NNAMDI AZIKIWE UNIVERSITY, AWKA

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY
(CHE382)
ASSIGNMENT ON GLASS
BY
GROUP 6
NAMES REG. NUMBER
1. FRANK CHINYERE BLESSING 2017214052

2. MBONU CHINEDUM ENDURANCE 2014214292

3. OLOGWU CHRISTOPHER ALUM 2017214050

4. ARJI SAMSON IFEANYI 2017214048

5. AMAEZE CHIDERA PRECIOUS 2017214049

6. IWUCHUKWU EBUBE VALENTINE 2017214046

7. NWANKWO JEFFREY IZUNNA 2017214051

8. OGAI BENJAMIN UWAEZUOKE 2017214047

LECTURER: DR. IFEOMA OBIORA-OKAFO

31st March, 2021

GLASS
INTRODUCTION

Glass is the name given to all amorphous bodies that are obtained by lowering the
temperature of a melt independently of its chemical composition and the temperature
range of solidification, which as a result of the gradual increase of viscosity adopts the
mechanical properties of a solid body. Glass is melted at a temperature between 1000
and 2000° C. It is made by fusing sand with soda lime and sometimes other
ingredients followed by rapid cooling. The primary raw materials in glass are sand,
soda, limestone, clarifying agents, coloring and glistening glass. Glass sand is about
3/ 4 th of the entire glass composition.

Raw materials required for glass production

● Sodium as N a2 C O3 ( Used in soft glass ).

● Potassium as K 2 C O 3 ( Used in hard glass ).
● Calcium as limestone, chalk and lime.
● Lead as litharge, red lead ( flint glass ).
● Silica and quartz, white sand and ignited flint.
● Zinc oxide ( Heat and shock proof glass ).
● Borax, Boric acid ( Heat and shock proof glass ).
● Cullets or pieces of broken glass to increase fusibility.

Glass Components

● Formers ( Network formation )

○ Si O2 , B 2 O 3 , P 2 O 5 ,≥O 2 ,V 2 O 5 , A s 2 O3 , S b2 O5
❑

● Fluxes ( Softeners )
○ N a2 O , K 2 O , LiO , A l 2 O 3 , B2 O3 , C s2 O

● Stabilizers ( Provide Chemical Resistance )

○ CaO , MgO , A l2 O 3 , PbO , SrO , BaO , ZnO , ZrO

MANUFACTURING GLASS
Glass manufacturing process can be divided into four categories which include:
1. Melting
2. Forming and shaping
 3. Annealing
4. Finishing

1. Melting
Raw materials in proper proportions are mixed with cullets. It is a finely
powdered and intimate mixture called batch is fused in a furnace at high
temperature of 1800`C this charge melts and fuses into a viscous fluid.

CaC O3(s )+ SiO2 (s)−−−→CaSi O 3(aq) +C O2 (g)

N a2 C O3(s )+ Si O 2 (s)−−−→ N a2 Si O3(s) +C O2 (g)

After removal of C O2, decolorized Mn O 2 are added to remove traces of ferrous

compounds and carbon. Heating is continued till clear molten mass free from
bubbles is obtained and it is then cooled to about 800`C.

2. Forming and Shaping

The viscous mass obtained from melting is poured into moulds to get different types
of articles of desired shape by either blowing or pressing between the rollers.

3. Annealing
Glass articles are then allowed to cool gradually at room temperature by passing
through different chambers with descending temperatures. This reduces the internal
strain in the glass.
 4. Finishing
Finishing is the last step in glass manufacturing. It involves the following
steps:
➢ Cleaning
➢ Grinding
➢ Polishing
➢ Cutting
➢ Sand Blasting

PROPERTIES OF GLASS
● Glass is an amorphous solid.
● It is brittle.
● Transparent / Translucent
● It is a good electrical insulator.
● Unaffected by air, water, acid or chemical reagents except hydrogen fluoride
HF .
● It has no definite crystal structure, which means that glass has a high
compressive strength.
● It can absorb, transmit and reflect light.
● The surface of glass is affected if it is exposed for a long time to alkalis (and
ammonia gases in damp air) in conjunction with high temperatures.
● It softens over a temperature range because contrary to solid bodies of
crystalline structure, glass has no defined melting point. It continuously
transforms from the solid state to the viscous plastic state

VARIETIES OF GLASS

Soda lime or soft Potash lime or hard Lead glass or flint Borosilicate or
 glass glass glass Pyrex glass

Alumino-Silicate 96% Silica glass 99.5% Silica glass Safety glass

glass ( Vitreosil)

Optical or Crook’s Poly-crystalline Toughened glass Coloured glass

glass glass

Wired Glass Glass Wool Fiberglass Photosensitive

glass

Photo-chromic Neutral glass Laminated glass Insulating glass

glass

Soda Lime or Soft Glass

● About 90% of all glass is soda lime glass made with silica (sand), Calcium
carbonate and soda ash.
● The approximate composition is N a2 C O3 . CaO .6 Si O2
● They are low cost, resistant to water but not to acids.
● They can melt easily and hence can be hot worked.
Uses:
● Window glass, Electric bulbs, Plate glass, Bottles, Jars, cheaper table wares, test
tubes, reagent bottles etc.

Potash lime or hard glass

● Potash lime glass is made with silica (sand), Calcium carbonate and potassium
carbonate.
● The approximate composition is K 2 C O 3 . CaO .6 Si O 2
● They possess high melting point, fuse with difficulty and are less acted upon by
acides, alkaline and other solvents than ordinary glass.
Uses:
● These glasses are costlier than soda lime glass and are used for chemical
apparatus, combustion tubes and glassware which are used for heating
operations.
Lead Glass Or Flint Glass
 ● It is made up of lead oxide fluxed with silica and K 2 C O3 is used instead of
sodium oxide.
● Its approximate composition is K 2 C O 3 . PbO . SiO2
● To get dense optical glasses about 80% lead oxide is used. Lead glasses have a
lower softening temperature than soda glass and higher refractive index and
good electrical properties. It is bright, lustrous and possesses high specific
gravity.
Uses:
● High quality table wares, optical lenses, neon sign tubing, cathode ray tubes,
electrical insulators, crystal art objects or cut glass, Windows and Shields for
protection against X-rays and Gamma rays in medical and atomic energy fields
etc.

Borosilicate / Pyrex / jena glass

● It is a common hard glass containing silica and boron with a small amount of
alumina and less alkaline solids.
● It contains Si O2 (80.5 %), B 2 O3 (13.0 %), A l 2 O 3 (3.0 %), K 2 O(3.0 %)∧N a2 O(0.5 %).
These glass have low thermal coefficient of expansion, and high chemical
resistance i.e shock proof.
Uses:
● Industrially used for pipelines of corrosive liquids, gauge glasses, superior
laboratory apparatus, kitchen wares, chemical plants, television tubes,
electrical insulators etc.

Alumino-Silicate Glass
● The typical approximate composition of this type of glass is
Si O2 (55.0 %) , A l 2 O 3 (23.0 %), MgO (9.0 %), B2 O3 (7.0 %) ,CaO (5.0 %)∧N a2 O , K 2 O(1.0 % )
● This type of glass possesses exceptionally high softening temperature.
Uses:
● It is used for high pressure mercury discharge tubes and certain domestic
equipment.

96% Silica Glass

● It contains 96% silica, 3% B2 O 3 and traces of other materials.
● It is translucent, the coefficient of thermal expansion is very low hence it has
high resistance to thermal shock, and has high chemical resistance to corrosive
agents and is corroded only by hydrofluoric acid, hot phosphoric acids and
concentrated alkaline solutions.

Uses:
 ● Used only where high temperature resistance is required ( 800`C). They are
used in construction of chemical plants, laboratory crucibles, induction furnace
lining and electrical insulators.

99.5% Silica Glass / Vitreosil

● It contains pure silica heated to its melting point. It is translucent, the
coefficient of thermal expansion is very low hence it has high resistance to
thermal shock, and high chemical resistance to corrosive agents.
● If Vitreosil glass is heated above its melting point, it becomes transparent and
is known as clear silica glass.
Uses:
● They are used in construction of chemical plants, laboratory crucibles,
induction furnace lining, electrical insulators and heaters and have high light
transmission properties.

Safety Glass
● It is made by fusing two to three flat sheets of glass and in between them an
alternate thin layer of vinyl plastic is introduced. It is heated where both the
layers merge together and glass is toughened.
Uses:
● It is used as windshield in automobiles and airplanes. On breaking it pieces do
not fly apart because of the presence of the plastic layer in between the glass
layers.

Optical Or Crook’s Glass

● It contains phosphorus, PbC O3, silicates and cerium oxide which has the
property to absorb harmful ultraviolet light. This glass is given through
homogeneity by heating if for a prolonged period of time. These glasses have
low melting point and are relatively soft.
Uses:
● They are used for making optical lenses.

Poly-Crystalline Glass
● It is a new type of glass which is produced by adding nucleating agents to a
conventional glass batch and then shaped into desired form. It is then subjected
to heating where nucleating agents form large numbers of micro crystallites. It
is not ductile. It exhibits high strength and considerable hardness.
Uses:
● For making specialized articles.
Toughened Glass
● It is made by dipping articles still hot in an oil bath, so that chilling takes place.
This results in the outer layer of articles shrinking and acquiring a state of
compression while the inner layer is in a state of tension. Such glass is more
elastic to mechanical and thermal shock.
It breaks into a fine powder.
Uses:
● For making window shields of fast moving vehicles, windows of furnace and
automatic opening doors.

Coloured Glass

Addition of transition metal compounds to glass gives color to the glass. They are
outlined below.

Yellow: Ferric Salts Green: Ferrous and Purple: Manganese

Chromium salts dioxide salt

Red: Nickel and cuprous Lemon Yellow: Cadmium Fluorescent greenish

salt C u2 O sulphide yellow:
Uranium oxide

Blue: Cobalt Salts, CuO Greenish Blue Color: Brown: Iron

Copper Sulphate

Opaque milky white: Ruby: Auric Chloride

Cryolite of Calcium
phosphate

Wired Glass
● Wired glass does not fall apart into splinters when it breaks and is fire resistant.
It is made by fusing wire in between the two glass layers.
Uses:
● For making fire resistant doors, roofs, skylights and windows.

Fibre Glass
● It is transformed into a fine thread of filament and has got a high tensile
strength.

Uses:
 ● Found extensive use for the manufacture of fabric, reinforcing plastics and
production of thermal insulation materials etc.

Photosensitive Glass
● These are glasses by which a colored picture may be developed by exposing the
glass to black and white negative in ultraviolet light. The appropriate
proportions of potash-alumina glass, mixed with LiS O3 , cerium and silver salts
have also been used as photosensitive glass.
Uses:
● Photographic development

Glass Wool
● Glass wool consists of tiny fibers formed by action of steam jets on dripping
molten glass down from a very fine hole.
Uses:
● Heat insulation, for filtration of corrosive chemical, sound insulation etc.

Photo-Chromic Glass
● The three dimensional silicate network contains a large number of microscopic
particles of silver halide which on exposure to light produce color.
Uses:
● In making tinted car glasses and goggles.

Neutral Glass
● These glasses are highly resistant to chemical attacks and they are specialized
soda lime glass where alkali has been replaced by alumina, boron oxide and
zinc oxide.
Uses:
● Making syringes, Injection ampoules and vials etc.

Laminated Glass
● The sheets of glass fiber or glass wool are soaked in a solution of thermosetting
plastic like phenol formaldehyde resin and placed one above the other and then
cured under heat or pressure. It is strong as steel. Non flammable and
insulating. In bullet resistant glass vinyl resins are added in alternate layers.
Uses:
● Shatter, shock and bullet proof glass

Insulating Glass
 ● Two or more plates of glass are filled with dehydrated air and the edges are
sealed air-tightly.
Uses:
● Provides thermal insulating and so houses remain cool in summer and warm in
winter.

DISADVANTAGES OF GLASS
● Cost: Manufacturing of glass is a highly energy consuming process due to high
temperatures required for processing the raw materials. This increases the cost
of manufacturing.
● Brittleness: A material which breaks into pieces or which can be easily reduced
to powder form is known as a brittle material. Glass is a stiff, rigid and a brittle
material. When it is subjected to stress, it breaks without significant strain.
Broken pieces of glass may be sharp, and chances of injury are very high.
● Impact Resistance: Glass is less impact resistant, so the capability of the glass
to withstand an immediately applied load is very poor. It will immediately
break under impact.
● Etching on Glass surface: Glass is less impact resistant, so the capability of the
glass to withstand an immediately applied load is very poor. It will immediately
break under impact.
● Corrosion due to alkalis solution: Glass is affected by alkalis ions. Alkali
solution dissolves a glass surface, and if the supply of alkali is more, this type of
corrosion takes place at a uniform rate.
References
1. Wikipedia, Glass production, .: link
2. Werner Vogel: "Glass Chemistry"; Springer-Verlag Berlin and Heidelberg
GmbH & Co. K; 2nd revised edition (November 1994)
3. https://www.slideshare.net/prashantmehta371/glass-9219937