius of the plasma
pinch. This conclusion is confirmed by photo-
graphs of light scans of the plasma pinch [42].
It should be noted that the formulae used in pro-
cessing the probe measurements were derived on
the assumption that the conducting casing has
infinite conductivity and no gaps. In addition, the
TOKAMAK DEVICES
effect of transverse currents shorted round the
diaphragm was neglected.
Calculations indicate that the presence of a t r a n s -
verse break in the casing, assuming the latter to
have ideal conductivity, is equivalent to the intro-
duction of an additional transverse field of intensity
H10) (9.1)
plasma pinch volume by internal and external con-
ductors in the absence of a casing, H x o is the
equilibrium confining transverse field given by
formula (3.6), and 6eff is the effective width of the
gap, which considerably exceeds its actual width.
Formula (9.1) was checked in special model
experiments on the T-5 and TM-3 devices. The
plasma pinch was modelled with a thin current-
carrying ring conductor. The results of the mea-
surements were in good agreement with the theo-
retical data.
In order to allow for the effect of the gaps in the
casing, h should be substituted in formula (3.2)
for 6. This leads to a certain change in formulae
(7.1 and 7.2), which relate the pinch displacement
6 and the sum (Sf /47rR) + /3 to the readings of the
magnetic probes. In the absence of additional
transverse magnetic fields the above formulae then
assume the form
d b' - U a2 b
6= 2 + 1
2 2
ux +
2R ln
a
b + d
b'-
2R d/ 1+a 2R
b2+d2
(9.2)
2Rd ^_
4?rR 2 2 u
b +d
(9 3
- >
where a = 6eff /2TTR. The value of a varies from one
device to another: 0.17 in T-3, 0.07 in TM-3 and
0.4 in T - 5 . Longitudinal slits in the casing, if
positioned with cp = o, IT do not appreciably upset the
distribution of the image currents induced in it and
the effect of these gaps on the pinch equilibrium
conditions should therefore be negligibly small.
The longitudinal joints assume significance when
9 = ± 7r/2, as is the case in the T-5 device. Thanks
to this the value of the summary coefficient a calcu-
lated for this device is approximately 0.75.
Analysis of expressions (9.2) and (9.3) shows
that neglecting the effect of the gaps can greatly
distort the absolute values of 6 and (Sf/AirR) +^(p
determined from the magnetic probe readings but
233
ARTSIMOVICH

does not change the qualitative character of the 6

(opt I
6 H -M6 H
H= 6 H
above relationships. The magnitude of the e r r o r 160
depends on the strength of the additional transverse J40
magnetic field. It can be reduced to zero if the >
20
currents inthe controlling conductors are so selected _ 0
that the field they produce (in the absence of a
casing) is equal to the equilibrium confining field.
20
The effect of the finite conductivity of the casing
on the results of the measurements can be esti- «. 0
x
mated from Eq.(3.8). These evaluations show
•<
that, if the effect of finite conductivity is neglected o
U">
in treating the results of the probe measurements, 3
the value of (£f/4wR) + /3<p at the end of the process
is somewhat overestimated.
Let us consider now the effect of the diaphragm
on the equilibrium displacement of the plasma
pinch. The size of the pinch radius, with the pinch 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
t,ms t,ms t,ms
in equilibrium, should obviously satisfy the condition
FIG.25. Oscillograms of discharges on T-5 device with different
6 -6, (9.4) controlling fields.

where bd is the radius of the diaphragm aperture

and 6d is the displacement of the centre of the tf.CGSE 'max Bo 5
1S 21k A 6kOe tfxitf*
diaphragm aperture relative to the centre of the 3-10 + 17kA 6kO«
o
casing cross-section. This condition, given fixed UkA 6kO< Aflxitf"
values of fi^, £j and 6H, determines the range of
values of a at which the pinch can be in equilibrium.
The width of the equilibrium diagram with respect
to 6H decreases as the curvature of the torus and
the number of joints in the casing increase. In
particular, on the T-5 device, where R/b=2.5 and
the longitudinal joints are situated at 9 = ± ir/2, it
is noticeably narrower than on the T-3 device.
This is reflected in the fact that in the T-5 device
the dependence of the plasma parameters on 6H is
stronger than in the other devices. Figure 25
shows oscillograms of the discharge pulse taken
on the T-5 device for three different values of Hx
(the initial discharge conditions remained constant).
The smooth oscillograms for voltage and other
discharge characteristics are obtained for values - 6 - 4 - 2 2 4 6
of 6H corresponding to the quantities a/bd = 1 on
the equilibrium diagram. Increasing 6H by a factor
of 1.5 or 2, and also complete disconnection of the FIG.26. Variation of plasma electrical conductivity with displacement.
controlling field, results in destabilization of the
discharge. Selection of a value for 6H has a power-
ful effect on the electrical conductivity of the plasma 40 -
(Fig.26).
Note that, according to the equilibrium diagram,
there should normally be no equilibrium states of

J •
20
the plasma pinch in T-5 when the controlling field
is disconnected. None the less, the plasma energy
confinement time in these discharge conditions
exceeds by more than an order of magnitude the "o 0

\\
time Tn «N/(mjaR)/k(T e + T J , which characterizes
the plasma loss rate in the absence of equilibrium.
This means that some mechanism which we have -20 -
not allowed for must be participating in the main-
tenance of equilibrium. The mechanism in question
may be a shorting of the transverse drift currents
-40 •
through the diaphragm and the walls of the dis-
charge chamber — an assumption which is
strengthened by the dependence of the current I 3 2 1 0 - 1
in the circuit through the diaphragm on the magni- 6H/6H(optimum)
tude of 6H (Fig. 27). With optimum 6 H (centre column FIG.27. Variation of current on diaphragm with plasma displacement.

234

of the oscillograms on Fig. 25) the current passing
between the plasma and the diaphragm is small and
its effect on plasma equilibrium conditions in the
main discharge phase can be disregarded. A tran-
sition to values of 6H at which the equilibrium
should be broken leads to a sharp increase in the
current I K . In these conditions the current passing
between the diaphragm and the liner is also con-
siderable, which indicates that part of the drift
currents may also pass through the liner.
Calculations show that when Ix=£ 0 the equilibrium
displacement of the pinch must be
6 = 6n (9.5)
where 60 is determined from expression (3.2) and
the coefficient £ is (a(b 2 - a2)/8R) cH e . The
dependence of the pinch displacement 6 on the
transverse current Ix has been investigated on the
T-5 device. Two metal strips were inserted into
the plasma pinch in its upper and lower parts and
a voltage from an external source was applied
between these strips. The relationship between 6
and IJL/I 2 obtained in these experiments was linear,
in agreement with formula (9. 5), and the coefficient
of proportionality was close to the theoretical.
Thus currents shorted through the diaphragm are
significant for the confinement of a plasma pinch
only when the conducting casing and the additional
transverse magnetic fields are not capable of en-
suring plasma equilibrium. In this case the dis-
charge characteristics have a clearly non-steady
form. In steady-state discharge conditions, i . e .
in the absence of appreciable fluctuations on the
voltage oscillograms, these currents play a small
part only at the very beginning and at the very end
of the pulse process, when the longitudinal current
in the plasma is small.
The main difficulty in elucidating the precise
balance of forces acting on the pinch along its major
radius lies in the fact that at the present time we
do not have independent methods of measuring
values such as £. and p ( l . If we assume that the
plasma pressure is isotropic, i . e . that the longi-
tudinal pressure pn is equal to the transverse
pressure p± determined from diamagnetic mea-
surements, then in most cases the inductance of
the pinch gj obtained from H field asymmetry
measurements is in reasonable agreement with the
natural assumption that the pinch radius is limited
by the diaphragm (a=bd - 6), and the current density
is distributed according to a near-parabolic law
(Hi «1). However, in experiments on the TM-3
device with high initial hydrogen pressure, a range
of discharge conditions was discovered which did
not fit into this simple scheme [43]. The sum
Hi + 8n ( pn +p x )/H 2 determined from magnetic probe
readings was anomalously large (~2 - 7 when
87rp^/H|~0.2). TO explain this effect with isotro-
pic plasma pressure, one might assume the presence
in the plasma of reverse longitudinal currents.
More likely, however, is the assumption that in
TOKAMAK DEVICES
this case p (| » p x . Such a situation might occur,
for example, if a beam of relativistic electrons,
scattered by the electric field and carrying a con-
siderable proportion of the longitudinal current,
were present in the plasma.
10. PLASMA STABILITY
IN THE TOKAMAK
As we pointed out in Section 5, the plasma loop
in a Tokamak device should be stable when q(a) is
high enough. In steady-state conditions with a
bell-shaped current density distribution it is suf-
ficient for q(a) to exceed 3.
Experimental data are in agreement with this
prediction. With a large value of q (a) the oscil-
lation level on oscillograms of the electrical and
optical characteristics of the process is low, which
is a qualitative indication of the stability of the
process. A quantitative indication of stability is
provided by the mean energy confinement time in
the plasma, T^, since this value is a direct mea-
sure of the efficiency of the magnetic confinement
of the plasma. Figure 28 gives data showing the
relationship between TE and the current on the T-3
device [44]. These data relate to a fixed moment
of time after the start of the process and were ob-
tained for different values of H e . The experimental
points corresponding to each value of HQ are joined
by separate solid lines. Curve (1) relates to the
minimum longitudinal field strength, curve (3) to
the maximum value of H 0 . If He is fixed, TE in-
creases with rising I to a specific limit dependent
on H0 and then falls off rapidly. With increasing
H0 the value of TE continues to increase up to the
next peak and so on. The positions of the peaks
roughly correspond to q ( a ) » 3 , i . e . the point at
which the stability boundary of the plasma loop is
crossed.
Additional information on plasma stability can be
obtained by analysing the correlation between oscil-
lations of the current magnetic field H^ at different
points close to the surface of the plasma loop [37].
A system consisting of numerous magnetic probes
located at various points of the plasma loop and
34k0e
Hg=26kOe
20 30 40 50 60 70 80
I max.kA
FIG.28. Energy conservation time versus current on T-3 device.
235
ARTSIMOVICH
along its azimuth is used for this purpose. With
it one can analyse the oscillations not only in terms
of frequency but also in terms of geometric mode.
In normal experimental conditions the current in
the plasma undergoes a relatively sharp increase
in the initial discharge phase and then changes
slowly. Analysis of the oscillations recorded by
the probe system shows that in the current rise
phase oscillations with azimuthalmodes m =... 6,5,4
and longitudinal mode = 1 develop successively in
the surface layer of the plasma. Each mode of
oscillation attains a maximum amplitude at some
instant and then decays, giving place to the fol-
lowing one with lower m number (see Fig. 29). The
oscillations occur at the instants when m passes
through integral values. These oscillatory pro-
cesses have a regular character and do not disrupt
the stability of the plasma loop as a whole. F r e -
quency and phase analysis of the oscillations shows
that they are waves travelling over the plasma
surface in the azimuthal direction. The linear
velocity of these waves is 1-3 X 105 c m / s . It is
natural to assume that what is taking place here is
a rotation of the surface layers of the plasma in
the crossed Er and Ho fields. On this assumption
the intensity of the radial electrical field E r is of
the order of several tens of V/cm and the plasma
is positively charged. From the modulation one
can judge what fraction of the current participates
in these perturbations of the plasma surface: it
is less than 1% of the total current in the plasma.
l.kA
1004-
50 t.ms
«»_/
FIG.29. Perturbations in initial stage of discharge.
When q(a)>3 the perturbations occur only in the
current rise phase. They are absent throughout
the greater part of the discharge pulse. If with the
same discharge pulse shape the peak current is
raised to a level where q(a)<3, the perturbation
with mode m = 4 will be followed by a third mode
whose domain can encompass a considerable part
of the discharge pulse. With a further increase in
236
I the perturbations with m = 3 become unstable; as
they develop, breaks occur in the voltage oscillo-
grams and flashes of hydrogen luminescence start
to occur, indicating a strong interaction of the
plasma with the diaphragm and the liner walls.
The maximum current perturbations (azimuthal
non-uniformity) amount to 0.5 - 1 kA.
A possible explanation for this change in the na-
ture of the process is that when q(a) attains a cer-
tain value between 2 and 3, the magnitude of q in
the axial zone becomes less than 1. Consequently,
the stability in the central zone may be disrupted.
On the basis of this assumption we might expect
that, if the current were sharply increased, starting
from the quasi-steady state with q(a)>3, then
during some phase before the bell-shaped current
distribution was re-established stable confinement
of the plasma would be observed with 2 < q (a) < 3.
The pulse shape shown in Fig. 30 should correspond
to a process of this kind. Under these conditions
the perturbation with m = 3 should appear at a cer-
tain instant and then be damped.
20 60
m=3
20 40 t,ms
FIG.30. Regime with secondary current rise.
Experiments have confirmed the possibility of
such an excursion into the range of lower q(a)
values. However, the question as to how long a
plasma can be stably confined with a stability
margin close to 2 has not yet been adequately
investigated.
The facts outlined above also admit of another
interpretation [45, 16], according to which the onset
of instability is associated not with a violation of
the criterion q ( r ) > l deep within the plasma loop,
but with the occurrence of large-scale surface
waves in the cold outer layer of the plasma close
to resonance values of q(a) = m. The experimental
data available at the present time are inadequate
to allow a choice between the two hypotheses. How-
ever, in connection with the experiments we have
been discussing, one remark of a general nature
should be made. The behaviour of the plasma with
q ^ 3 must be greatly affected by the choice of a
current time-variance law: because of the skin
effect, the form of the I(t) function has a direct
influence on the radial current density profile, on

which depends the magnetohydrodynamic stability
of the loop.
Plasma instability in Tokamak devices may have
origins other than the one we have described, viz.
a certain limiting value of I being exceeded for a
given H e . An unusual form of stability disturbance
is observed when the intensity of the supplemen-
tary controlling field Hx is so selected that the
displacement 6 is too large and increases with
time. In these conditions the plasma pinch is dis-
placed outwards and may enter into a strong inter-
action with the diaphragm at some moment. On
the voltage oscillograms the times at which these
interactions take place are marked by sharp voltage
drops (see Fig. 21). Analysing the whole set of
oscillograms for the process, we find that at these
instants the cross-sectional radius, a, increases
abruptly so that a sudden cooling of the plasma and
a subsequent contraction of the loop (reduction of
displacement) ensues. To avoid these effects one
must make a correct choice of the Hx versus time
relationship (see Fig. 31, which shows the shape
of the HJL (t) curve in normal experimental conditions
on the T-3 device). However, even in cases where
optimum variance of Hj_ is selected this type of
instability may still appear. It occurs when, with
HjOel
80
10 20 30
FIG.31. Variation of transverse controlling field during discharge.
given values of I and HQ the mean value of the
plasma electron density exceeds a certain critical
value nK(nK increases with rising I and Hfl.)
It also depends on the vacuum conditions in the
chamber and may vary in the course of a long
series of discharge pulses, decreasing as the
plasma becomes contaminated with impurities
from the walls. In typical experimental conditions
on the T"3 device, with a properly conditioned
chamber and basic parameters I«100 kA and
H e « 25-30 kOe, the value of nK is 4 X 10 13 cm" 3 .The
reason for the deterioration in stability with in-
creasing plasma density is still unclear. One pos-
sible explanation is that the increase in nK reduces
the temperature of the plasma surface layers,
thereby initiating the development of resistive
instabilities.
TOKAMAK DEVICES
11. PLASMA ENERGY BALANCE IN TOKAMAK
The efficiency of magnetic confinement on the
Tokamak devices must be assessed from an ana-
lysis of the plasma energy balance [46]. The
energy balance equation takes the form
dW . W
(11.1)
where W is the thermal energy of the plasma
and Q the Joule losses. Both these values will
be referred to unit length of the plasma loop.
The parameter TE denotes the mean thermal ener-
gy confinement time in the plasma (with no divi-
sion into plasma components). To find TE we need
to know the energy content of the plasma (as a
function of time) and the Joule losses. The first
of these quantities can be determined by two in-
dependent methods: (1) from measurements of the
diamagnetic effect and (2) from measurements of
Te by laser scattering, of Tj from the energy
spectrum of charge-exchange atoms and of n e
from data obtained by microwave interferometer
analysis, or from measurements of the absolute
intensity of scattered laser radiation. The results
obtained with these two methods of determining
W are in satisfactory agreement [29] (see Fig. 32).
However, in cases where not only the maximum
value of Te on the axis of the plasma loop but also
the radial electron temperature distribution is
measured by laser scattering, the second method
yields a more accurate value for W. The value of
Q, equal to Rjl 2 where Ri is the plasma loop
resistance per cm (length), can be found from the
equation
I2RX = IE - (11.2)
dt
t,ms
where I is the current and E is the longitudinal
electric field strength (I and E in the c. g. s.
system).
J/cm
-wL
J/cm
FIG.32. Comparison of energy stored in the plasma, calculated from
laser, microwave and corpuscular measurements, with energy determined
by the diamagnetic effect.
237
ARTSIMOVICH

The quantity Si, denoting the inductance of the

plasma loop per unit length, is equal to

= 21n^ (11.3)
a 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36

In this formula Ai is the internal inductance of the

plasma (per unit length). An error can be intro-
duced in the calculation of £?i by the inaccuracy
with which the radius of the plasma loop cross-
section a is known. In the experiments performed
8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 t.ms
on the T-3 device up till 1969, formulae were
used, derived in plasma-loop equilibrium theory, FIG.33. Discharge current and variation of electron temperature with
for the case where the copper casing has infinite time on the T-3 device.
conductivity and no slits, to calculate a from
the readings of the magnetic probes and the
measurements of other electrical parameters.
However, as we have shown above, for real ex-
perimental conditions appreciable corrections Te(O)
keV
must be introduced in the formulae of the idealized
1.5
theory; otherwise low values of a would be obtained.
Measurements of the radial electron tempera-
ture distribution by means of laser scattering [29] 1.0
have shown that on the T-3 device the value of a
differs little from the radius of the diaphragm 0.5 •
aperture (a - 17 cm). At the same time, the value
of a hardly varies during the discharge pulse. On
the TM-3 device the radius of the plasma cross-
1 2 3 4 5-10IJn(0)crtis
section is always taken to be equal to the radius
of the diaphragm aperture (a = 8 cm) since the FIG.34. Variation of electron temperature with density.
magnetic probe method has not been used there.
The internal inductance of the plasma loop ^
depends on the current density distribution j(r)
in the plasma. In that phase of the process where
the skin effect ceases to play a significant part,
the current density is proportional to the local
value of electrical conductivity, crE. If aE changes
with temperature according to the classical law
( a E ~ T e ^ ) , the current density distribution is
governed by the shape of the function Te (r). As
will be shown later, this holds true even in the
more general case where the resistance has an
anomalous value and where the coefficient of
"anomalousness" is a function of the ratio between
electron drift velocity u = .j/ne and the speed of
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 l.kA
sound in the plasma, vs = N/2kTe/me. With the
above assumption as to the relationship between FIG.35. Variation of electron temperature with current.
j(r) and Te(r), measurements of the electron
temperature profile in T-3 give for 4j a value
of approximately 1. 10. Consequently, with
b = 25 cm and a = 17 cm the inductance of the
plasma loop per unit length will be 1. 76. Cal-
culations for specific cases show that the error Te(r)
which may affect the estimate of inductance in
that phase of the process where the current is
changing slowly can lead to a relative inaccuracy
of the order of 15-20% in determining the mean
energy conservation time TE.
Let us consider now the results of experiments
on the plasma energy balance. As we have men-
tioned above, the relatively most accurate values
for plasma energy content W are obtained from FIG.36. (a) Radial distribution of electron temperature.
measurements of the electron temperature and (b) Radial distribution of electron density.
density distributions over the plasma loop cross- (c) Radial profile of variation of gas kinetic plasma pressure.

238
 TOKAMAK DEVICES

section. Figure 33 shows typical curves for the where WL is the kinetic energy content of the
electron temperature along the axis of the plasma plasma per unit length for the component of mo-
loop as a function of time for the T-3 device [29]. tion perpendicular to the magnetic field.
The quantity Te(0) attains a maximum in the range The dependence of Wx on I 2 in a steady thermal
from 15 to 20 ms after the start of the discharge regime is shown in Fig. 37. The broken line in
pulse. Figures 34 and 35 show the dependence of this figure is plotted from the formula
Te(0) on electron density, with constant I, and the
dependence of Te(0) on I, with constant electron
2?ra 2 p = 0 . 4 I 2 (11.6)
density, and it will be seen that neTe ~ I 2 . The
electron temperatures on the plasma axis in T-3,
over the range of ne and I values investigated, lie i.e. it corresponds to P(p= 0.4. The experi-
between 0. 2 and 2 keV. All the data quoted here mental points are grouped in a band close to the
were obtained for discharge regimes in which the straight line with a relative scatter of ± 25% on
plasma pinch is macroscopically stable. Within the y-axis. The value of /3V varies in the phase
this range the electron temperature is practically of steady thermal conditions and increases to-
independent of the longitudinal magnetic field wards the end of the process when the current
strength H0— in accordance with the results of begins to decay rapidly.
diamagnetic measurements obtained earlier [44].
Measured distributions of Te over the radius r
are given in Fig. 36a. These relate to that phase J/cm
of the process where the electron temperature
and the energy content are near maximum. The 3.0 o /
distribution is independent, within wide limits, of o°
o
the initial experimental conditions. The radial
electron temperature distribution profile is well
described by the function
2.0 o
O'
y /
o

1.0
( 0 ) 1 - IT (11.4)

0 5 1 0 1 5 ^ 0 * V
This function differs from a simple parabolic law
FIG.37. Variation of plasma energy content with current.
above all by its flatter peak. (The function Te(r)
in the ST facility (the Princeton Tokamak) has a
sharper profile [66]). Note that further refine-
ment of the electron temperature profile in the In the initial discharge phase — for the first
zone close to the axis is important, since this few milliseconds — we would expect the tempera-
profile is determined by the relationship between ture distribution to reflect the influence of the skin
the electron thermal conductivity coefficient /ce effect: the temperature should have a minimum on
and the magnetic field. We shall return to this the centre line. This effect has been recorded in
question a little later. We should observe that, several experiments and Fig. 38 shows the variation
with the measured profile, the mean electron over the radius 4 ms after the start of the discharge.
temperature over the cross-section is 0. 53 Te(0)
whereas the mean value per single plasma elec-
tron is 0. 76 Te(0).
Figure 36b shows a typical electron density pro- Te(r)
file for the same phase of the process. It is well
approximated by an expression similar to Eq.(11.4).
Figure 36c is a curve showing the variation of gas
kinetic pressure of the plasma, p(r) = nk (Te + yT{), \ Q
o V
based on values for Te measured by laser scat-
tering, values for Tj from the spectrum of charge- Q5
exchange atoms and values of ne from data obtained
by microwave interferometer analysis and measure-
\
ments of the absolute value of the intensity of \
Thomson scattering. The same radial distribu-
10 20 cm
tion law is used for both ion and electron tempera-
tures. The value of y is taken as equal to 1. FIG. 38. Profile of T e (r) at initial stage of discharge.
Averaging p(r) over the plasma cross-section we
can find the quantity
Thomson, scattering measurements were not
performed on the TM-3 device. Therefore, we
2
D _ 87rp = 2?ra p 2Wj. can estimate the electron temperature and the
<p (11.5)
~ H2(a) I2 " I2 plasma energy content only from measurements

239
ARTSIMOVICH
of the diamagnetic effect, which supply less com-
plete and less accurate information than measure-
ments of Te with a laser beam. According to the
data of Bobrovsky and co-workers [47] the de-
pendence of Te on I and n e is qualitatively similar
to that found in measurements on the T-3, but the
values of 0^ on the TM-3 evidently cover a wider
range (0. 2-0. 6), increasing as the electron den-
sity. A clear dependence of Te and W on He was
also observed on the TM-3 device6.
Let us now consider certain corollaries ensuing
from the experimental evidence on Te and W. Here
we shall be referring largely to the results of in-
vestigations performed on theT-3 device [48].
The experimental data show that the plasma loop
loses energy mainly through electron thermal
conductivity. (As the discussions of Madison
showed, this opinion is not generally accepted).
Diffusion and radiation make a relatively small
contribution to the thermal losses. This follows
from measurements of particle lifetime in the
plasma (here the interpretation of the results
obtained by Soviet and United States research
workers is different) (see Section 13) and measure-
ments of the energy flux due to radiation and
charge-exchange [49]. The energy leaving the
plasma by way of the ions (through ion thermal
conductivity), in normal experimental conditions
with high temperature and not too high a density,
also plays a relatively minor part in the overall
plasma energy balance. The ion component ener-
gy balance will be discussed in more detail in the
following paragraph. Since Te and W are virtually
independent of H e , we may conclude that the longi-
tudinal magnetic field plays a secondary role in
the electron thermal conductivity mechanism.
It is natural to expect the electron thermal con-
ductivity of the plasma to be a function of the
current magnetic field strength. The value of H^
covers a wide range over the plasma cross-
section — from 0 on the axis to a certain maxi-
mum value close to the plasma boundary. There-
fore the nature of the relationship between the
thermal conductivity coefficient and H^ must have
a marked effect on the electron temperature pro-
file. Before analysing the relationship between
the profile, Te(r), and the dependence of the ther-
mal conductivity coefficient on H^, attention must
be given to certain consequences which flow from
a joint consideration of the energy balance equa-
tion — expression (11. 1) — and the relation in
Eq. (11.6). In steady-state thermal conditions the
value of W changes little. In this range of time
we have
W (11.7)
2
Tra a .
where aE is the mean electrical conductivity of
the plasma over the plasma loop cross-section.
At low electron densities.
240
Since W = (3/2)?ra?p, it follows from expressions
(11.6) and (11. 7) that
(U.8)
As the characteristic time of the skin effect for
a plasma loop with a large R/a ratio and uniform
conductivity we can write
T
skin (11. 9)7
Consequently, for steady thermal conditions we
have
0 . 3 T,skin (11.10)
In typical experimental conditions on the T-3 de-
vice the mean energy conservation time is from
2. 5 to 10 ms. With a high electron temperature,
T£ increases as the electron density and is a slow-
ly varying function of Te (the anomalous character
of the plasma electrical conductivity is reflected
here). On TM-3 the values of TE fall within the
range 0. 3 to 1. 5 ms, also increasing with r^.
At the present time it is difficult to say whether
the rough conformity which emerges from ex-
pressions (11. 8) and (11. 10) reflects some physi-
cal mechanism,linking the rate the heat transfer
processes with the rate at which the magnetic
field penetrates the plasma, or whether it is a pure
coincidence. Let us assume that the first assump-
tion is correct and carry our enquiry further in an
attempt to find the relationship between the heat
transfer rate and the main physical parameters.
We shall perform this analysis on a rough quali-
tative level. Let nE denote the mean electron
thermal diffusivity coefficient over the plasma
cross-section (which is equal to the thermal con-
ductivity coefficient divided by the heat capacity).
With steady thermal conditions we have
a2
(11.11)
From expressions (11.8) and (11. 11) it follows that
(11.12)
6 a,
The electrical conductivity of the plasma is deter-
mined by the expression
(11.13)
7
Over this interval of time the current which initially flowed in the
thin surface layer of the uniform conductor is redistributed so that the
ratio of the current densities on the axis and in the surface layer attains
l - l / e = 0.63.

where v is the "generalized" collision frequency,
allowing for all types of collisions of electrons
with ions and plasma waves. Substituting ex-
pression (11. 13) into relation (11. 12) we find
We should note here that the relationship in
Eq. (11. 6) ean be written in the form
nJcTp(l+?)~2X
Here n e i s density averaged over the cross-section,
Te is the mean electron temperature for one plasma
electron and H^ is the mean square current mag-
netic field strength calculated on the assumption
that the electron temperature profile is expressed
by formula (11. 4) and that the current density is
distributed in proportion to T 3 / 2 . In this case
H2^ - H^(a), and ? denotes the ratio YTi/Te. Sub-
stituting in (11. 14) the expression for n e from
Eq. (11.15), we obtain (when £ « 1)
rt-^^vf?
2 correctly expression (11.4) approximates the
where p is the mean square Larmor radius of
an electron in the H^ field. If a correction is
introduced in the ion temperature, the numerical
coefficient in formula (11. 16) is increased to 5
or 6. It is natural to assume that the local value of
rjEwill be expressed by the same formula, v and
p2 being replaced by the values v(r) and p^e(r).
Clearly, with the extremely rough estimates and
random averaging performed here it is easy to
gain or lose a numerical coefficient of the order
of 2. Accordingly we will write the local value
of 1E(r) as
rjE(r) =
and attempt to determine B by another method,
using data on the profile of the Te(r) function. The
thermal conductivity equation for steady thermal
conditions takes the form
dT
dr
where
3 3nkBi/(r)kTe(r)c2
= e2H2(r)
9
and
jf_ _ 2 m e y(r)c 2
n e
TOKAMAK DEVICES
Here it is assumed that in the thermal balance
of the electron component we can disregard dif-
fusion and radiation processes as well as energy
transfer from electrons to ions.
Note that the relationship between the thermal
conductivity coefficient and H^ which we have
(11.14) employed correctly describes the behaviour of
the Te(r) function in the "hot zone" of the plasma
loop where it has a flat peak. In fact, when
Ke~ l / r the first derivative of the temperature
is proportional to r 3 , so that the dependence of
T e on r in the central zone must take the form
Te(r) = Te(0) (1 -/jr 4 + . . . ) . For small values of
(11.15) r / a this expansion is valid no matter what the na-
ture of the relationship between v and the physical
parameters (provided, of course, that v remains
a continuous function of r). According to Eq. (11.4)
the coefficient \x is equal to 2a"4. Substituting ex-
pressions (11. 19) and (11. 20) in the thermal con-
ductivity equation, allowing for the fact that with
j ~ T3/2'the current density on the axis is
j 0 = 2. 2 I/ffa2, and using the experimentally deter-
mined relationship between ne(0)Te(0) and I2, we
find that \x - 20 (l/Ba 4 ). Consequently, B = 10 and
(r)~10 pL(r) (11.21)
(11.16)
The accuracy of this formula depends on how
behaviour of T e (r) for not too large values of
r (in the zone where r 4 /a 4 « 1). We should
also bear in mind that formula (11. 21) was derived
on the basis of a specific assumption as to the r e -
lationship between j (r) and Te(r). Thus, through
an analysis of the data on the energy balance of
the plasma electron component, we arrive at an
expression for the thermal conductivity coefficient
which is very reminiscent of the well-known clas-
sical formula8. The difference between them is
that instead of a resultant field strength approxi-
mately equal to HQ we have H ? here, and instead
of the Coulomb collision frequency we have the
"generalized" frequency v(r) which is determined
(11.17) from measurements of the electrical conductivity.
There is also a further numerical coefficient lying
between 5 and 10. It may be that this coefficient
is not universal but depends on the geometrical
parameters of the plasma loop (on the ratio a/R).
We should also note that in expressions (11. 16)
and (11.21) the factor l/j3^ is present in implicit
form. Since all our experimental data indicate
that 0^ increases with the electron density (especial-
(11.18)
ly in the low-density range), the numerical coef-
ficient in the formula for 17 g must decrease as r e
increases.
(11.19)
(11. 20) With every reservation as to the extremely rough nature of these
evaluations.
241
ARTSIMOVICH
| corresponding to the maximum ion temperature
• • • •
iff
500 1000 1500 2000
FIG. 39. Energy spectrum of charge-exchange atoms on the T-3 device.
12. ION TEMPERATURE AND ENERGY
BALANCE OF THE ION COMPONENT
Typical measurements of the atom energy
spectrum in T-3 are shown in Fig. 39 [50], The
curves were obtained by averaging data for the
time range 12-28 ms after the start of the pro-
cess. In this phase the plasma ion temperature
can be regarded as practically stable, so that
averaging over a relatively short period cannot
essentially change the form of the spectrum. In
the high-energy zone (above 0. 5 keV) the spectral
distribution is well approximated by an exponential
function. This can be described as a Maxwellian
distribution corresponding to a specific tempera-
ture value. As Wj decreases, the slope of dn/dWj
increases sharply. This points to the presence
in the atom spectrum of components with consider-
ably lower temperature (and higher intensity).
The interpretation of such an energy spectrum pre-
sents no difficulties if it is remembered that the
charge-exchange processes in the plasma loop may
have a multistage character. Neutral atoms (or
molecules) entering the plasma from the sur-
rounding space have comparatively low velocities.
Therefore, they have time to penetrate deep within
the plasma and can undergo charge exchange only
in a relatively thin layer close to the surface of the
loop. The energy spectrum of the atoms produced
during these charge-exchange events characterizes
the ion temperature in the surface layer (not more
than 3-5 cm thick). It is precisely these atoms
which contribute to the initial part of the observed
energy distribution function. However, not all
atoms born in the first charge-exchange event
move outwards from the plasma pinch. Those
with an inward-directed velocity can penetrate
deep within the loop as they have velocities several
times exceeding those of the neutral particles bom-
barding the plasma surface. On undergoing a
secondary charge-exchange in the inner zones of
the plasma they produce the component which is
•responsible for the tail of the distribution curve
in the high-energy zone. Since contributions to
the energy spectrum are made by plasma regions
with different temperatures, the measured energy
distribution curve cannot be interpreted simply
242
as a superposition of two exponential functions
corresponding to two values of ion temperature.
However, the further we move along the energy
6*10.5 ms spectrum towards the high-energy region, the
13.5^ 18 ms more clearly we can distinguish a simple exponent
18r22.5ms
23r 27.5 ms
Tj(0), i. e. the ion temperature on the plasma loop
axis.
Let us consider now the energy balance of the
ion component of the plasma loop [51]. As was
•=330eV shown above, analysis of the energy spectrum
curve for the fast atoms formed in charge-
2500 WJ eV exchange processes enables us to determine the
maximum ion temperature, i. e. the value Tj(0).
Measurements performed on the T-3 and TM-3
devices show that at sufficient densities T4 (0) in-
creases with n e . Moreover, other things being
equal, the ion temperature in a deuterium plasma
will be lower than in a hydrogen plasma. These
facts strengthen the assumption that a major con-
tribution to the heating of the ion component is
made by the classical mechanism of heat transfer
between electrons and ions by way of Coulomb
collisions. We shall employ this assumption as a
working hypothesis and neglect the effect of other
possible mechanisms of ion heating. The thermal
energy transmitted from electrons and ions, per
cm3 of plasma per sec is 9
' i q nnn 9 ev
" iv
(19 i\
3/
T3/2 X
ev
where Aj is the atomic weight of the material (a
plasma with singly-charged ions is being con-
sidered). Expression (12. 1) can be reduced to the
form
= 1. 5 xlO" f ^ (12.2)
where
3/2
When T ev /T iv goes from 1. 6 to 10, the quantity
f(Tev /T iv ) changes by not more than 15% in relation
to the mean value of s 0.33. In Tokamak experi-
mental conditions the ratio Tev /T iv is usually in
the above range. For approximate evaluations,
therefore, we can put
2
ne
q. s (12.4)
A,
Tev is not included in this expression. It follows
that in normal conditions the ion energy balance
can be analysed without regard to the electron
energy balance, and this makes the analysis a lot
easier. The energy losses in the ion component
are due to three different processes: thermal
The Coulomb logarithm is taken to be 17.
 TOKAMAK DEVICES

conductivity, diffusion and charge-exchange. The

experimenta data indicate (see Section 13) that the
contributions of diffusion and charge-exchange are
relatively small (the lifetime of a charged particle • Hj-T-3
in the plasma is several times greater than the - a-T-3
- Og-T-4
energy confinement time in the ion component). • K-TM-3
Consequently we may assume, as a first approxi- - K-T-6
mation, that the ions give off thermal energy only
via the thermal conductivity of the plasma.
To analyse the relationship between ion tempera-
ture and the other physical parameters of the pro-
cess, namely plasma current, axial field strength,
electron density and the geometric dimensions of
the plasma loop, we can use the results of theo-
retical studies carried out with a view to explain- FIG.40. Dependence of ion temperature on plasma parameters:
ing the different mechanisms of thermal conductivi- O - deuterium on T-3
ty in a plasma ring. The theoretical investiga- hydrogen on T-3
tions referred to in Sections 4 and 5 indicate two hydrogen on TM-3
possible mechanisms of ion thermal conductivity: A - deuterium on T-4
T - hydrogen on T-6.
(1) classical thermal conductivity on trapped par-
ticles [9] and (2) heat transfer due to the develop-
ment of a temperature-drift instability [19]. Let
us consider first of all the implications of the neo-
classical theory. In normal Tokamak experimental
conditions it is possible to estimate the thermal
conductivity coefficient K{ from formula (4. 11) —
although, strictly speaking, in a number of specific
cases this is valid only for the hot inner zone of
the plasma loop. Employing the above formula 0.5-
and using the expression for qj , we can show by
dimensional analysis that in Tokamak devices the
ion temperature of the plasma loop in the steady
state (i. e. with equilibrium established between 0.5 1 1.5 2
heat intake and heat losses) must be proportional
FIG.41. Correction coefficient for formula(12.6).
to fylHeRane (1/v/A"), where I is the current, R
the major radius of the toroidal system, H e the
axial field strength and n e the mean electron den- (2) On the TM-3 device the density varied from
sity [52]. The proportionality constant can be 1 xlO 13 to 3 xlO 1 3 cm"3 and the current from 19 kA
determined by solving the thermal conductivity to 37 kA. The axial field strength was He = 25 kOe
equation Dark circles represent the experimental data
for hydrogen plasma on the T-3, light circles
I-_ (12.5) indicate data relating to deuterium on the same
r dr dr
device, and the squares show data obtained for a
for given current and density distributions over the hydrogen plasma on the TM-3 1 0 . We see that
plasma cross-section (as a function of r ) . In the results of the measurements are in good
Fig. 40 values of Tj on the plasma loop axis are agreement with the relationship Tj (0)~ 3 yiH e R 2 n e ,
plotted on the ordinate and values of ^IHeR 2 n e (rad) and that the dependence of Tj(0) on the mass of
x l/v/Aj are plotted on the abscissa; n e (rad) is the atoms is also obeyed.
the mean electron density derived from microwave- A straight line approximating the experimentally
interferometer data. Curves I and II show the observed dependence on the parameters of the
variation of T^O), calculated on the basis of the process lies between I and II. The relationship
classical theory with two different assumptions found here is described by the equation
as to the radial current and density distributions.
Curve I corresponds to the assumption that the 7 3
current density and the electron density are cons- Tiv = 6 x 1 0 — (12.6)
tant over the cross-section. Curve II is calculated
for the case where j(r) and n e (r) vary according to
a uniform parabolic law, i . e . j = j 0( 1 - r 2 /a 2 ) and (Tiv in eV, I in amperes, He in Oe, n e (rad) in
3
n e = n e ( 0 ) ( l - r 2 / a 2 ) . In this case n e (rad) = (2/3) cm " ) As already mentioned, this relationship p
xn e (0). The same figure shows measurements of was obtained for the case where T e (0)> 1. 5 Tj(O),
Ti(O), carried out in the following ranges of the T e (0) being the electron temperature on the axis.
basic parameters:
(1) On the T-3 device n e (rad) varied from
1. 5 xl0i3 to 3. 8 xlOis cm" 3 , the current from Data from separate measurements of T<0) on the T-4 and T-6
60 kA to 110 kA and H0 from 25 kOe to 38 kOe. devices are also included.

243
ARTSIMOVICH
If this condition is not satisfied, a correction must
be introduced in the calculation of maximum ion
temperature. The correction coefficient r\ by
which TiV (0) must be multiplied — calculated from
formula (12. 6) — can be very roughly estimated
by means of the curve in Fig. 41. The abscissa
in this figure is the ratio of T e (0) to the right-hand
side of equation (12. 6).
The results obtained represent a strong argu-
ment in favour of the assumption that the heat
transfer processes in the plasma loop, in this
particular range of variation of the physical para-
meters (with not too low plasma density), are
largely governed by the classical mechanism.
Nevertheless, it should be noted that the inter-
pretation of the data is not completely unambiguous.
If we assume that all the heat is removed by
"anomalous" thermal conductivity due to the
development of the temperature-drift instability,
we arrive at the relationship
1
T, (12.7)
We are still not able to distinguish this formula
experimentally from the relationship in Eq. (12. 6),
since the ratio a/R in T-3 and TM-3, on which
the measurements were performed, is virtually
identical. Unfortunately, the theory of the drift-
temperature instability does not allow us to estim-
ate the absolute value of the thermal conductivity
coefficient with enough certainty, and we are
accordingly unable to make a quantitative compar-
ison of the experimental data with the conclusions
of the theory. There i s , however, one factor
which inclines us to be wary of the assumption that
"anomalous" heat transfer is highly significant in
the normal experimental conditions found on
Tokamak devices. The temperature-drift instab-
ility can develop intensively only in those cases
where the inequality |dln T{ / d l n n e | > 1 is satis-
fied. Analysis of the energy distribution of
charge-exchange atoms shows that the above con-
dition can be satisfied only in the outer zones of
the plasma loop. Therefore, "anomalous" thermal
conductivity can only intensify the heat transfer
process appreciably in the surface layer of the
plasma.
Hitherto we have spoken only of the magnitude
of the ion temperature in that phase of the process
where Tj(0) attains a maximum. It is possible to
proceed somewhat further and analyse the ion
energy balance over the period of the discharge
pulse. This analysis indicates that the variation
of Tj(O) with time can also be explained satis-
factorily within the framework of the classical
theory of thermal conductivity on trapped par-
ticles (which, incidentally, does not remove the
ambiguity referred to above in the interpretation
of the existing experimental data).
All that we have said above relates to experi-
mental conditions in which the mean plasma densi-
ty at the moment of measuring the ion temperature
does not fall far below ~1 xlO 13 cm" 3 . With a
244
density of the order of 10 l 2 cm" 3 we observe on the
TM-3 device the appearance of fast ions which
evidently owe their origin to non-classical ion
heating mechanisms [47]. In this case the spec-
trum of the ion component is a function of the
axial magnetic field strength (see Fig. 42.), so that
as H e increases, the energy of the ions belonging
to the fast component decreases.
400 . 600 800 1000 1200 1600
Wi.eV
FIG.42. Energy spectra of charge-exchange atoms for different axial
magnetic field strengths on the TM-3 device.
To conclude the discussion on the ion tempera-
ture in Tokamaks, a few words should be said
about what may await us in future experiments
with the T-4 device'. With T-4, under optimum
experimental conditions we are already close to
the boundary which, according to the neoclassical
theory, should separate the states relating to
region I on the curve in Fig. 8 from the states
belonging to region II (on the "plateau").
In region I, the coefficient of thermal conduct-
ivity is proportional to l/H 2 . In this case, the
ion temperature near the magnetic axis must be
determined by the expression (provided the ratio
Te(0)/Tj(0) lies between 1.5 and 5)
(12.8)
The coefficient g depends on the current and den-
sity distribution over the plasma loop cross-
section and also on the relative density of the
multicharge impurity ions.
In region I, therefore, Tj(O) should rise rapidly
with increasing current, in contrast to region II,
where Tj(0) ~ ql. If the theory proves to be valid,
a significant change in the nature of the dependence
of Tj(0) on I and on the atomic weight A will be
observed in T-4 as the current is increased fur-
ther. In this connection, it will be interesting to
compare measurements of Tj (0) made in a hydro-
gen plasma with those made in a deuterium plasma
(so far T-4 has operated only with deuterium).

13.. DIFFUSION AND CONFINEMENT
OF PARTICLES IN THE TOKAMAK-
The balance of the number of charged particles
in the plasma i s much more difficult to.analyse
than the plasma energy balance. It is the outcome
.of competition between two counter-operative fac-
t o r s . One of these factors i s particle losses due
to diffusion. The other is the influx of charged par
t i d e s due to ionization of neutral atoms penetrat-
ing the plasma from outside. However, if we are
concerned with the electron balance it must be
remembered that the electron density can also in-
crease through the ionization of heavy impurity
ions already present in the plasma loop. In each
ionization event the ion charge increases from Ze
to (Z + l)e. One of the main problems in the study
of the plasma particle balance is to ascertain the
relative contributions to the total influx of charged
particles attributable to the ionization of neutral
hydrogen atoms and to the formation of multiply-
charged impurity ions. This problem has riot yet
been solved, since the relative role of these two
processes can only be assessed at the present
time on the basis of incomplete experimental data
and rough theoretical estimates. Theoretical cal-
culations indicate, in particular, that in experi-
ments on the T-3 device, in the phase where the
electron temperature is changing slowly (with a
long discharge pulse), the main charges on the
impurity ions should be close to the equilibrium
values. Therefore, if the fraction of impurity
atoms i s relatively small in the flux of neutral
particles entering the plasma from the surrounding
space in steady-state conditions, it can be a s -
sumed that the influx is largely due to ionization
of neutral hydrogen atoms. Henceforth in our
analysis of the plasma particle balance we shall
proceed on the above assumption and extend it to
the results of experiments performed on the T-3
and TM-3 devices [29,53].
In its integral form the balance equation is
dNe =
I- (13.1)
dt
Here N e i s the number of electrons per cm length
of the plasma loop, I is the number of ionization
events (also per linear cm) and TP i s a quantity
which we shall call the mean global life-time for
electrons (thereby emphasizing that Tp is obtained
by averaging over all the electrons in the plasma
cross-section). According to this assumption
I = J n e ( r ) n 0 ( r ) ^ ~ dS (13. 2)
where n e (r) and n o (r) denote respectively the
densities of electrons and neutral atoms of hydro-
gen, and veCTion is the product of the electron vel-
ocity and the ionization cross-section averaged
over the velocity spectrum.
Analysis of the integral particle balance is very
useful but the results of such an analysis do not
supply an adequately clear idea of the processes
TOKAMAK DEVICES
occurring in the inner zones of the plasma loop
when the electron density is sufficiently large.
The point is that the main contribution to the inte-
gral balance is made by the peripheral zones of
the plasma. In a sufficiently dense plasma the
neutral atoms and molecules are concentrated in
the surface layer of the loop and do not penetrate
far within. Moreover, in the peripheral zone the
life-time of the charged particles is minimal.
Therefore, when we determine r p from formulae
(13.1) and (13. 2) we in fact find the life-time of
electrons and ions belonging to some not very
well defined outer zone of the plasma.
In addition to the integral balance, we can also
consider the particle balance in the hot inner
zone of the plasma. For unit volume of the hot
zone, the balance equation is written in the form
dn
— e = n e n 0 v e a ion (13.3)
where n e , n0 and veaion refer to the zone close to
the axis and Tp(0) denotes the electron life-time
for this zone.
The quantity rp(0) in this equation can in prin-
ciple assume both positive and negative values. If
it is negative, this means that the mechanisms
causing compression of the plasma (for example
the effect predicted by Galeev [11]) are predo-
minating over normal diffusion. In this case Tp(0)
cannot, of course, be said to characterize the
mean particle life-time in the hot zone. However,
in normal experimental conditions the diffusion
flows from the plasma exceed the effect of the
compression forces and Tp(0) accordingly retains
its significance as a local life-time.
0 20 40 60 t.ms
FIG.43. Variation of electron density with time on the T-3 device.
Let us turn now to the experimental data. A
typical curve for the variation of (l/2a)/n e d^ in
T-3 is shown in Fig. 43. If it is assumed that the
radial density distribution changes little during
the discharge, the /n e di curve should also describe
the change with time of n e and N e . According to
measurements of the distribution of ne over the
plasma cross-section at different moments of
245
ARTSIMOVICH
time, the assumption that this function is approxi-
mately constant in steady-state conditions is valid
at least for rough estimates of particle life-time}1
Figure 43 shows clearly the characteristic
features of the variation of plasma density during
the current pulse on the T-3 device. Right in the
initial phase of the process there is an increase
in density which lasts for 2-4 ms. Then follows
a rapid decay with a time constant of 10 ms, after
which the plasma density starts to increase again;
but this increase is slow and almost ceases in the
phase where the process can be considered stable.
In this phase the characteristic time of density
variation (in other words of variation in the inte-
gral /ned:2) exceeds 0. 1 s. Therefore, in particle
balance analyses the quantities dNe/dt and dn e /dt
for the above interval of time may be put at zero.
This relationship between plasma density and time
admits of a simple interpretation. The initial in-
crease in density is explained by gas ionization
in the volume. The subsequent drop is evidently
due to a brief burst of instability in the phase when
the current and density distributions over the pinch
cross-section undergo rearrangement. This
theory is supported by fluctuations on the oscillo-
grams of the electrical parameters of the plasma
(voltage, current derivative, magnetic probe
readings). These fluctuations are damped in the
interval when the drop in density ceases. The
further slow increase in plasma density can quite
naturally be linked with the influx of neutral gas
desorbed from the walls and the edges of the dia-
phragms. On the TM-3 device the variation in
plasma density at the start of the process is quali-
tatively similar to that observed on the T-3. How-
ever, as can be seen from Fig. 44, on the TM-3
the rapid drop in density is followed by a much
slower plasma decay with a decrement of 8- 10 ms.
This means that the ionization of the gas entering
the plasma in the TM-3 device cannot overcome
the diffusion losses. The attempts made so far
to estimate mean global particle life-times in
ne.cnrr
0 2 U 6 t,ms
FIG.44. Electron density versus time on the TM-3 device.
11
For a more rigorous analysis we must take into account that the
total number of particles Ne in the cross-section varies as Oea and that
the density is proportional to 0 e / a , where a is the plasma cross-section
radius and Q e = /n e dfi.
246
typical Tokamak experimental conditions have been
based on measurements of spectral line intensity
in the lines of the Balmer series.
In investigations performed on the TM-3 device,
Tp for the slow plasma decay phase was calculated
from the balance equation — expression (13. 1) —
in which i was estimated from measurements of
the absolute intensity of the spectral lines of
hydrogen. Since in any element of the volume the
number of ionization events ki and the number of
radiation events kr are proportional to the neutral
particle density, there must exist between them a
relationship of the form k i = ?k r , where § is a
function of Te (and also a weak function of n e ).
Abramov and co-workers [54] calculated £ for
Tokamak experimental conditions on the assump-
tion that the neutral particles entering the plasma
from outside consist of atomic hydrogen. It
emerged from these calculations that over a wide
range of electron temperatures and densities §
changes only insignificantly. Therefore, averaging
the relationship kj =|k r over the plasma volume
we can write I =f-kr, where kr is the total number
of quanta of the selected line radiated by the plas-
ma, and | is chosen for the meanvalues of the
parameters Te and n e . Knowing I and using data
from microwave-interferometer measurements,
we can find Tp from the balance equation (13. 1).
Measurements have shown that the mean global
life-time of charged particles on the TM-3 device
increases during the discharge pulse and is more
than twice as long as the thermal energy confine-
ment time TE . With n e ~ 1 xlO 13 , I = 40kAand
HQ = 24 kOe, T attains 6 milliseconds 5 ms after
the start of the discharge. Similar measurements
were subsequently performed on the T-3 device
[29]. They showed that the mean life-time of
charged particles increases in the initial stage of
the discharge pulse and with typical initial dis-
charge conditions (ne s 1. 5 x 1013, Tev s 600 eV)
reaches about 2 0 ms in the phase where the thermal
regime of the plasma is becoming established.12
Estimates of mean particle life-time in the hot
zone can be made with the aid of Eq. (13. 3), using
data on the magnitude of the fast atom flux formed
in the plasma during charge-exchange processes
[51]. The absolute intensity of the atom flux in a
given range of energies is measured by means of
an atom energy spectrum analyser. Knowing the
flux intensity, one can find the neutral atom densi-
ty in the hot zone and calculate the product
nenoveaion in Eq. (13. 3). This equation also in-
cludes the quantities r^ and dn e /dt measured by
microwave-interferometry. Thus we can calculate
Tp(0).
12
Analysis of measurements of the intensity of the spectral lines
emitted by a plasma in the ST device at Princeton leads to a very dif-
ferent conclusion [66]. According to the data obtained at Princeton,
the mean overall particle confinement time Tp differs from the duration
of energy conservation in the plasma by no more than a factor of 2. The
difference between the Soviet and American data can be attributed partly
to an inaccurate estimate of the coefficients in Ref. [54]. On the whole,
however, the question of the relationship between diffusion rate and the
heat transfer should be regarded as not yet finally clarified.

One of the main sources of error in this method
of determining r p (0) is that, with given values of
r^ and n 0 the intensity of the flux of fast charge-
exchange atoms depends on the shape of the func-
tion Ti(r). A qualitative characterization of this
function can be obtained by analysing the experi-
mentally plotted curves for the fast atom energy
distribution. As such an analysis shows, a
characteristic feature of the energy spectra r e -
corded in T-3 and TM-3 is that dn/dWj, plotted on
a log scale, becomes a straight line even at com-
paratively low values of wi /kTj(O) (T^O) being the
temperature on the axis). Hence it follows that
the ion temperature is near its maximum in a wide
zone of the plasma pinch.
Taking this into account, one can estimate the
upper limit of the neutral atom density in the axial
zone and thence find the lower limit of T (0). The
upper limit of no is about 3 xlO 8 cm"3 for typical
discharge conditions with high electron density on
the T-3 device in the phase where dTt /dt = 0 [29].
Note that in TM-3 spectroscopic data give a value
of n 0 * 109 cm' 3 [35]. With this value of n 0 , the
diffusion life-time of the particles T (0) should be
greater than 0. 2 s, and the ion charge-exchange
time should exceed 0. 1 s. A comparison of these
values with the energy conservation time in the
ion component shows that in the axial zones of the
plasma pinch a comparatively low proportion of
the thermal losses (less than 25% in all) is attri-
butable to diffusion and charge-exchange. For
the electron component thermal losses through
diffusion are negligibly small.
In conclusion, it should be noted once again that
all the methods of determining T and T (0) which
we have described are based on the assumption
that the influx of charged particles is largely
governed by hydrogen ionization.
14. ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY
IN THE TOKAMAK
If the resistance of the plasma loop is governed
exclusively by the classical mechanism of
Coulomb collisions and if the heavy ion impurities
in the plasma are low enough, the electrical con-
ductivity of a Tokamak plasma can be calculated
from the familiar formula aE = 1.7xlO14 T|/ 2 /5f k ,
where £fy denotes the so-called Coulomb loga-
rithm which can be taken equal to 17. The neo-
classical theory of Galeev and Sagdeev [9,11],
which allows for the special behaviour of trapped
particles, introduces some corrections in the
above formula, but these corrections are not very
large in the normal conditions of our experiments.
Under the assumptions stated above, the mean
electrical conductivity of the plasma over the loop
cross-section, calculated for the case where the
skin effect does not play an essential part and the
radial electron temperature distribution corres-
ponds to expression (11.4), can be written as
ath = 4 . 6 x l O 1 2 T|/ 2 (0) (14.1)
TOKAMAK DEVICES
where a th is in c. g. s. units. Equation (11. 2) can
be used to obtain the mean value of crE .
The inductance & 4 should not vary appreciably
in steady-state conditions and may be taken as
approximately equal to 2 lnb/a + JLi, where b is
the radius of the diaphragm aperture and JGJ s 1.
Here it is assumed that the displacement of the
loop, 6, is sufficiently small. With the aid of
current and voltage oscillograms Rx is calculated
from equation (11.2), making it possible to find
the value of a exp = l/7ra 2 R 1 , 13
A comparison of calculated and measured values
for mean electrical conductivity shows that under
normal experimental conditions they differ widely:
the actual electrical conductivity is considerably
less than that predicted by theory for a hydrogen
plasma with a given electron temperature profile.
For this reason we speak of "anomalous" plasma
resistance in Tokamak devices. The degree of
"anomalousness", given by the ratio between cal-
culated and measured a E values, increases with
increasing electron temperature and decreasing
electron density. In T-3 experiments, ath /o
is approximately 3 with n e s 2xlO 13 and T ev s400eV.
It rises to ~ 2 5 if, while maintaining the density
at the same level, we increase T ev (0) to s 1800 eV
[29]. In discharge conditions with a low electron
density ( n e ~ 3 x 1012 ) on TM-3, aA/a attains
p
~30[47].
It is natural to seek a relationship between the
anomalous resistance and the physical parameters
determining the plasma characteristics. The
attempt to find a universally applicable relation-
ship has not yet produced positive results owing to
the large scatter in the experimental data and the
low accuracy of measurements of the plasma loop
resistance. The main qualitative results which
emerge from an analysis of the different series
of experiments performed on T-3 can be summar-
ized as follows:
(1) °exp increases with rising current in the
plasma (this result i s also valid for the other de-
vices).
(2) The "anomalous" resistivity of the plasma
determined by the expression p a n = ( l / a e x p ) - (l/crth )
diminishes with increasing electron density (see
Fig. 45) and electron temperature. The "anoma-
lous" electrical conductivity cxan = l / p a n in normal
experimental conditions lies within the range
lxlO 1 6 - 3.5xlO 1 6 .
The anomalously high plasma resistance in
Tokamak devices may be attributable to two com-
pletely different mechanisms which can act to-
gether. One of these involves a buildup of oscilla-
tions in the plasma which can occur when the ratio
u/v s is sufficiently large (u = j/en e is the electron
drift velocity due to the current and vs = \/2kT e /m i
is the ion sound velocity in the plasma). Note that
13
Some uncertainty may enter into the calculation of o e x p as a result
of the'pinch effect" predicted by Galeev, since this phenomenon involves
an increase in inductance which is difficult to detect by existing experi-
mental methods. If the characteristic plasma compression time is 0.05-
0.1 s, the maximum measured value of OgXp cannot exceed 1 - 2x 1017.
247
ARTSIMOVICH
u/v s ~ j / n e >PFe - i / V j V e . Therefore, if j3^
changes little, u/v s will be proportional to n' 1 / 2 .
Hence it follows that under the action of this
mechanism the anomalous electrical conductivity
must increase with increasing density — in ac-
cordance with the experimental data. The plasma
temperature should not be a significant factor
here. Rudakov and Zavoisky [21] have provided
us with a theoretical analysis of this mechanism.
Theory predicts the existence of a threshold value
of u/v s , starting from which processes develop
leading to an anomalous slowing down of electrons
by the plasma oscillations. The critical value of
u/vs should be close to 1. For the experiments on
the T-3 device this means that in steady conditions
(i. e. in the absence of the skin effect) the ano-
malous resistance should disappear if the mean
density exceeds 7- 8xlO 13 . The absence of data
for a plasma of such high density has so far pre-
vented the verification of this important point in
the theoretical predictions.
© ©
2 I*
1OU/ne(o)
FIG.45. Anomalous resistance as a function of density.
The presence of heavy impurities in the plasma
may also cause a sharp increase in the resistance
of the plasma loop. At low electron temperature
( « 100 eV) the electrical conductivity of the plas-
ma can be calculated from the expression
E^kZu
AT e 3 f
ZyQ'k Z k
where a^ is the relative density of ions having the
charge Z^ and A s l x l O 1 3 . In this case an admix-
ture of multiply-charged ions with a given value of
Zk cannot reduce the electrical conductivity more
than Zfc times, and in fact with ak « 1 the effect
of the impurity must be even less. Thus, using
formula (14.4) one can attempt to explain a several-
fold increase in resistance (compared with a pure
hydrogen plasma) by the presence of multiply-
charged impurity ions. This does not, however,
explain the reduction in conductivity by many fac-
tors of 10 which has been observed at high elec-
tron temperatures, especially in relation to the
electrical conductivity measurements on TM-3 with
very low plasma density (2- 3x1012) and an electron
248
temperature of about 1 keV [43], In these
measurements an increase in resistance 30 or 40
times greater than the theoretical values was
recorded with a relatively short discharge pulse
length (the measurements were made 3-4 ms after
the start of the process). In these conditions ions
carrying several tens of unit charge cannot be
formed.
It should be borne in mind that with high values
of Te formula (14.2) loses validity and gives in-
flated values for electrical conductivity, since it
does not allow for slowing down of electrons in
the internal electrical field of the atoms. Let us
assume that there is heavy atom contamination of
the plasma, caused, for example, by evaporation
and pulverization of the diaphragm material (in
the Tokamak devices the edges of the diaphragm
have usually been made of tungsten or molybdenum).
At sufficiently high values of Te the effective
stopping cross-section of a heavy impurity atom
hardly changes as a result of ionization (single,
double, triple or quadruple) and may exceed the
proton stopping cross-section by more than two
orders of magnitude. Unfortunately the scattering
of electrons having energies from a few hundred
eV to several keV has been very inadequately in-
vestigated in experiments, whilst theoretical cal-
culations based on different intra-atomic field
potentials yield values differing by several factors
for the differential scattering cross-sections.
The only data we can give here relate to the
effective stopping cross-sections of electrons by
mercury atoms: these are based on the work of
Kessler and Lindner [55], who measured angular
distributions of electrons in mercury vapour over
a wide energy range. Calculations of the effective
stopping cross-section — of the so-called "trans-
port" cross-section — equal to /f(&)(l - cos &)dfi,
where f(&) is the scattering probability per unit
solid angle at an angle 5- to the direction of initial
electron movement, indicate for mercury, at
Tev = 200 eV, a value exceeding the proton stopping
cross-section by approximately 30 times; when
Tev = 1 keV, this ratio attains 170.14 As shown
earlier, the stopping cross-section in this case
will have a similar value for ions with a not very
high charge (up to Z - 10 when Tev = 1000 eV). It
(14.2)
can be assumed that for tungsten the stopping
cross-section, given equal values of T e , will be
practically the same as for mercury (in view of
the proximity of their atomic numbers). Conse-
quently, at an electron temperature close to 1 keV
a tungsten atom, in terms of its contribution to
the slowing down of the electron flux, will be
equivalent to an ion with Z s?13. In this case the
effect of increased slowing down of electrons by
heavy atoms and their ions having a low charge is
not weakened by an increase in the ne to nj ratio
as much as would follow from formula (14.4). If
the ratio of the stopping cross-section for a heavy
14
These calculations take account of the contribution to electrical
conductivity made by electrons belonging to different sections of the
Maxwellian distribution, so that the stopping cross-section is corres-
pondingly averaged over the energy spectrum.

impurity atom or ion to the corresponding value
for a proton is equal to F, and the mean charge on
the impurity ion is Z, the presence of a heavy
impurity in large concentration can reduce the
electrical conductivity of the plasma F/Z times.
The effect of impurities on plasma resistance in
Tokamak devices should decrease with increasing
n e , since the absolute density of impurity particles
nj can remain constant in this case, and the con-
tribution of the impurity to the resistance at a
given electron temperature is proportional to the
ratio nj /n e .
Thus the dependence of the anomalous resistance
on n e can also be explained in terms of the mecha-
nism we have been considering. In principle, on
the basis of the assumption that impurities have
a decisive effect on the electrical conductivity of
the plasma loop, one can also find an explanation
for the absence of a strong relationship between
the anomalous resistance and electron tempera-
ture. The magnitude of the anomalous resistance
due to the presence of a given impurity is pro-
portional to (nj/n^FTg 3 / 2 . It follows from the
figures given above that for both mercury and
tungsten FTJ3/2 will change only by a factor of two
when Te changes by a factor of 5 (from 0. 2 to
1 keV). If we bear in mind that with rising Te the
total energy content of the plasma increases, we
may assume that owing to a more intensive inter-
action of the plasma loop with the diaphragm and
liner the impurity concentration will also rise,
offsetting the slight change in the stopping cross-
section. Such an assumption seems quite artificial,
of course. Therefore, the author tends to the view
that with very high values of the ratio ath /crexp
the main mechanism associated with electrical
conductivity is the excitation of oscillations and
the resulting plasma turbulence [21, 56]. On the
other hand, when this ratio is comparatively low
(below 10), the anomalies in electrical conductivi-
ty can be largely attributed to the effect of impu-
rities. There is good reason to hope that experi-
mental data to be obtained in the near future will
clarify the relative roles of impurities and turbu-
lent processes in the anomalous electrical con-
ductivity of Tokamak plasmas.
15. FUTURE PROSPECTS
OF THE TOKAMAK PROGRAM
The future prospects of investigations within the
Tokamak program depend to a considerable degree
on progress in the development and application of
new methods of plasma heating. With normal
Joule heating we seem likely to reach electron
temperatures of 4 - 5 keV, but we may doubt
whether it will be possible to raise the maximum
ion temperature of the plasma loop much beyond
3 keV (and even this estimate may be too optimis-
tic). For more effective heating of the plasma and
in particular of the ion component, several dif-
ferent methods have been proposed. We shall
only indicate some of these, without going into a
TOKAMAK DEVICES
detailed discussion, because up to the present
time the development of these new methods has
not reached the stage of practical application in
experiments on Tokamak devices.
One of the most natural ideas is to heat the
plasma by injecting into it an intensive flux of
neutral atoms obtained by charge-exchange of a
powerful ion flux or plasma jet with fast ions on a
gas target.
An idea of the requirements which would have to
be met by a neutral atom injector can be gained
from the following example: suppose that it is
necessary to heat to 10 keV a plasma with an ini-
tial density of 1 xlO14 occupying a volume of 1 m 3 .
Let the injection duration be 0. 05 s and the neutral
atom energy be 60 keV. In this case the atom flux
must be 10 21 /s, which corresponds to an ion
source current of about 160 A (it is assumed that
the temperature of both plasma components is the
same). The power injected will then be 9xlO3 kVA.
Note that these figures apply to the ideal case
where energy losses from the plasma can be
neglected.
At the earliest stage of investigations into plas-
ma behaviour in closed magnetic systems, a
method was proposed for heating the plasma loop
by what has been called "magnetic pumping", i. e.
periodic variation of the axial magnetic field
strength. In this method advantage would be taken
of the fact that with rapid rise of the magnetic
field the transverse component of the particle
kinetic energy increases (because the transverse
adiabatic invariant Wx/H is maintained). As a
result of collisions between particles, part of the
energy obtained is transferred to the axial com-
ponent of movement. Consequently a mechanism
of irreversible energy accumulation becomes
operative in the plasma during the oscillations of
magnetic field strength. The efficiency of this
type of heating, for a given amplitude of He field
oscillations, is at a maximum when the oscillation
frequency satisfies the condition uTk ~ 1 , T), being
the mean time between two Coulomb collisions.
However, this method is impracticable for heating
plasma in large installations with powerful mag-
netic fields. If a plasma with a density of appro-
ximately lxlO 14 had to be heated to a temperature
of the order of 10 keV in an installation with a
total HQ magnetic field volume of several cubic
metres, the oscillatory power of the magnetic
pumping system would have to be of the order of
several million kVA.
The author of this review has proposed a some-
what different method of magnetic pumping,
utilizing the non-uniformity of the axial magnetic
field H e . The idea underlying this method can be
described as follows.
The chamber in which the plasma loop is pro-
duced has the cross-section shown in Fig.46. The
plasma loop is shifted from position (1) to position
(2) by variation of the transverse magnetic field
Hp set up by the controlling coils. As higher HQ
field strengths are reached the plasma loop is
compressed and heated up, whereby the various
particle kinetic energy components increase in
249
ARTSIMOVICH
FIG.46. Schematic drawing showing plasma heating by plasma loop
change-over.
accordance with different laws. Owing to main-
tenance of the transverse adiabatic invariant,
during rapid compression the kinetic energy of
transverse movement Wx increases as the ratio
R(l)/R(2). The longitudinal kinetic energy com-
ponent should increase in the ratio R 2 (l)/R 2 (2)
when the longitudinal adiabatic invariant is con-
served. With the energy of the principal magnetic
field HQ practically unchanged, heating is effected
by variation of the relatively weak controlling field
H± . If we pass on from a single compression to a
periodic process in which the plasma loop fluc-
tuates between positions (1) and (2), the plasma
temperature will increase with each oscillation
cycle as a result of the difference in the laws of
variation of Wx and WH . In principle this method
of heating may prove much more efficient than the
original method of magnetic pumping because the
oscillation energy of the controlling field is rela-
tively low. Compared with the method which re-
lies on periodic variation of H e , the requisite
oscillation energy is reduced, in order of magni-
tude, as the ratio ~87rp/Hg. Later it was suggest-
ed that we could confine ourselves to single dis-
placement of the plasma loop with a simultaneous
increase in He field strength. It seems likely that
the plasma temperature could be raised by factors
of 2. 5 - 3 by this method.
To heat the ion component we can also make use
of various resonance phenomena accompanying the
absorption of high-frequency electromagnetic
waves by the plasma. This category includes
(1) the ion-cyclotron resonance at the ion Larmor
frequency and (2) the magneto-acoustic resonance
at high oscillation frequencies with a wavelength
of the order of the transverse dimensions of the
plasma. Electron heating can be effected by ab-
sorption of high-frequency oscillations at the
electron-cyclotron resonance and also at the so-
called "hybrid" resonance (at the frequency
u =\l wHeuHi ). We shall not dwell on these methods
here as they have been described in a number of
papers [59,60].
In principle, the technique known as turbulent
plasma heating can also be used on Tokamak de-
vices [61-63]. In fact, given a high anomalous
resistance, we are already close to the region
where a major role can be played by the collective
processes which develop at large u/v s and set up
a turbulent heating mechanism. It may be pos-
sible to strengthen the turbulent heating effect
considerably by applying a powerful axial electric
field to the plasma loop in the initial stage and
250
utilizing the skin effect to generate a very high
current density in the surface layer of the plasma,
thereby bringing the electrons into a state of con-
tinuous acceleration with very high u/v s . Hither-
to turbulent heating has been successfully de-
monstrated only in direct discharges, but in the
near future we can probably expect to see experi-
ments in which it will be employed to create high
temperature plasmas in toroidal systems of the
Tokamak type.
The development of new heating methods is not
the only way of improving the high-temperature
plasma parameters in Tokamak devices. It may
well be that systems with modified transverse
plasma column cross-sections will mark a signi-
ficant step forward in this direction. If magneto-
hydrodynamic stability of the column against heli-
cal and flute deformations is to be ensured, the
generalized Shafranov-Kruskal condition must be
observed. This takes the form
(15.1)
xx
(p •*• e
where &$ and 5fg denote the length of the trans-
verse plasma cross-section parameter (we are
dealing only with the case of axial symmetry here)
and the length of the column, respectively. If the
minimum acceptable stability margin q does not
depend on the shape of the plasma cross-section
(and this appears to be a valid assumption where
helical deformations are concerned), then by
adopting a column cross-section elongated along
the major toroidal axis instead of a circular cross-
section we can increase the ratio H /H 0 several
times. An increase in current magnetic field
strength should enhance the efficiency of Joule
heating and improve the thermal insulation of the
plasma. Hence it may well be that in devices
with an elongated column cross-section we will
succeed in obtaining a plasma with substantially
higher pressure than in conventional Tokamaks,
given equal axial magnetic fields HQ and equal
values of the geometric parameters R and 2a (2a
being the thickness of the plasma layer in the
R-direction). Since
(15.2)
for given values of q, ^(f)1 a and R the ratio of
plasma pressure to the pressure of the principal
magnetic field will increase as ( £f(p/2ira.)2. It is
also possible that, through an appropriate appli-
cation of additional magnetic fields to control the
equilibrium position of the plasma, the idea of a
diverter could be realized in such a device (in
other words it might be possible to remove from
the ring such impurity ions as enter the outer,
cold layers of the plasma as a result of its inter-
action with the walls). Rough theoretical calcula-
tions and preliminary experiments relating to a
system of this kind (it has been dubbed the "signet-
ring Tokamak") were performed in the Kurchatov

Institute several years ago. By now it seems
clear that this method of improving the plasma
parameters merits further, more extensive and
more thorough research. The promising results
of experiments carried out at Garching on devices
similar in concept, and reported at the Madison
Conference [67], would seem to indicate the same
conclusion.
In conclusion, it must be emphasized that this
survey was compiled almost exclusively from the
mass of information accumulated in the course
of lengthy experimental work on Tokamak devices
at the I. V. Kurchatov Institute of Atomic Energy.
A valuable contribution to this information was
made by British physicists from the Culham
Laboratory who, together with a group of Soviet
physicists, carried out laser scattering measure-
ments of electron temperature on the T-3 device.
At the present time a number of laboratories in
the United States of America and other countries
are participating in the Tokamak program [64-66].
Our knowledge of the the nature of processes
occurring in Tokamak devices should accordingly
be much extended and deepened in the near future.
This, in its turn, may eventually implant greater
certainty in our minds as to the prospects of in-
tensive thermonuclear reactions being achieved
on the basis of the principles underlying Tokamak.
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(Manuscript received 22 June 1971,
translation completed 30 July 1971,
final manuscript received 7 December 1971)