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Chapter 23 Eating and Feeding Disorders
Chapter 23 Eating and Feeding Disorders
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Miri Keren
pediatricians and to infant mental health units, Spitz, as early as 1946, observed a link between
including our own (Keren, Feldman, & Tyano, severe food refusal and “anaclitic depression.”
2001). This is not surprising, as eating and Kreisler (1981) introduced the concept of devi-
sleeping are the main daily activities during ant eating behaviors in the first year of life as
the first year of life, and both are dependent on a psychosomatic disorder, like sleep problems,
the interplay between an infant’s characteristics breath-holding spells, and infant colic, thus em-
and a caregiver’s behaviors. phasizing the now well-accepted mind–body
In this chapter, after reviewing some histori- interplay. Later, describing “psychogenic fatal
cal considerations about the concept of eating vomiting,” Kreisler (1999) reminded us of how
and feeding problems in infancy, I emphasize severe an eating disorder in the first year of life
the distinction between eating and feeding pro- can be. Green (1985), drawing on the work of
cesses and problems, then follow with a review Powell, Brasel, and Blizzard (1967), noted a
of the parental risk factors and the role of the special category of reactive attachment disorder
quality of the parent–infant relationship in the of infancy, “psychosocial dwarfism,” character-
development of eating disorders. Regarding ized by growth retardation and mood distur-
the classification of eating disorders in infan- bance associated with a reversible hypopituita-
cy, I describe the similarities and differences, rism and low growth hormone levels. Through
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as well as the contributions and shortcomings, the 1980s, feeding disturbances were often
of DC:0–3R (Zero to Three, 2005), DC:0–5 conflated with reactive attachment disorder, in-
(Zero to Three, 2016), and DSM-5 (American cluding in DSM-III (American Psychiatric As-
Psychiatric Association, 2013). I then provide sociation, 1980), but it is now clear that although
a clinical description and treatment of each of eating disorders and attachment disorders may
the three main categories—overeating disorder, co-occur, they are distinct disorders.
undereating disorder, and atypical eating dis- Chatoor and Egan (1983), for example, re-
order—with short, illustrative case vignettes. I ported their own observation that a disturbed
end with a section on the different aspects of parent–infant primary caregiving relationship
the evaluation of infants referred for an eating may be the underlying cause of a significant
behavior problem. eating disorder, even in the absence of the ex-
392
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23. Eating and Feeding Disorders 393
treme condition of reactive attachment disorder. procedures or conditions. On the other hand,
Both Chatoor, Hirsch, Ganiban, Persinger, and disturbed eating may be observed only in the
Hamburger (1998) in the United States and Kre- context of a specific feeding relationship, as it
isler (1999) in France defined infantile anorex- reflects the disturbed dyadic or family relation-
ia nervosa as clinical feeding disturbances in ship of which the eating problem is only one of
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394 I V . P sychopathology
conditions among young children (Micali et al., toms on the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression
2009). A relatively recent study (Braden et al., Scale. In another study of 219 fathers of infants
2014) has shown that mothers with binge eating ages 1–24 weeks, Cockshaw, Muscat, Obst, and
and depression tend to offer food to soothe their Thorpe (2014) found a link between paternal
child’s negative emotions, which leads the child depressive symptoms and infant feeding dif-
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American families and detected postpartum in studies about feeding disorders, and have
depression among 14% of mothers and 10% of been shown to be less sensitive and more in-
fathers. Mothers who were depressed were ap- trusive, and their children were less responsive
proximately 1.5 times more likely to engage in to them during play and feeding (Atzaba-Poria
less healthy feeding and sleep practices, and et al., 2010). Interestingly, child temperament
both mothers and fathers engaged less positive- was linked to father–child conflict and con-
ly with their child. Similarly, in a general popu- trol around mealtimes, but not to mother–child
lation screening study conducted in Finland conflictual feeding interaction (Aviram et al.,
(Luoma et al., 2013) among 194 families, 21% 2015). Family conflicts around food and control
of fathers and 24% of mothers scored above the are quite common; often one of the parents is
cutoff point for depressive and anxiety symp- him- or herself a picky eater, and the tense at-
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23. Eating and Feeding Disorders 395
mosphere impacts on the young child’s eating ing behaviors and social problems. There were
behavior (Davies et al., 2006). significant correlations between the children’s
eating problems and their emotional difficul-
ties, and their mothers’ increased emotional
Approaches to Classification in Early Childhood distress and disturbed eating attitudes. Very re-
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396 I V . P sychopathology
based on weight or nutritional deficiencies, but observable eating behaviors: overeating disor-
more on the impact of the eating problem on the der, undereating disorder, and atypical eating
child’s physical and social–emotional develop- disorders.
ment, and/or on the family overall functioning.
“Feeding disorder of caregiver–infant reci-
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that variable phenotypes may exist within the rizza, Vecchi, & Tedeschi, 2011). Still, parents
broad criteria. and caregivers play a crucial role in modeling
children’s eating behaviors (Birch et al., 2001;
Birch & Doub, 2014). Chronic misreading of
DC:0–5
infant feeding cues, such as feeding when the
The overarching changes that were made in infant is not hungry, has been shown to con-
DC:0–5 classification, as well as the specific tribute to the development of overweight by im-
changes in the category of eating disorders, pairing the infant’s response to internal states
have been described in detail elsewhere (see of hunger and satiation. Caregivers who exert
Keren, 2016). DC:0–5 defines three main cat- excessive control over what and how much
egories of eating disorders, based on the child’s children eat contribute to childhood excessive
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23. Eating and Feeding Disorders 397
weight gain and obesity. Control comes in three velopment in Quebec (Dubois et al., 2007) per-
forms: restriction of food to prevent overweight formed on 1,498 children revealed that overeat-
(especially common among parents who have ers at the age of 2.5 years were six times more
problems controlling their own food intake), likely to be overweight at 4.5 years. Hence, it is
pressure to eat more food, and pressure to eat important to diagnose and to treat the disorder
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cohort study (Munkholm et al., 2016) has shown weight, with normal development; his affect
that overeating at ages 5–7 years was associated was sober, and he preferred staying close to his
with restrained eating in preadolescence. These father rather than playing during his assessment
findings do not support continuity of diagnosed in the clinic. He had been a fussy baby, and he
eating disorders in early childhood into adoles- was given the bottle as a soother. Daily separa-
cence/young adulthood. tions were hard on him, as was falling asleep at
Still, there are significant long-term conse- night. His mother typically put him to bed, and
quences of overeating in early childhood, in- he protested vigorously if she tried to leave his
cluding obesity, lack of participation in age-ap- side when he was awake. He was described as
propriate social activities, and ultimately, peer oppositional with his mother only. His mother
rejection. The Longitudinal Study of Child De- had a history of depression and anxiety that was
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398 I V . P sychopathology
exacerbated after he was born. The level of par- failure to taste new textures, are common as-
enting distress for both parents was high. sociated features.
This child met criteria for several DC:0–5 Picky eating is often not associated with poor
disorders, including (1) overeating disorder weight gain, but tension and distress are very
(persistently asking for food, at home and at common among the parents of these children.
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kindergarten, and eating significantly more than Attempts at either praising or criticizing do
his peers), and (2) relationship-specific disorder not have any effect on the child. Some of these
of early childhood (mother) with oppositional children exhibit aversion to specific smells, tex-
and sleep symptoms. The recommended treat- tures, and tastes, and may seem to have some
ment for this child included triadic and dyadic kind of sensory aversion, combined with a be-
sessions, in addition to the mother’s referral for havioral component. Selective picky eating may
individual treatment. start in the second half of the first year. Some
infants start being selective at around age 9
months, at the transition to solids; others have a
Undereating Disorder history of refusal to wean from breast feeding.
However, selective eating may start at any age.
The common reasons for referral of infants If there is an accompanying physical illness, it
with undereating include delay or lack of eating is important to make sure that the undereating
skills; difficulty with fluids or with foodstuffs; pattern is not fully explained by it or by a medi-
reluctance or refusal to eat based on taste, tex- cation side effect.
ture, temperature, or any other sensory factors;
lack of interest in food/poor appetite; slow eat-
ing; and fear of shocking and selective eating Comorbid Diagnoses
(Bryant-Waugh et al., 2010). Estimates are that Comorbid medical diagnoses are often relevant
25% to 40% of infants and toddlers are referred in the most complex cases in which both physi-
by their caregivers because of feeding problems cal and emotional/behavioral factors interact.
(McDermott et al., 2008). Severe refusal to eat These should be recorded on Axis III of the
is diagnosed in 3–10% of children but only DC:0–5 classification. The most common medi-
1–2% of them have a severe, long-lasting eating cal diagnoses include milk allergy; esophagitis,
disorder (Manikam & Perman, 2000). Among due to structural abnormalities that affect the
subgroups of the general population, such as gastrointestinal system; neurodevelopmental
children with developmental disabilities, in- disabilities; oral hypersensitivity and oral–
cluding autism, these figures may be different; motor dysfunction; systemic chronic illnesses,
in our clinical experience, severe undereating such as cardiac, kidney diseases, cystic fibrosis;
problems are quite frequent and more complex, and chronic pain due to various conditions.
in that they involve a complex transactional Based on the general principles of the DC:
model with dysfunction in sensory, cognitive, 0–5, a diagnosis of relationship-specific disor-
and emotional responses (de Moor, Didden, & der with one caregiver may co-occur with the
Korzilius, 2007; Keen, 2008). diagnosis of undereating disorder, if the infant
exhibits symptomatic behaviors (other than ab-
Diagnosis normal eating) and the other symptoms are lim-
ited to one relational context.
A diagnosis of undereating disorder is made
when young children consistently eat less than
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23. Eating and Feeding Disorders 399
text of the relationship with one specific care- eating disorder (Chatoor, 2009; Kerzner et al.,
giver. 2015; Luiselli, 2000; Silverman, 2015). The
basic principle is to have the parents determine
Course and Prognosis “what, when, and where” the infant eats, and to
have the infant decide “how much” to eat. This
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Despite lack of continuity in categorical disor- seems straightforward, but it is often is difficult
ders, there is some degree of continuity between to implement. Challenges increase when par-
eating problems in infancy and in older ages. ents have their own issues about trust, autono-
McDermott and colleagues (2010) have found my, and control, or when infants do not provide
that around 40% of the irregular eaters at age clear cues about their needs. When undereating
5 years were still irregular eaters at 14 years. behavior reflects a significant relationship dis-
Independent contributions included the chil- order, the main focus of treatment needs to be
dren’s own capacity to regulate their sleep and the relationship and not necessarily the feeding.
mood, as well as maternal anxiety and negative Medications for undereating disorder in infancy
feelings toward the child during the early years. are very rarely administered, except in cases
Hemmi, Wolke, & Schneider (2011) showed of trauma to the oropharynx or esophagus, in
that infants with crying, sleeping, and/or feed- which the infant’s anticipatory anxiety before
ing problems have more behavioral problems as each meal leads to full food refusal and does
children than controls, especially in multiprob- not improve with desensitization techniques.
lem families. Administration of fluoxetine (0.3 mg/kg per
Picky eating often improves spontaneously day) to 2-year-old twins with food refusal that
over time, especially when parents stop react- had developed after several invasive gastroin-
ing to the child’s eating behavior, but some chil- testinal procedures was reported (Celik, Diler,
dren remain picky eaters into adulthood. Still, Tahiroglu, & Avci, 2007) as a successful inter-
in a recent longitudinal study of 1,327 children vention that led to significant decrease in the
from the Copenhagen Child Cohort 2000 (Mi- twins’ fear and anxiety, and improvement in
cali, Rask, Olsen, & Skovgaard, 2016), those their eating behavior.
children who were very picky or slow and poor The duration of these treatments is extremely
eaters in infancy, who came from non-Danish variable, depending especially on the parents’
parents, and whose mothers suffered from a capacity for self-reflection and change. Un-
psychiatric diagnosis, persisted in being picky
surprisingly, parental psychopathology makes
and poor eaters at 5–7 years of age.
these treatments much more complex and
lengthy.
Treatment
The treatment plan should be based on the CLINICAL VIGNETTE
identified biological and/or psychological con-
A 3½-year-old girl was referred for evaluation
tributors in the infant, the parent, and/or the
of the timing of an eventual weaning of naso-
relationship. A multidisciplinary team can tai- gastric tube (NG) feeding; the tube had been in
lor psychoeducational, behavioral, and/or psy- place since she was 4 months old, following an
chotherapeutic interventions for the infant and unexplained lack of thriving. She was born pre-
family. maturely at 33 weeks’ gestation and had a very
Treatment outcome studies are sparse (Mc- significant developmental delay. Her mother
Grath Davis, Schurle Bruce, Mangiaracina, stayed at home for 2 years and gave up her own
Copyright @ 2019. The Guilford Press.
Shulz, & Hyman, 2009), although a variety professional career to care for her daughter. The
of approaches have been reported. Behavioral child entered child care at age 2 years, and up to
management (e.g., regular mealtimes, no be- the referral time, she had exhibited strong sepa-
tween-meals snacks or drinks, no use of praise ration anxiety when away from her mother. A
nor criticism), parental psychoeducation about miniseparation between the girl and each of her
the infant’s needs for autonomy, control and parents revealed a resistant attachment behavior
mastery, and parent–infant interactive guid- with her mother but secure attachment. Accord-
ance aimed at improving the caregiver feeding ing to DC:0–5, the young child met criteria for
styles (e.g., controlling or indulgent) are the two comorbid disorders: undereating disorder
most commonly reviewed approach for under- (with chronic NG tube feeding) and relation-
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400 I V . P sychopathology
ship-specific disorder of early childhood with nosed following intestinal obstruction and/or
separation anxiety symptoms with her mother. perforation, infections such as toxoplasmosis
On Axis III, the child’s failure to thrive and lan- and toxocariasis following ingestion of feces or
guage delay would be noted. dirt, and lead poisoning from ingestion of dirt
or wood chips with lead paint. Pica predisposes
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schizophrenia, and Kleine–Levin syndrome. hernia, and Sandifer syndrome. These need to
Some cases of pica are linked with neglect or be ruled out before the diagnosis of rumination
lack of parental supervision. In these cases, pica is made.
may be considered as a symptom of a parent– The course of rumination disorder varies
infant relationship disorder. Pica may be asso- from being self-limited to becoming protracted
ciated with trichotillomania (hair pulling and and potentially fatal (due to malnutrition). As
swallowing) and skin-picking disorder (Bryant- for pica, if rumination is one of the symptoms
Waugh & Piepenstock, 2008). of parent–infant relationship disorder, diagno-
The course of pica is variable. It may be self- sis of rumination on Axis I in DC:0–5 is noted
limited or become protracted and lead to medi- only if severe and warrants a special nutritive
cal emergencies. Some cases of pica are diag- treatment.
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23. Eating and Feeding Disorders 401
dicative of the diagnosis. The disorder has not been shown to be an effective approach (Benoit,
been described in children less than 2 years old. Wang, & Zlotkin, 2000); Hartdorff et al., 2015).
The child may be overweight or underweight, Though weaning treatment can be done in an
depending on what he or she does with the hid- outpatient setting, an inpatient setting may be
den food. Food hoarding requires ruling out recommended, as it enables a relatively short
hunger, neglect, and maltreatment (Sonneville (e.g., 3 weeks) intensive multidisciplinary inter-
et al., 2013). vention. Therapeutic gains of such a model have
been reported to persist 1 year postdischarge
Pouching (Brown et al., 2014).
Pouching relates to the child holding food in his
or her mouth for long periods of time without Clinical Assessment of Eating/Feeding Disorders
swallowing it. There are no published cases of in Young Children
pouching food in children less than 2 years old,
yet, occasionally I see this behavior in failure The goals of assessing young children with eat-
to thrive clinics, especially among infants who ing problems are to determine appropriate di-
have been tube fed and are being weaned, as agnoses and to identify the specific factors that
well as among toddlers who have experienced have led to the development of the disorder. This
forced feeding and/or traumatic medical proce- formulation aids in planning and implementing
dures. Dental caries are often an associated sign appropriate treatment.
in cases in which pouching happens on a daily Regardless of the types and causes of eating
basis and for several hours (Bhargav, Hedge, disorders, history taking must address several
Chandra, Gaviappa, & Shetty, 2014). There are key elements (Birch & Davison, 2001): How
no available data on risk and prognostic fea- does the problem manifest? Is the child suffer-
tures of pouching during infancy. Obviously, ing from any medical disease? Have the child’s
ruling out any medical condition that prevents weight, nutritional status, and development been
the child from swallowing is warranted before a affected? What is the atmosphere during meals?
diagnosis of pouching is made. Is the family under stress? Are daily routines
disrupted because of the struggles over eating?
Does the child have a concurrent sleep problem,
Tube-Fed Infants since sleep and eating problems often co-occur
and exacerbate one another? Answers to these
Tube feeding is commonly used in nutrition questions help the clinician assess the degree of
for infants while they are treated for systemic impairment in the child and/or the family.
disease, congenital malformations, or men- Self-report measures completed by parents
tal retardation (Hartdorff et al., 2015). Those are available to assess maternal feeding behav-
young children who have had prolonged peri- iors, including the Child Feeding Questionnaire
ods of tube feeds (NG tube feeding or percu- (Birch et al., 2001) for monitoring and restric-
taneous endoscopic gastrostomy [PEG]), often tion of food intake and controlling behavior, the
Copyright @ 2019. The Guilford Press.
develop refusal to try any oral feeding, even Preschooler Feeding Questionnaire (Baughcum
though they no longer require tube feeding. et al., 2001) for putting pressure or prompting
Contributing factors to this complication in- the child to eat, the Parent Feeding Style Ques-
clude age at which oral feeding starts, medical tionnaire (Wardle, Sanderson, Guthrie, Rapo-
complications, exposure to taste and textures port, & Plomin, 2002) for assessing instrumen-
during sensitive periods, aversive experiences, tal (i.e., using food for reward) and emotional
and ways of giving tube feeds (Mason, Harris, feeding (i.e., using food to regulate children’s
& Blissett, 2005). Weaning from the tube then negative emotions). The Control Over Eating
becomes a challenging task that requires a mul- Questionnaire (Ogden, Reynolds, & Smith,
tidisciplinary team to work through issues of 2006) examines covert and overt forms of pa-
feeding schedules, sensory implications of tube rental control, and the Comprehensive Feeding
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402 I V . P sychopathology
Practices Questionnaire (Musher-Eizenman & is used to convey to the parents playfulness and
Holub, 2007) assesses parents’ restriction of enjoyment, in contrast with the threatening per-
high-sugar and high-fat foods, as well as the use ception of the hospital. Parents are instructed in
of food for reward. advance to bring their infant after an overnight
Because parent-report questionnaires are fast (in order to have the hunger drive activat-
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The young child’s eating behavior should be physical and emotional risk factors for the de-
assessed in terms of motor and developmental velopment of eating disorders is essential for
skills, as well as self-feeding skills and willing- treatment planning. More specifically, parental
ness to try a variety of foods. Hence, an inter- psychopathology and especially eating disor-
disciplinary team for both assessment and treat- ders must be assessed, as well as the child’s sen-
ment is recommended (Silverman, 2010). sory processing, oral–motor skills, and temper-
At the Schneider Hospital for Sick Children ament. Needless to say, a full medical workup
(Tel Aviv), we have developed a multidisci- needs to be done in every case, as psychological
plinary “breakfast picnic” assessment for chil- causes for eating disorder do not exclude physi-
dren ages 9 months–4 years. The term “picnic” cal causes, and vice versa.
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23. Eating and Feeding Disorders 403
berlin, L. A., Deeks, C. M., Jain, A., et al. (2001). ders, 43, 98–111.
Maternal feeding practices and beliefs and their re- Bryant-Waugh, R. J., & Piepenstock, E. H. C. (2008).
lationships to overweight in early childhood. Jour- Childhood disorders: Feeding and related disorders
nal of Development and Behavioral Pediatrics, 22, of infancy or early childhood. In A. Tasman, J. Kay,
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