science

SCIENCE
PRINCESS CARSTEN C. DELA PEÑA

Science 1st Quarter by Princess Carsten Page 1

FORCES
FORCES

- can be operationally defined based on observed effects. This means

that a force can be described in terms of what it does. However, forces do not
always cause motion. It does not necessarily follow that forces acting on an object
will always cause it to move. Figures below are examples where forces have
tendency of changing the motion of an object or not.

To accurately describe the forces acting on an object, let us examine the figure below:

Direction - Point of Application - location where the

refers to a force is applied
point where
the object Line of Action- straight line
goes passing through the point
of application and is
parallel to the direction of
force
Magnitude - refers to how strong the force is.
•ex. If you push something to a strong force it will move fast on QUICK NOTE:
the line of action because the amount of force or the magnitude DISPLACEMENT - the gap between
affects its velocity. It also goes the same if it's the other way the initial position of an object and
around. If you push something gently it will move slower. The it's final position.
greater the magnitude the faster its velocity. VELOCITY - vector measurement
- It is commonly expressed in Newton (N) for Meter-Kilogram- of the rate & direction of motion.
Second (MKS) system, Dyne (dyn) for Centimeter–Gram–Second ACCELERATION - Time rate of
(CGS) system and pounds (lbs) for Foot– Pound–Second (FPS) change of velocity of an object
system. In the International System of Units (SI), Newton is
commonly used which is named after Sir Isaac Newton, an
English physicist and mathematician.

There are 2 types of Force:

CONTACT FORCES
These are Forces where an object needs physical
contact to another object
Examples of contact forces are:

1. Applied
- a force given to a person or object by another person or object.
- Its symbol is F depending on who or what applies force to the object. If a boy applies a force
to a wall, we denote it with FBOY
2. Friction
- refers to the force that acts opposite or against another object. Causes the movement of an
object to slow down.
- FF is the symbol of Friction Force. Air resistance denoted by F AIR is an example of frictional
force of the air against a flying kite, airplanes, parachutes or those in skydiving sports. For
free-falling objects, this force is always considered negligible, meaning the magnitude is
unnoticeable.
3. Normal
- The force that acts perpendicular to an object.
- FN is the symbol of Normal Force
4. Tension
- The force applied to a string, rope, chain, cable and the like.
-FT is the symbol of Tension Force

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 NON-CONTACT FORCES
Forces where objects do not touch or contact with each other.
These forces act over a zone or area called field.

There are 2 examples of Non-Contact Forces:

1. Gravitational Force
- It is the Force of attraction between two objects. The Force that attracts objects towards
earth
- The bigger the masses of the objects are, the bigger is
the gravitational force between them. The closer the objects are, the greater is the
gravitational force between them
2. Magnetic Force
- The force that is exerted on what we call a field of attraction or repulsion.
- The magnet has 2 poles, The South pole, and the North pole. Attraction of the magnetic
material does not take place with the same poles, meaning attraction occurs only between
opposite poles.
- Magnets don't necessarily need to be in contact with other magnetic materials to make
it move. The force that is being exerted in a field of attraction or repulsion moves a
magnetic material without the magnet touching it.

We defined force as the push and pull applied to an object. It is the primary cause of all the motion
and movements we see every day. It has also been said that force is present even if an object is not
moving. It is because we have what we call balanced and unbalanced forces.

BALANCED FORCES - Are those which are of opposite directions and equal in magnitude.

•ex. Take a look at this book on top of the table. It is not

moving simply because the forces are in the same or
equal magnitude. Equal magnitude of forces means there
is no change in motion that is why the book remains at
rest. This is what we call Balanced Forces

UNBALANCED FORCES - Are those which are in opposite direction and un equal in magnitude.

•ex. Take a look at this ball. Let's assume that the force from the left is
50N and the force from the right is 200N. The ball will move to 50N 200N
the left, this is because the force from the right is stronger than
the force from the left.

Net or Resultant Force

- The sum of all the forces that act on an object. If the net force is zero 0 The forces are balanced.
This means that there is no change of movement or velocity on the object where the forces are acting
upon. Meanwhile, If the force is greater than zero 0 that means that there is a greater amount of
force, so expect a change in motion and velocity of an object.
-To solve the net force we use FNET=ΣF we use FNET as a symbol for NET force. Meanwhile, the
symbol sigma Σ and the uppercase letter F symbolized as the sum of the existing forces in the same
line of action. We also use the algebraic signs + positive and - negative to indicate the direction of the
force. Forces that exerted to the right get a positive + sign, and forces exerted to the left gets a
negative - sign. For vertical forces, Forces exerted upwards↑ gets a positive + sign, and forces exerted
downwards↓ gets a negative - sign.
-We can only add forces which are in the same line of action.

Science 1st Quarter by Princess Carsten Page 3

LAWS OF MOTION
MOTION

- Is referred to as an object's change in position upon application of force by another object. If there is
unbalanced force, it is expected that the object which the force has acted upon will be in motion

- Motion has been studied by many great minds

Aristotle
- believed that a moving object needs a continuous application of force to
keep it moving. To him, an object is naturally at rest. He believed that the
greater the force on the object, the greater is its speed. He introduced the idea
of impetus that keeps a body in motion.

John Philoponus
- conceptualized the idea of surrounding force similar to inertia found in
Galileo’s idea and Newton’s First Law of Motion. He first introduced “Theory
of Impetus”, a concept similar to force. According to the theory, when impetus
decreases, the speed of the object also decreases. When that impetus is
removed, the object stops moving.

Jean Buridan
- also saw impetus as the cause of movement. He further developed the
“Theory of Impetus” introduced by Philoponus. According to him, motion is
possible through a “mover” that keeps the object moving with power
proportional to the speed and mass of the object. When the mover is
removed, the object stops moving. He later named impetus as force.

Galileo Galilei
- on the other hand, disagreed to Aristotle. He claimed that even without a
continuous application of force, an object can continue to move with constant
speed in a straight line provided there are no outside forces acting on it.

Isaac Newton
- used Galileo’s ideas and
eventually formulated the three laws on motion.

Many phenomena can be explained by the use of actual observation and simple common sense. Many
attempts have been done to provide a set of ideas about motion. One of the famous men who developed
an explanation for motion, which lasted for almost 2000 years, was the Greek philosopher Aristotle
(384-322 B.C.). His ideas were based on very common experiences. Aristotle formulated the idea that, for
an object to move, a force must be exerted on it; but when this force is removed, the object comes to
rest.

Another important man is Galileo Galilei. In his experiment, he let a perfectly round ball rolled down an
inclined surface and prepared three set ups under ideal conditions (lack of friction and air resistance).
The following were his observations:

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 1. In the First set up, the ball is released at a certain
height. It speeds up and, if it rolls up another inclined
surface of the same slope, it slows down and reaches
the same height.

2. In the second set up, the ball is released from the same
height as the first set up. It speeds up and if it is rolling up
another inclined surface that is not as steep as the first set
up, it slows down and reaches the same height. However,
it covers a farther distance as it rolls up the slope.

3. In the last set up, the ball is released from the same
height as the first set up. This time, it continues to roll
in a flat surface. The ball does not speed up nor slow
down as if it continues to move forever.

Galileo concluded that in the absence of friction and air resistance, the ball would continue rolling up to a
height above the base equal to the height from where it was released. On a flat surface, the ball would continue
to move forever, since there would be no force to cause its state of motion to change.

Galileo was the first to suggest that uniform speed straight-line motion was just as natural as at-rest state of
motion. He called this tendency of an object to maintain its initial state of motion as inertia.

Although Galileo did not fully explain motion, he took the first important step that completely changed the
world’s view about motion of objects. Galileo greatly influenced other scientists including Sir Isaac Newton who
then formulated the three laws of motion.

NEWTON'S 3 LAWS OF MOTION

THE LAW OF INERTIA

an object at rest remains at rest, and an object in motion will continue to move at constant
velocity unless acted upon by a net force

- The tendency of an object to maintain its state of rest or of uniform velocity in a straight
line is called inertia.
ex. Airplane has a great amount of inertia, that is because mass is a measure of the inertia of an
object. This mean, that the greater the mass of an object, the harder it is to move when it’s rest and
difficult to stop when in motion.

THE LAW OF ACCELERATION

the acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net force acting on it and is
inversely proportional to the object’s mass. The direction of the acceleration is in the
direction of the net force acting on the object.
- ∑ ⃗ = ⃗ is the equation for the Law of Acceleration. ∑ (sigma) stands for the algebraic sum. ∑
stands for the net force acting on the object, m for mass of the object and for its acceleration. The
arrow above the letters F and a indicates that both have magnitude and direction.

For better understanding we have to be familiar with the correct units for mass, acceleration, and
force, which vary from one system to another.

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 ⃗ ⃗

In problem solving, we again use the Formula∑ =

- If the net force is missing, we just have multiply the given Mass and
Acceleration
- If the Acceleration or Mass is the one missing, we just have to divide the given
Net Force and Mass/Acceleration.
-If the Net force and the given Mass or Accelerations unit system do not match,
we just have to convert it to the Net Forces unit system.
-If the given Net Force are 2, we just simply add the given forces.

The Force of Gravity or Weight which affects the weight of an object

- In one of Galileo's experiments, objects dropped near the surface of the earth would fall with the
same acceleration if air resistance is neglected.

g = 9.8m/s² (MKS System) The Force that causes acceleration is called the Force of Gravity
= 980m/s² (CGS System) or Gravitational Force.
= 32ft/s² (FPS System)

The Gravitational Force of an object can be expressed ⃗ = ⃗

If the persons weight is 40kg the computed weight on that person is 392N
Fg = mg
Fg (40kg) (9.8m/s² )
Fg = 392N

THE LAW OF INTERACTION

For every action, there is always an equal and opposite reaction. In this law, Forces come in pairs.
This are called Action and Reaction Forces and they do not act in the same body.

ex. If you push the wall is not only you exerting a force, the wall is also exerting a force back on you.
- In determining the Action and Reaction Forces be able to Identify
•The action that requires force
•The action force that counteracts the action force.

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POTENTIAL ENERGY AND KENETIC
ENERGY
POTENTIAL AND KINETIC ENERGY

- Work is an abstract idea that is related to energy. An object needs energy to do work. Energy is the ability
or capacity to do work. It's unit is same as the unit of work expressed in JOULE (J) in the IS system or in the
International System of unit. One Joule of energy is needed to accomplish one Joule of work. Work is done if
the object moves in the same direction as it is exerted.
Potential Energy
- The energy stored in an object or substance which is based on its position, arrangement or state.

We have learned that force of gravity is the force exerted by the Earth on all things. It is always
directed downward or towards the center of the Earth. Consequently, when an object is raised from
the Earth, the force exerted in lifting the object is equal to its weight,
F = Weight = mg
The work done in lifting the object is:
W=Fd
Where, the displacement (d) is the height (h) the object is raised. Thus, the work done in lifting the
object against the gravitational force is given by
W=mgh

Work done is equal to the Potential Energy gained. Thus,

PE = m g h

Ex. Jenny lifted a book with a mass of 1.5kg at 0.9m above the floor.]
Given :
Mass = 1.5kg PE = m g h
Height = 0.9m PE = 1.5kg • 9.8m/s² • 0.9m
Gravity = 9.8m/s² PE = 13.23kg m²/s²
Kinetic Energy
- Energy of an object in motion. Comes from the Greek word "Kinetikos" = moving

Kinetic Energy can be computed using KE = ½mv²

The unit of Kinetic Energy is still JOULE (J)
if mass is doubled; velocity is constant = KE is doubled
if mass is constant; velocity is doubled = KE is increased 4times
Thus, the greater the mass the greater the kinetic energy,
and the faster the speed the higher the kinetic energy as well
Ex. Two trucks with masses of 5000kg and 10000kg travel at the same velocity of 3m/s. Find the
kinetic energy of each truck.
Given:
Truck 1 Truck 2 KE = ½mv² KE = ½mv²
KE = ½mv² 5000kg (3m/s²) KE = ½mv² 10000kg (3m/s²)
Mass (M) 5000kg 10000kg KE = ½mv² 5000kg (9m²/s²) KE = ½mv² 10000kg (9m²/s²)
Velocity (V) 3m/s 3m/s KE = ½mv² 45,000kg m²/s² KE = ½mv² 90,000kg m²/s²
KE ? ? KE = 22,500kg m²/s² KE = 45,000kg m²/s²
KE = 22,500J KE = 45,000J

How does this to connect with each other?

For example there is an Apple Tree. The apple hanging on it consists Potential Energy since this
is only hanging. If the apple falls down, It now consist Kinetic Energy since the apple has fallen down.

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Effect of Temperature to
Speed of Sound
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE TO SPEED OF SOUND

- Sounds travel in the form of sound waves, and the vibrations are heard when they reach our ears.
There are factors that affect the speed of sound that is why some sounds can hardly be heard.
Sound waves are affected by manufacturers as they travel in various channels and media. This media
where sound waves travel can either be SOLID, LIQUID, or GASES. Sound waves travels the fastest in
solids and slowest in gases. The speed of sound can be affected by the elasticity and density of the
medium.
Elasticity - Is the ability of a deformed material to return to its original form, shape, or size after
removing the force that causes the deformation. Some examples of elastic materials are steel, and
rubber. Atoms and molecules in elastic materials have a strong attraction towards each other and as a
result, sound energy is transferred faster.
Density - is the intrinsic property of any object. It is an object's mass per unit volume which is
obtained by dividing the mass of the object by its volume. It is a description of how compact the
atoms and molecules in an object. In less dense objects, the atoms and molecules are less compact.
Meaning, the transfer of sound energy is slower. However, in Denser objects the atoms and molecules
are more compact. Thus, sound energy is transferred faster.
There are other factors that affects the speed of sound. One of which is Temperature. As said earlier,
sound waves travels in different media. One of this media is Gas, there are times that sounds are
quite delayed especially when heard from afar, that is because the temperature of air has something
to do with it.
SPEED OF SOUND
The speed of sound in dry air, which is at 0 0C, is around 331 m/s. That speed increases by 0.60 m/s
with every increase of 1°C because as temperature rises, molecule in the air move faster more often,
resulting to transfer more sound energy. The warmer the temperature the faster the sound travels
v= 331 m/s + (0.6 m/s/°C) T
Where: v = speed
T = Temperature in °C
Ex. What is the speed of sound if the air temperature is 30°C
Given: T 30°C
Solution: v = 331 m/s + (0.6 m/s / °C) T
= 331 m/s + (0.6 m/s / °C) 30°C
= 331 m/s + (18 m/s )
= 349 m/s
There are many reasons why some concerts are often held at night, one of these is because day time and night
time temperatures have effect and sound. This is because the properties of sound Reflection and Refraction.

Reflection - Described as the turning back of the wave as it hits a barrier. The echo is an example of reflected
sound. Reverberation, on the other hand, refers to multiple reflections or echoes in a certain place. This best
fits the bathroom which enhances the voice. In close concerts venues like example held in a room, reflection of
sound and reverberation are noticeable, this happens because the sound waves hit the wall of the close space
and remain hitting barrier that causes sound echoes.
Refraction - Is the change in direction of sound waves as they pass from one medium to another. Sound waves
travel slower in cooler air than in warmer air. When a sound wave propagates in the air with temperature
which changes with altitude, refraction happens. A sound wave travels from air of higher temperature to
lower temperature. During the daytime, sound travels faster at the earth’s surface since the air molecules are
hotter due to the energy absorbed from the earth’s ground. The air molecules at the higher altitude are cooler
than those at the earth’s surface, causing sound waves to refract upward. On the other hand, during night
time, the earth’s surface is cooler and the layer of air immediately above it is also cooler. As a result, sound
travels faster at the higher altitude and is refracted or bent towards the ground. f

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COLORS OF LIGHT
Colors of light
- The colors we see are part of the Electromagnetic Spectrum specifically called, the visible spectrum.
We see particular colors because objects absorb or reflect wavelengths of light. The spectrum of colors
ranges from violet to red, and each color has its own specific wavelength. Red has the longest and
violet has the shortest.
- Have you ever wondered how a majestic rainbow is formed? Why do we see spectacular events in the sky
like a red sunset, a blue sky, rainbows, and many more. how is the arrangement of colors determined nature?
- Light is a kind of energy that can travel through space in the form of waves, Light from the sun looks white
but it is really a mixture of many colors. The colors in white light are the ROYGBIV.
Dispersion is a kind of refraction which provides us colors of light. Refraction is the bending of light from one
medium to another. This phenomenon is observe when white light passes through a prism. A prism is a
transparent optical instrument with flat and polished surfaces that disperse light, It can be made from any
transparent materials like glass, plastic or fluorite. Water in a glass can also act as prism, it also brakes white
light into the following colors namely ROYGBIV.

• The frequency of light wave refers to the number of waves that move past a certain point in one second.
Frequency is generally measured in Hertz, the units of cycles per second.
• Wave frequency is related to wave energy. The more energy in the wave, the higher its frequency. The lower
the frequency is, the less energy in the wave.
- Within the band of visible light, the different wavelengths are perceived by people as different colors. The
shortest wavelength is violet, and the longest wavelength is red.

Refraction is the bending of light when it travels from one medium to another. When light crosses the
boundary of two media of different optical density, a change in speed takes place. The Optical Density is the
measurement of a component’s ability to slow the transmission of light. This change in speed is manifested by
the bending of the light ray. The index of refraction of a material is a quantity that compares the speed of light
in a material to its speed in a vacuum.
Light travels from air to the water. When the light enters the glass, which is denser than air, it
slows down and is bent. Observe that the angle of incidence is greater than the angle of
refraction. You can see that the light ray refracts or bends towards the normal. Thus, light bends
towards the normal when travelling from a less dense medium to a higher density medium and
light bends away from the normal when travelling from denser to less dense medium like when
light ray leaves the water.
• The incoming ray is called the incident ray from medium 1 and the outgoing ray is the
refracted ray in medium 2, and the associated angles are the angle of incidence and the angle of
refraction.
When white light enters a prism, separation into seven different colors is observed. The refractive indices of the
different colors of light indicate that it travels at different speeds in the prism which accounts for the different
degrees of bending.In terms of frequency and energy of colors, blue, indigo and violet are the ones with the
highest frequency and energy. These colors are the ones that are bent the most. At the end of the spectrum, red
is the one with the lowest frequency and energy. It is the color that is bent the least and violet is the most bent.

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english
ENGLISH
PRINCESS CARSTEN C. DELA PEÑA

English 1st Quarter by Princess Carsten Page 10

CONTEXT CLUES
CONTEXT CLUES
- are words that appear in sentences to help understand the meanings of difficult words. This are hints found
within what you just read that you can use to understand the meanings of new or unfamiliar words.

Context clues are of different types:

1. by Definition
- the unfamiliar word is defined in a sentence
Example:
A treasure hunter is a person who searches for treasures from sunken ships and ancient tombs to obtain
valuable relics and artifacts. (definition: a person who searches for treasures)
2. by Synonym
- a similar word is placed in the same sentence to know the meaning of the unfamiliar word
Example:
It is common for Filipinos to feel compassion or pity for the suffering of their fellowmen. (synonym: pity)
3. by Antonym
- an opposite word is placed in the same sentence
Example:
Among the siblings of thin body structure, Isabel is the only one who is portly. (antonym: thin)
4. by Comparison
- a similar word with the same meaning of the unfamiliar word is placed with an object to be compared
Example:
The stench of the garbage was like the smell of a rotten fish. (comparison: rotten fish)
5. by Example
- samples are provided in the sentence to understand the meaning of the unfamiliar word
Example:
In ancient times, some of our forefathers believed in amulets, such as pearl of the crocodile, pearl of the ax,
bullet necklace, and bag of herbs to protect them from harm. (example: pearl of the crocodile, pearl of the
ax, bullet necklace, bag of herbs)
6. by Explanation
- a description is given to understand the meaning of the unfamiliar word
Example:
Matthew had few infractions of the house rules that he should have done as part of his responsibilities.
(explanation: house rules that he should have done)
7. by Cause-Effect
- the meaning of the difficult word depends on the cause-effect relationship of other words as expressed in
the sentence
Example:
Since only a few followed the wearing of face mask, it was made mandatory by the government.
(cause: only a few followed the wearing of face mask)
8. by List or Series of clues
- to understand the meaning of the unknown word, it is included in a series of words given in a sentence
Example:
After the program, the rubbish left were souvenir programs, flyers, leaflets plastic bottles, and food
wrappings.
(list: souvenir programs, flyers, leaflets, plastic bottles, food wrappings)
9. by Inference
- to understand the meaning of the unknown word, one has to make a guess based on the description given
in the sentence
Example:
When one shows belligerence, harsh words, disruptive actions, and offensive behaviors can be observed.
(description: harsh words, disruptive action, offensive behavior)

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WRITING BIBLIOGRAPHY

English 1st Quarter by Princess Carsten Page 12