International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 153 (2022) 105049

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijrmms

Hazards in mining: A novel model for the prediction of run-out distances in

tailings dams using CFD
Álvaro Vergara a , Sergio Palma a ,∗, Alejandra Álvarez b , María Teresa Zandarín c
a Department of Metallurgical Engineering and Materials, Complex Fluids Laboratory, Universidad Técnica Federico Santa María, Santiago, 8940572, Chile
b Department of Technological Development, JRI Ingeniería S.A., Santiago, Chile
c
Glencore Pachon S.A., San Juan, Argentina

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Tailings dams are potential facilities capable of failure, with the potential to generate high-impact environ-
Tailings mental, economic, and social catastrophes given that they do collapse. In this study, numerical simulations of
Dam breaking in mining tailings as non-Newtonian fluids based on the Herschel–Bulkley model have been carried out to characterize
Non-Newtonian fluids
the runout distances under different physical conditions. Using scaling arguments, a mathematical expression
Mining engineering
formed by three dimensionless groups including dimensionless yield stress, a modified Reynolds number, and
Computational Fluid Dynamics
the angle of the inclination of the system is proposed to explain the runout distance in tailings dams. The
subsequent results show a good correlation between the variables, allowing us to deduce a high influence of
the yield stress and the slope, albeit reflected both in the modified Reynolds number and the yield coefficient.
Finally, a simple mathematical model is obtained from multidimensional analysis and the possibility of an
abacus for regular intervals is proposed, which in turn supports an additional complement to the existing
models for estimating the runout distances.

1. Introduction
For decades, copper mining has historically positioned itself as one
of the most productive economic and industrial activities in Chile,
placing it as the main copper producer in the world. However, the
development of this activity inherently involves a massive generation
of wet wastes known as tailings, inasmuch a product of the treatment
of metallic minerals by wet concentration in flotation. In Chile, mining
generates an average of 537 million tons of tailings per year,1 which
are currently stored in 757 deposits distributed throughout Chile.2 On
the other hand, Chile is also one of the most seismic countries in the
world.3 Thus, due to the seismic volatility in the country, it has been
crucial to evaluate the stability of the local in which the different
tailings storage facilities (TSFs) are held.4 In recent years, there have
been countless cases of environmental catastrophes as a result of the
collapse of tailing deposits, both in Chile and in the rest of the world.5,6
Such accidents have caused serious social, and economic effects in the
immediate communities.
In order to ensure the stability of tailings dams, the study and
analysis of the properties in tailings have become relevant to generate
continuous control and monitoring of those tailing dams.7,8 Previous
studies from different perspectives to evaluate the behaviour of the
wave and the maximum distance reached by the fluid, includes pa-
rameters such as the rheology of the tailings, the geometry of the
dam and the characteristics of the topography of the sector,5,9–12 with
the aim of generating prediction models that allow the evaluation or
development of sufficient studies to ensure the stability of the dam.
All different approaches take high relevance, considering the Global
Standard for Tailings Management for the Mining Industry, which
encourages the classification of tailings deposits by the consequences
that they may generate at the time of their collapse.13 Nowadays, the
reduction of water in mining processing, is an established practice. This
trend has shown the non-Newtonian behaviour of copper tailings.14
These materials, at high concentrations of particles, give witness to
the behaviour of yield stress fluids. Under an external stress, these
fluids can only flow if this stress overcomes a critical value (yield stress
𝜏0 ). Under that threshold, they perform like solids and show structures
likewise of standard solids.15 The subsequent behaviour of the fluid can
be described using the viscoplastic Herschel–Bulkley model:
𝜏 = 𝜏0 + 𝑘𝛾̇ 𝑛 (1)
where 𝜏 is the shear stress, 𝛾̇ is the shear rate, 𝑘 and 𝑛 are material
parameters. Typically, for copper tailings the yield stress lies between

∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: sergio.palma@usm.cl (S. Palma).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrmms.2022.105049
Received 23 June 2021; Received in revised form 22 November 2021; Accepted 24 January 2022
Available online 11 March 2022
1365-1609/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Á. Vergara et al.
Fig. 1. Scheme of the phase fraction 𝛼 of the control volumes for the fluid phase. In
red, the non-Newtonian fluid runout. (For interpretation of the references to colour in
this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
zero and hundreds of Pascals. The yield stress increases with the volume
fraction, tending to infinity when reaches maximum packing fraction.
This characteristic, together with the appropriate operation of mining
dam, is what is used to build the walls of the tailing dam.
Within this practice, the influence of the fluid dynamics of the
system on the runout distance based on CFD (Computational Fluid
Dynamics) is determined using the FLUENT® package. In Section 2,
we provide the simple mathematical models used for our numerical
simulations, and the numerical procedure used in our calculations
based on how tailings are modelled using CFD. In Section 3, we describe
the methodology used in the work, covering dimensional analysis, CAD
design, meshing and simulation conditions. The results of our numerical
simulations are presented and discussed in Section 4. An application to
real cases of the obtained model is shown in Section 5. Finally, the
conclusions are detailed in Section 6.
2. Multiphase flows
The flow of tailings after a dam breaks is usually modelled as a
two continuous phases flow system, where a non-Newtonian fluid phase
(tailings) interacts in contact with a gaseous phase (atmosphere), un-
derstood as a free-surface fluid flow, with a clearly defined interface.16
Thus, in a continuous multiphase flow, each phase can be understood
as an identifiable class of material that has a particular inertial response
and its own interaction with the flow field in which it is immersed.16
Different multiphase models are used to solve this type of systems,
based on numerical approximations that treat each phase as immiscible
media, solving the conservation equations for each one of them.17 The
main idea is to present a model based on fluid mechanics and rheology
(experimental data) that covers the main characteristics of the tailings-
flow in mining. Thus, we have taken a real problem and it has been
simplified to understand the most fundamental aspects, and once the
physics is understood, gradually increase the complexity of the model.
2.1. Volume of Fluid model (VOF)
The VOF method16 can model two or more immiscible fluids by
solving a single set of momentum and energy conservation equations
and tracking the volume fraction 𝛼 of each phase throughout the
domain. Therein the mass conservation equation is established for each
phase, in order to track the interface between the phases. For i-phase,
this equation has the following form:
𝜕𝛼𝑖 ( )
+ 𝛁 ⋅ 𝛼𝑖 𝑽 𝑖 = 0
𝜕𝑡
where 𝑡 is the time, 𝛼𝑖 and 𝑽 𝒊 are the volume fraction and the velocity
field for i-phase, respectively.
Each subsequent control volume is forced to be filled with a single
fluid phase or a combination of phases. In Fig. 1, the volume occupied
by the non-Newtonian fluid are drawn in red. The squares represent
the control volume and have a value 1 when are filled with the fluid,
International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences 153 (2022) 105049
Fig. 2. (a) Rectangular open channel used as computational domain. (b) Scheme of
the domain subject to slope incline 𝜃.
0 when filled with air, and a fraction when cell is not completely filled
with the non-Newtonian fluid. In numerical terms:
∑
𝑛
𝛼𝑖 = 1 (3)
𝑖=1
The variables and parameters in the transport equations are determined
by the presence of the component phases in each control volume. In the
studied case, the non-Newtonian fluid is labelled with subscript 2 and
the air with 1, the density in each cell is given by:
∑
2
𝜌= 𝛼𝑖 𝜌𝑖 = 𝛼2 𝜌2 + (1 − 𝛼2 )𝜌1 (4)
𝑖=1
The problem is consequently solved taking into account isothermal
conditions, then a single momentum equation is considered.
𝜕
(𝜌𝑽 ) + 𝛁 ⋅ (𝜌𝑽 𝑽 ) = −𝛁𝑝 + ∇ ⋅ 𝝉̄ + 𝜌𝒈 (5)
𝜕𝑡
The velocity field for each phase is determined by the density 𝜌 and the
̄
constitutive law of each fluid 𝝉.
3. Methodology
The behaviour of the slurry flow after the collapse, will be the
model using isothermal Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) scheme,
in a free surface and viscous regime. The methodology used in this
work is presented below. First, we have considered the most pertinent
variables of the phenomenon and a dimensional analysis of those
variables considered in the model will be to perform, in order to deter-
mine dimensionless groups and simplify the experimental conditions.
Secondly, is to consider a simple rectangular geometry and the wall
collapse mechanisms is detrimental. The CFD simulation will carried
out using FLUENT® , which solves the system from the equations shown
in Section 2.1.
3.1. Dimensional analysis
Buckingham’s 𝛱 theorem is a technique that allows us to reduce
the number of variables that intervene in a physical phenomenon,
subsequently in dimensionless groups to facilitate the manipulation of
(2) experimental data.18,19 Thus, the dimensional analysis of the system
was carried out with considering of the variables listed in Table 1.
The objective of the procedure is to be able to reduce a number of
𝑛 variables in a set of 𝑘 dimensionless parameters, and the reduction
𝑗 = 𝑛 − 𝑘 is the maximum number of dimensions that describe these
variables, so that the functional relationships between them can be
found and subsequently deduce the runout distance model. Here, 𝑛 = 7
and 𝑗 = 3. This means, there are 𝑘 = 4 dimensionless numbers. Thus,
2
Á. Vergara et al. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences 153 (2022) 105049

Table 1
Set of parameters used in dimensional analysis.
Parameter Unities Dimensions
Runout distance, 𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 m L
Fluid height, 𝐻0 m L
Yield stress, 𝜏0 kg m−1 s−2 ML−1 T−2
Tailing density, 𝜌 kg m−3 ML−3
Velocity, 𝑉 m s−1 LT−1
Viscosity, 𝜇 kg m−1 s−1 ML−1 T−1
Slope, 𝜃 rad –

Table 2
Geometry parameters.
Parameter Values
Total length, 𝐿 30 m
Total width, 𝑊 0.5 m Fig. 3. Polyhedral mesh system applied to the geometry of the model.
Barrier width, 𝑊0 0.2 m
Total height, 𝐻 0.5 m
Fluid column length, 𝐿0 0.6 m
Fluid column height, 𝐻0 0.3 m

the dimensionless parameters obtained are (for details, see Appendix):

( )
𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜏0 𝜌𝑉 2
=𝑓 , ,𝜃 (6)
𝐻0 𝜌𝑉 2 𝜏0 + 𝑘(8𝑉 ∕𝐻0 )𝑛
Where, 𝐷∗ ≡ 𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∕𝐻0 is called dimensionless distance and is a function
of dimensionless variables. The first term on the right side of the
equation is the yield coefficient 𝜏2 ≡ 𝜏0 ∕𝜌𝑉 2 , which indicates that
this type of flow is governed by the yield stress; the second term is
the modified Reynolds number Re2 ≡ 𝜌𝑉 2 ∕(𝜏0 + 𝑘(8𝑉 ∕𝐻0 )𝑛 ), applied
for constitutive Herschel–Bulkley model. Such dimensionless number
represents the ratio between the inertial and viscous forces in the
system; and finally, 𝜃 is the angle of the system (slope of the terrain in
real cases). Here, 𝑓 is a function to be determined. Rewriting Eq. (6): Fig. 4. Rheogram of tailings from a Chilean mine. Red points correspond to experimen-
tal data measured by JRI Ingenieria. Solid line indicated the fitted model (Eq. (8)). (For
∗
𝐷 = 𝑓 (𝜏2 , Re2 , 𝜃) (7) interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred
to the web version of this article.)
3.2. Numerical simulations
Table 3
In this work a rectangular open channel will be used as compu- Parameters used in computational simulation.
tational domain, as can be seen in Fig. 2a. To simplify the system, a Parameter Value Unities
smooth rectangular open channel has been created. Therein this geom- Fluid density, 𝜌 1800 kg/m3
etry aims to help clarify our understanding of the real phenomenon. Consistency index, 𝑘 0.4 –
Flux index, 𝑛 0.8 –
Such a model has to be generalized to posterity with scaled physical
Yield stress, 𝜏0 [0.1–1000] Pa
models at the laboratory. Its dimensions are shown in Table 2. The Slope, 𝜃 [0–30] ◦

computational domain contains two barriers that prevent the free flow
of fluid at the time of model initialization. Furthermore, considering
the influence of the system slope, Fig. 2b shows the channel subject
to the action of gravity in inclination. As a discretization of the com-
putational domain, a polyhedral mesh system has been created. This
contains a total of 475,000 elements (Fig. 3), where the conservation
equations will be solved. Based on our considerable experience and data
collected by JRI Ingenieria, Herschel–Bulkley constitutive model is a
very good approximation to model the slurry: nonlinear viscosity and
stress threshold (yield stress 𝜏0 ):
𝜏 = 10 + 0.4𝛾̇ 0.8
Fig. 4 shows the rheological behaviour of the tailing that will be
used in the study, where the constants 10, 0.4 and 0.8 in Eq. (8)
represents the yield stress, consistency index 𝑘 and the flux index 𝑛,
respectively. A set of 104 simulations has been carried out, considering
the parameters listed in Table 3, where both the yield stress 𝜏0 and the
slope of the system 𝜃 are variable parameters. In order to reduce the
number of simulations, the fluid density 𝜌 the adjustment parameters
of the Herschel–Bulkley rheological model, k and n, albeit are fixed pa-
rameters. Due to the numerical approximation of the partial differential
equations, the flow subsequently never reaches a strictly zero value.
Therefore, the runout distance is considered as the maximum linear
distance when the interface reaches approximately one thousandth of
the initial flow velocity. It is assumed that in the collapse all the
accumulated potential energy of the fluid is transformed into kinetic
energy when flowing. On the other hand, the tailings–air interface
is determined from the tailings fraction volume data, considering the
phase fraction values in the range 0.4 ≤ 𝛼 ≤ 0.6 therein, to have an
(8) interval more suitable when analysing the interface between the phases.
4. Results and discussion
4.1. Flux behaviour
For the simulations, the behavioural flow shows a gradual runout,
where the potential energy accumulated by the non-Newtonian fluid at
the beginning of the run is converted into kinetic energy, thus allowing
its movement. This free flow is counteracted by the dissipation of

3
Á. Vergara et al. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences 153 (2022) 105049

Fig. 6. Dimensionless distance 𝐷∗ = 𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∕𝐻0 as a function of yield coefficient 𝜏2 . Each

point corresponds to a computational simulation.

Fig. 5. Behaviour of the flux observed for different time intervals.

energy caused by the contact between the fluid and the edges of the
open channel, which accordingly allows the flow speed to decrease
until it gradually stops (Fig. 5).

4.2. Yield coefficient 𝜏2

Fig. 6 represents the dimensionless distance as a function of the

dimensionless yield stress. The solid black line represents the best fit of
the data. Therein the behaviour shows an inverse potential dependence
between both parameters, thus indicating that yield stress is a strong
incident parameter in the behaviour of the tailings, allowing a tailing
with high yield stress (tailings thickened to paste) tending to stop
earlier, relative to a high yield stress fluid (dilute tailings). The model
fitted that describes these variables is defined by:
Fig. 7. Dimensionless distance 𝐷∗ = 𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∕𝐻0 as a function of Reynolds number Re2 .
𝐷∗ = 6.6𝜏2−0.18 − 9.2 (9)

From the model, it is deducible that non-Newtonian fluids with low

yield stress experience a greater range of flow than those with high degree of deformation to high yield stress, thus limiting its movement.
yield stress. An important point on the curve is observed in fluids whose The model fitted to the modified Reynolds’ curve is of the power type
yield stress exceeds 100 Pa (paste-thickened tailings), the behaviour of with the following structure:
which tends to stabilize their movement. Therein, we have found a
critical point from which the fluid hardly flows or experiences little 𝐷∗ = 0.29Re0.68
2 (10)
movement. For this reason, it is of the utmost importance to choose It is worth mentioning that the modified Reynolds number Re2 presents
the deposition of tailings in pastes (notably reducing their amount
a series of parameters typical of the Herschel–Bulkley model (𝑘 and
of water), since this induces a high yield stress in such a way that
𝑛), which for the purposes of the study were not analysed in detail.
its deformation is more difficult and movement less pronounced. This
This was due to the complexity of giving them physical meaning.
may be due to the fact that a high concentration of slurry weight
However, its influence within these types of systems should be con-
prevents the solid particles from adopting a more fluid transportation.
sidered. Furthermore, given that the system has been modelled in a
Furthermore, its natural compaction generates a complex composition
completely laminar regime, it is an interesting exercise to evaluate
that allows it to reduce its deformation rate under the application
the implications that this may lead to, given a subsequent physical
of external forces, resisting the movement of the yield stress of the
modelling, and finally, to extrapolate to higher computational models,
material.
therein considering the external obstacles to which the real system is
subjected and deviations from the results.
4.3. Modified Reynolds’ number Re2

In the case of the modified Reynolds’ number, an inherent param-
eter in fluid flow analysis, the model shows a high correlation that
indicates that high Reynolds’ number values (within the laminar range)
influence a greater range of the wave. Fig. 7 represents the behaviour
of this parameter. Considering the Reynolds’ number by its definition,
that is, therein relationship between inertial and viscous forces, it is
expected that in this type of flow the viscous forces govern the outcome.
These are dominated by the yield stress of the fluid, restricting its
4.4. Terrain slope analysis 𝜃
The last dimensionless parameter analysed is the slope of the flow
channel, which is of considerable importance given the influence of the
acceleration of gravity in the flow domain. For this reason, gravity is
implicitly part of the flow analysis for the case of variable slopes. Fig. 8
represents the results obtained for this variable, as a function of the
maximum dimensionless distance reached by the fluid.

4
Á. Vergara et al.
Fig. 8. Dimensionless distance 𝐷∗ = 𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∕𝐻0 as a function of angle of the system 𝜃
(in radians).
Fig. 9. Data fit for dimensionless runout distance 𝐷∗ = 𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∕𝐻0 as a function of the
𝜈 𝜈
dimensionless group 𝜈1 𝜏2 2 Re23 (1 + 𝜃)𝜈4 . Here, the adjusted parameters are 𝜈1 = 0.29, 𝜈2 =
−0.05, 𝜈3 = 0.56, and 𝜈4 = 0.51.
Therefore, the model that best fits the behaviour of this variable is
the second-degree polynomial model, defined and solved as follows:
𝐷∗ = −55.8𝜃 2 + 76.9𝜃 + 2.62
It is apparent that the flow has a greater reach the greater the average
slope of the terrain. In this case, 40 simulations have been considered
to have sufficient representativeness of the values and the analysis
is likewise similar. However, the curve seems to stabilize, and when
dealing with a natural slope, it is imperative to refer to small values,
which correspond approximately to the first 10 points of the curve.
4.5. Fit to dimensionless group
The relationship between the results recently obtained show, the
previous models are unified in a single compact graph that includes
a dimensionless family composing of the three dimensionless products
already studied. The idea is to gather (in a preliminary way) within
a single model, the dimensionless variables that affect the system,
from the multidimensional analysis based on the Levenberg–Marquardt
algorithm20 shown in Fig. 9 as the best linear fit to dimensionless
distance and a single group, method similar to that used by Ihle et al.21
and Palma et al..22
The model fitted for these points is given by:
𝐷∗ = 0.29𝜏2−0.05 Re0.56
2 (1 + 𝜃)
0.51
International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences 153 (2022) 105049
Fig. 10. Proposed abacus from the height 𝐻0 and the angle of the system 𝜃, for
different yield stresses 𝜏0 , to estimate the runout distance 𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 .
Note that in equation (12) the yield coefficient 𝜏2 is not influential
enough since it has less importance (mathematically) with respect to
the rest of the parameters. However, this is not a problem, since the
influence of the Reynolds’ number in the model is governed mainly
by viscous forces, which in turn have a high dependence on the yield
stress of the fluid, so its effect is not being ignored at all in the
proposed model. As a result, Eq. (12) summarizes the entire study,
therein provides a proposal for the runout distance models based on
geometric and rheological considerations of the system.
4.6. Bounded intervals
Finally, given the wide range of values considered in the results
previously shown, it is proposed to limit the intervals for the variables
of interest and in such a way as to show the behaviour for tailings with
yield stresses in the interval [5 − 20] Pa and natural slopes [0◦ − 5◦ ].
The objective of this graph is not to present a model similar to that of
Eq. (12), but rather a proposal of the abacus type, therein that allows
a preliminary estimate of the runout distance from the yield stress of
the tailings and the average slope (see Fig. 10).
This graph has been made with a set of 24 additional simulations to
the 80 that were used in the previously exposed models, therein given
that different flow conditions were considered between the variables,
(11) which were not necessarily covered in the models. The purpose of the
abacus is to support and complement the empirical models presented
in the state of the art in this report, considering that it is built from
computational modelling and variables not previously analysed by the
various researchers (see Table 4).
5. Application of the model
Eq. (12) has been applied to a set of three faults documented in
Chile by Gestion Ambiental (GA).14
However, in all three cases, a good approximation to the reported
distance can be observed. This can be reflected with the percentage
differences between the proposed model and the reported distance:
5.86%, 4.66% and 2.30% for Las Palmas, Veta del Agua and Cobre
Viejo, respectively. However, in all cases the distance reflected was
underestimated compared to the real one. Possibly this could be mainly
due to the evaluation criterion of the runout distance if that distance
where the non-Newtonian fluid does not reach strict stability, but rather
a sufficiently small velocity for it to be considered static. In addition,
the sensitivity of the model (12) given its different parameters must be
(12) considered, so it requires that these be thoroughly evaluated.
5
Á. Vergara et al. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences 153 (2022) 105049

Table 4 Appendix. Dimensional analysis (𝜫 theorem)

Application of the model to cases reported in Chile.
Calculation Tailings dams The general functional description of the model based on the vari-
method
Las Palmas Veta del Agua Cobre Viejo ables of Table 1, is that it seeks to determine the dependence of the
(𝐻 = 15 m) (𝐻 = 23 m) (𝐻 = 35 m) runout distance as a function of the initial height of the fluid column,
Reported 500 m 5000 m 12000 m yield stress, fluid density, average flow velocity, fluid viscosity and flow
distance slope:
Lucia et al.11 5900 m 11400 m 12800 m
Jeyapalan9 800 m 2200 m 5700 m 𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑓 (𝐻0 , 𝜏0 , 𝜌, 𝑉 , 𝜇, 𝜃) (13)
Rico et al.5 2300 m 4400 m 7500 m
GA model14 600 m 3400 m 9900 m As there are 7 variables in total to be used, which include all the
Proposed 460 m 4800 m 11700 m units of the MLT system, 4 dimensionless parameters (or 𝛱 terms) must
method be found that fit all these in far simpler terms. 𝐻0 , 𝜌 and 𝑉 will be used
as dimensionally independent variables. With them, the 𝛱 terms are
searched, applying these to the rest of the variables.
6. Conclusions
A.1. First 𝛱 term: dimensionless distance
In this report, the numerical modelling of fluid flow has been
carried out, using the tools offered by computational fluid dynamics to
evaluate the behaviour of these systems. This modelling was carried out 𝛱1 ∶ 𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐻0𝛼 𝜌𝛽 𝑉 𝛾 = 𝑀 0 𝐿0 𝑇 0
under the consideration of tailings modelled according to the Herschel– 𝐿𝐿𝛼 𝑀 𝛽 𝐿−3𝛽 𝐿𝛾 𝑇 −𝛾 = 𝑀 0 𝐿0 𝑇 0
Bulkley constitutive equation. The numerical model was solved using
𝛽=0
the FLUENT® software applying the multiphase models in laminar
regime, together with their algorithms, albeit based on pressure that 𝛾=0
optimizes the stability of the approximate solutions. It became appar- 1 + 𝛼 − 3𝛽 + 𝛾 = 0
ent good adjustments were obtained for each dimensionless variable, 𝛼 = −1
which allow proposing simple semi-empirical mathematical models as
𝐷
a solid complement to the already existing studies of evaluation of 𝛱1 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐷∗
𝐷0
runout distance, considering the rheological variables. The results also
show a high dependence of the behaviour of the fluid in terms of its A.2. Second 𝛱 term: yield coefficient
elastic limit, therein concluding that an alternative is to promote the
deposition of tailings with the lowest possible moisture content. Thus,
the consequences of a possible collapse are minimized, and water is
𝛱2 ∶ 𝜏0 𝐻0𝛼 𝜌𝛽 𝑉 𝛾 = 𝑀 0 𝐿0 𝑇 0
recovered for mineral processing. Herein considering and evident that
tailings have different forms of deposit, so it is relevant to previously 𝑀𝐿−1 𝑇 −2 𝐿𝛼 𝑀 𝛽 𝐿−3𝛽 𝐿𝛾 𝑇 −𝛾 = 𝑀 0 𝐿0 𝑇 0
evaluate the physical characteristics of this observation. The influence 1+𝛽 =0
of yield stress can be seen in both the yield coefficient and the modified − 1 + 𝛼 − 3𝛽 + 𝛾 = 0
Reynolds number. As a component of the shear forces and viscosity,
it induces a degree of difficulty when flowing, so that the reach of − 2−𝛾 =0
the wave is notoriously less for high yield stresses. Therein given that 𝛼 = 0 → 𝛽 = −1 → 𝛾 = −2
the slope of the terrain, as a geometric parameter of the geographical 𝜏0
𝛱2 = = 𝜏2
characteristics of the location of the dam, shows a negative influence 𝜌𝑉 2
for higher values, this given that the displacement of the fluid is
favoured in favour of the gravity acceleration in the direction of the A.3. Third 𝛱 term: Reynolds number
flow. However, it is important to emphasize that the modelled flow
channel does not have any type of obstacles, so it is necessary that
future complements to the analysis may include real topographic sec- 𝛱1 ∶ 𝜇𝐻0𝛼 𝜌𝛽 𝑉 𝛾 = 𝑀 0 𝐿0 𝑇 0
tors, where the fluid also has other types of obstructions and obstacles 𝑀𝐿−1 𝑇 −1 𝐿𝛼 𝑀 𝛽 𝐿−3𝛽 𝐿𝛾 𝑇 −𝛾 = 𝑀 0 𝐿0 𝑇 0
that prevent its free flow, in addition to the yield stress itself. Based on
1+𝛽 =0
results restricted to common and frequent values in the Chilean mining
industry, an abacus has been proposed that estimates the runout dis- − 1 + 𝛼 − 3𝛽 + 𝛾 = 0
tance from the yield stress of the tailings, plus the natural average slope − 1−𝛾 =0
of the downstream terrain and the height of the column fluid, therein
𝛼 = −1 → 𝛽 = −1 → 𝛾 = −1
supporting preliminary studies in a more simplified way to evaluate.
𝜇 𝜌𝐻0 𝑉
𝛱3 = = = Re
Declaration of competing interest 𝜌𝐻0 𝑉 𝜇
Given the case, the Reynolds number Re is obtained, however, the
No author associated with this paper has disclosed any potential or one modified for the Herschel–Bulkley constitutive model will be used,
pertinent conflicts which may be perceived to have impending conflict which is subsequently applied for the modelling of non-Newtonian
with this work. For full disclosure statements refer to https://doi.org/ fluids.
10.1016/j.ijrmms.2022.105049.
A.4. Fourth 𝛱 term: angle of system
Acknowledgment

The authors acknowledge the support of the Department of Metal-

𝛱4 = 𝜃
lurgical Engineering and Materials, Complex Fluids Laboratory, Univer-
sidad Técnica Federico Santa María and JRI Ingeniería.

6
Á. Vergara et al.
References
1. CESCO. Los relaves son una oportunidad para avanzar en una minería de menor
impacto. 2019.
2. Sernageomin. Catastro de depositos de relaves en chile. 2019.
3. Scholz C. The Mechanics of Earthquakes and Faulting. Cambridge University Press;
2002:300–329.
4. Islam Sea. Settling, consolidation and shear strength behaviour of coal tailings
slurry. Int J Mining Sci Technol. 2020;30:849–857.
5. Rico M, BGDHA. Floods from tailings dam failures. J Hard Mater. 2007;154:79–87.
6. Palmer J. Anatomy of a tailings dam failure and a caution for the future. J Eng.
2019;5:605–606.
7. Clarkson L, Williams D. Critical review of tailings dam monitoring best practice.
Int J Min Reclamat Environ. 2019.
8. Williams DJ. Lessons from tailings dam failures—where to go from here? Minerals.
2021;11:853.
9. Jeyapalan JK, DJMySHB. Investigation of flow failures of tailings dams j. Geotech
Eng. 1983;109:172–189.
10. Liu H. An Experimental and Numerical Study of Runout from a Tailings Dam
Failure [Thesis (Doctor of Philosophy)]. Australia: The University of Western
Australia; 2018.
11. Lucía P, DJ, Seed H. Summary of research on case histories of flow failures of mine
tailings impoundments. In: Technology Transfer Workshop on Mine Waste Disposal
Techniques. U.S. Bureau of Mines, Denver, CO; 1981:46–53.
International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences 153 (2022) 105049
12. Trewhela T, Ihle C, Tamburrino A. Numerical simulations of comminution slurries
over complex topographies: Putting together cfd and pipeline integrity. Min Eng.
2014;63:139–148.
13. Review GT. Global Industry Standard on Tailings Management. 2020.
14. Lemus L, PJER. Criteria for determining the runout distance in tailings dams. In:
Tailings, 2nd International Seminar on Tailings Management; 2014: 1–12.
15. Larenas M, GP. Characterization of industrial thickening through pilot-scale testing
and numerical simulations. In: Tailings 2018 5th International Seminar on Tailings
Management.
16. Inc A. Ansys fluent theory guide. canonsburg, pa, release 15. 2013.
17. Xu G, LKRSXJ, Ding X. Computational fluid dynamics applied to mining
engineering: a review. Int J Min Reclamat Environ. 2016.
18. Buckingham E. On physically similar systems: illustration of the use of dimensional
equations. 1914.
19. Islam M, Lye L. Combined use of dimensional analysis and modern exper-
imental design methodologies in hydrodynamics experiments. J Ocean Eng.
2009;36:237–247.
20. More J. The Levenberg-Marquardt Algorithm: Implementation and Theory. Springer;
1978:105–116. In: Numerical analysis.
21. Ihle CF, Tamburrino A, Vivero P. Effect of sample manipulation on the couette
rheometry of copper concentrates. Powder Technol. 2013;239:78–85.
22. Palma S, Ihle CF, Tamburrino A. Characterization of a sediment layer of concen-
trated fluid-solid mixtures in tilted ducts at low reynolds numbers. Powder Technol.
2018;325:192–201.