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PHIL 104: PHILOSOPHY AND SOCIETY

Topic 1 Handout

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 Topic One

Definition and Description of the Nature of Philosophy

1.0 Introduction
Welcome to topic one. This topic introduces you to philosophy by providing
a definition and showing you the different ways in which the term
philosophy can be used. We discuss the triggers of philosophical reflection
and its value in contributing to the significance and worth of human life.

1.1 Definition of Terms

1.1.1 Definition of the term Philosophy

Philosophy is one of the most talked about terms and yet it is one of the
least understood. This topic therefore, begins with a definition of the term
philosophy. It should be noted that, although it is not easy to give an exact
and precise definition of the term philosophy, we shall begin by indicating
the way in which the word has been used in the past and the meaning
usually associated with it at the present time. You shall realize that the
meaning that was given to the term has been retained to a great extent to
date.

Historians of philosophy tell us that the word was originally used by the
ancient Greeks and the meaning which they gave it has been retained to a
considerable extent since. The term itself is derived from the two Greek
words; “Philein” or “Philo” meaning love or desire, and “Sophia” meaning
wisdom. Philosophy therefore, is love for wisdom, and a philosopher is one
who loves wisdom.

Pythagoras (481 – 507 B.C), a native of Asia Minor, was the first person to
apply the term “Philosophers” to a specific group of people. By classifying
people according to the interests they exemplified, he came up with three
categories of people, namely: -

1. Lovers of pleasure
2. Lovers of wealth
3. Lovers of wisdom

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It is the third category that is, lovers of wisdom that he referred to as
philosophers.

This was the same meaning which Socrates, one of the greatest philosophers
of antiquity used in the retort which he made to the charge that he was the
wisest man in Athens.

He insisted that his wisdom consisted in the awareness of his own ignorance.
He argued that he was not one who had achieved wisdom but rather, he was
a lover of wisdom; one who pursued it to the best of his ability. This was
an important point because it indicated that a true philosopher is one who
humbly recognizes the limitations of his/her own mind with reference to the
knowledge which he/she may acquire. Philosophy is therefore, love for
wisdom and Philosophers are lovers of wisdom.

Having defined philosophy as love for wisdom, the question we should be

asking ourselves is: what kind of wisdom do philosophers seek?

The wisdom which the philosopher seeks is an adequate understanding of the

meaning of his/her own existence. The fact that this understanding can never
be perfect or complete does not mean that one can know nothing at all about
it. Rather, by striving towards the goal of seeking an adequate understanding
of one’s existence, one can at least come closer to it and this will be an
improvement over what one knew prior to this effort.

In order to move in the direction of this goal (adequate understanding of

one’s existence), one must try to answer certain questions concerning one’s
own nature, their relation to other persons and indeed their relationship to
all that exists. This is a task that can never be completely realized by human
minds. Nevertheless, one can make progress towards it and this is what
philosophers do.

To achieve this wisdom, philosophers seek answers to questions that we

encounter in our everyday life for example, where did we come from? Does
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God exist, if so, how then can we explain evil? What is the good of life? Does
God exist? Is the soul of man immortal? What makes man a man and not a
dog? Is man free or determined? Which is the best type of government, and
so on? The problems that Philosophers deal with are therefore, problems of
life.

1.1.2 Definition of the term Society

A society is a group of people with or pursuing a common interest. In this

endeavor, they set up normative rules to guide and govern them. These
normative rules make it possible to predict the members’ behavior in their
relationship with one another. The rules also define the rights and duties
which they have towards one another, the ends which they may pursue and
the ways in which it is legitimate to pursue them.

A society is therefore, a sizeable community of persons who have interacted

together for some considerable period of time, possessing common
institutions and generally if not always, accepting common values and norms
which regulate their interaction.

As a result of the sizeable number of members in a society, living together

tends to give rise to several different interests, to competition and
consequently to the probability of serious conflict within the group.
Institutions are thus created both to promote those different interests and to
judge or arbitrate between the members whether through the courts and the
judicial system at the individual level or through policy and law making at the
collective level. Different institutions perform different functions in a society.

1.2 The Two Senses of Philosophy

To further define and clarify the meaning of the term philosophy, it is

important to point out that there are two broad senses in which the term
philosophy can be used. These are: - the popular and academic senses. We
will now discuss these two in detail.

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1.2.1 The Popular Sense of Philosophy

This is the most commonly used conception of philosophy. In the popular

sense, philosophy is associated with any seriously or rigidly held view, or
with phraseology used as a rallying cry in a social or political community. A
good example of philosophy in the popular sense is the Nyayo philosophy of
peace, love and unity or the university students’ slogan of, ‘comrade,
comrade power’.

In this sense, philosophy can also be said to be a set of attitudes or beliefs

towards life and the universe, which are often held uncritically. It is a
personal or social outlook towards life or the guiding principles in one’s life.
This is why it is common to hear statements like, ‘my philosophy of life is…’
or ‘my philosophy of religion is....’

I would like to point out at this point that, not everyone is or can become a
professional philosopher (Academic sense), but everyone is a philosopher in
the popular sense. In truth, no one has a choice whether to have some
philosophy or none at all. The choice is between having a philosophy that is
consciously fashioned (Academic sense) or having one that is largely inherited
and unexamined (popular sense).

As Aristotle once remarked, everyone adheres to a philosophy whether

he/she is aware of it or not. This is because every adult conducts his/her life
according to some general patterns of behaviour that are more or less
consistent and adequate to cope with everyday affairs. This guiding pattern
in the life of every person is his/her philosophy although it is implied in their
actions rather than being explicitly clear in their minds.

In the popular sense therefore, philosophy is everyone’s business. For

example, when you accept the traditions, customs or religion prevailing in
your community, you are accepting and ascribing to the philosophy (way of
life) of that particular community. It includes the most basic beliefs,
concepts, and attitudes of an individual or group.

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A philosophy is therefore, a system of beliefs about reality. It is one's
integrated view of the world. It includes an understanding of the nature of
existence, man, and his role in the world.

From the foregoing, we can surmise that, the popular sense of philosophy is
the most commonly used conception of philosophy but it is largely
unconscious, unexamined, inherited and inarticulate as we mostly borrow it
from our communities, peers, society or even our social class.

1.2.2 The Academic Sense of Philosophy

In the academic sense philosophy

is a discipline of study which is a
conscious and articulate
enterprise. It entails a process of
reflecting upon our most deeply
held beliefs and attitudes. As a
process, it requires argumentation,
analysis, an open and objective
mind. Philosophers are therefore,
reflective and critical. That is, they
take a second look and do not take
things at face value. It entails a search for a general understanding of
values and reality by chiefly speculative rather than observational means.

It can also be said to be an analysis of the grounds of and concepts

expressing fundamental beliefs or a system of philosophical concepts or a
theory underlying or regarding a sphere of activity or thought e.g. the
philosophy of war.

In the academic sense also, philosophy can also be said to be:-

 An attempt to gain a view of the whole. It combines data from

such areas as science, art, religion, etc into one worldview
because it recognizes that life is a totality;

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  A logical analysis of language and the clarification of the meaning
of words and concepts. This it does in order to: aid the sciences;
expose confusion and ignorance; and clarify the meaning and use
of terms in everyday affairs, for example, the term “Good” does
not represent anything unless it is used in relation to something
else.

 It is a group of perennial problems, which interest mankind and

for which philosophers have always sought answers for example,
what is truth? What is knowledge? What is justice, among other
questions? Attempts to answer such questions have given rise to
theories and systems such as idealism, realism, pragmatism,
existentialism, post modernism, etc.

 In the academic sense, philosophy is a discipline among many,

but a discipline which has a legitimate and historical right to
intrude into other disciplines. It is a discipline in which the
fundamental principles that explain nature, human beings and
society are investigated and discussed. In this investigation, the
tool that philosophers use is reason.

On the whole, Philosophy entails a tenacious attempt to think through the

most fundamental issues of life, to reach reasoned conclusions and to suggest
worthwhile goals that are acceptable to individuals and groups.

It involves serious, sustained and logical thinking that is directed towards the
questions of life and human values. It is concerned with basic issues and
principles and it serves as a foundation upon which other things are built. For
example, what we think about God, values, the universe, the government,
and so on, determines how we actually live our lives in the world.

For example, many of us seek pleasure, money, riches, but we never stop
to ask ourselves whether these things are important or not or why we
pursue them. Unless we ask ourselves these questions and evaluate the
answers, we will never know whether what we are doing, the goals we are

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pursuing or the beliefs that we hold are meaningful or not. Philosophy
allows us to question ourselves to find out the value of the goals we are
pursuing and the beliefs that we hold.

Whereas many people expect philosophers to provide answers to simple

questions, you should note that philosophy does not deal with simple issues
that touch only the surface of our existence but with those questions that
cannot be answered in any other way apart from philosophical reflection.
For example, it is easy to find out how long an egg has to boil before it can
be soft boiled, or the composition of the substance called water. However,
when difficult questions like how should man behave? What is justice? What
is equality? Why should man be moral? Why should man love at all? Etc are
raised, all of us are at a loss because the answers are not as easy. This is
where philosophy comes in to answer such questions that cannot be tackled
using the method of experimentation but which nonetheless must be
answered in order to make the experiences of man more meaningful.
Philosophers are therefore, people who have an intellectual concern for
wisdom and knowledge.

As an enterprise therefore, philosophy is the discipline that enables us to

examine our lives, assess our actions, desires and the world around us so as
to make sense of our everyday experiences. It is for this reason that the
Philosopher Socrates argued that, “the unexamined life is not worth living”.

1.4 The Impulse to Philosophize

Having defined philosophy; we would now like to turn our attention to the
question of how philosophy begins.

Philosophy begins from wonder, doubt or curiosity.

When this wonder becomes serious, sustained and
logical thinking, it becomes philosophy. This wonder
could be triggered by simple childlike curiosity or out
of something momentous or extraordinary
happening in our lives.

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It is for this reason that we say that we all become philosophers at crucial
points in our lives. A crucial point in life is the point at which nothing seems
to work like it has always or to make sense anymore and a person seems to
be stuck between a rock and a hard place. This normally happens because
we go through our lives guided by certain sets of beliefs which help to
organize our lives into a more or less systematic experience. From culture,
class, religion, friends, or family, we are provided with a general world view
about our life. For example, right and wrong is what our parents taught us,
we believe that God exists because of the authority of the church and the
bible for the Christians and the Quaran for the Muslims. This general
worldview is usually largely unconscious and inarticulate.

If something should happen to shake our confidence in all these beliefs that
we hold or they smash against the hard rock of reality, then much doubt and
confusion results. In a situation like this, what do we do?

It is this dilemma that we feel but do not yet understand that kindles
philosophical reflection. The only authority that we can turn to at such
times of confusion and doubt to resolve our dilemmas is the authority of
Reflective Thought. This is the territory of philosophy.

As our personal relationships become more complicated, youthful optimism

about human nature is tempered by disappointment and hurt, as more and
more is demanded of us and we begin to see the flaws in ourselves, the
infinite horizon of opportunity shrinks in the face of our limitations.

As we grow conscious of the amount of suffering and anguish in the world,

seeing at first hand the vast waste of human life, the old easy answers
about a good and loving God are shattered. As we face wholesale changes
in the behaviour of society, each decade overthrowing the values of the
last, we cannot help wondering whether our own commitments will stand
the test of time.

At such times, we lose our way in the world and we ask “what is my life
about?” When we begin to ask such questions, we are entering into a
philosophical territory. At such times we can only turn inwards to ourselves

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through the process of reflective thinking to seek for answers or solutions to
the dilemmas at hand. When we begin to do this, we are getting into
philosophical discourse.

Even for those people who would wish to dismiss philosophical reflection
with disdain, there comes a time in their lives when they are faced with
questions such as; why did this terrible thing happen to me? Why now?
What will I do? How can I make sense of this situation? Why me? At times
like these, they become philosophers because to live demands that they
must answer these questions otherwise they get stuck at the same point in
life. These are questions that can only be answered through the
philosophical method of reflective thinking. Philosophical stimulation
therefore, comes as a result of the encounter with life, society and the
environment. It is the wonder or dilemma about our existence and
surrounding that leads one to think systematically about certain
fundamental questions that affect us so as to try and resolve them.

Émile Faguet Initiation into Philosophy

George S. Fullerton An Introduction to Philosophy

Ralph Barton Perry The Approach to Philosophy

1.2 The Importance of Philosophy

At this point, I would like to turn your attention to the reasons why philosophical
knowledge and reflection is important in the life of an individual and to society.

To begin with, you should note that man is essentially a rational animal
and therefore, Philosophy is a necessary product of man's rational mind. To
live, man must gain knowledge of the world. To understand the world, man
must form conclusions about its very nature.
For instance, to gain knowledge of particular
objects, man must recognize that objects have
identity. He must recognize that conclusions
are possible because the world does exist, and
exists in a particular way.

Philosophy therefore, provides the framework

for which man can understand the world. It
provides the premises by which man can

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discover truth, and use his mind to support his life. Every man has an
understanding of the world. Every man must have a philosophy, even if it is
never made explicit.

From the foregoing, we can see that Philosophy is one of the most practical
disciplines that can be studied as it contributes to the significance and value
of life as a whole. This is because as a discipline, philosophy has intrinsic
value, that is, philosophy is valuable in itself. This is not to say that
philosophical reflection is the whole end of living, but merely that such activity
is an essential part of happiness. Happiness is part of growth. Since curiosity
is one expression of the essential human characteristics or capabilities,
philosophical reflection is an important part of self-fulfillment as it helps to
satisfy our curiosity.

Imagine a society where philosophical thought is prohibited. You are not

permitted to wonder about anything such as the basis of morality. In such a
world, has every important need of the human personality been met? Has
not something fundamental been left out? If we acknowledge that human
beings have a drive to know, to explore, to connect and analyze, then by
refusing to allow philosophical reflection we would be refusing an intelligent
nature its highest logical outcome. It is like saying to a boxer: “you may box,
but you may not strain.” How can they win the match if there is no strain?

The other values of philosophy include the following:-

a) The pursuit of philosophy adds to one’s knowledge about him/her and

the world in which they live.

b) Philosophy brings clarity and meaning into the lives, values and careers
of individuals, nations and civilizations as it gives the rationale behind
these things.

c) Philosophy has been and still remains one of the major influences on
human conduct. To be sure, it is not the only influence on conduct, for
it is true that people generally usually follow their desires more than
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 they do their intellects. Nevertheless, what one believes to be true
about himself in relation to the world about him/her will have its effect
upon what they do.

d) Philosophy explores various theories concerning values and provides

the means for criticizing and evaluating them thereby serving as a
guide towards a more adequate understanding of what constitutes the
meaning and value of human life.

e) It enables us to say what we mean and to mean what we say.

f) Philosophy is an attempt to overcome a narrow-minded and prejudiced

point of view. A narrow-minded person is one who sees a given topic
from only one point of view but assumes that the way it appears to
him/her is the correct way and the one that all people should follow.
The study of philosophy is designed to overcome this attitude.

g) Philosophy encourages a person to think for himself/herself rather than

to accept blindly what they have learnt from others. It brings to light
the fact that one can own an idea as long as they have gone through
the mental process of making it their own. Otherwise, it is merely a
copy or reflection of another person’s idea. It is in this way that
philosophy tends to develop a critical attitude of mind. The student is
encouraged to restrain from accepting an idea just because it has been
advocated by some other person. He is taught to examine the reasons
on which it has been based and to accept it only when these reasons
appear to be adequate.

h) The concept of purpose both with reference to the individual and to the
cosmos as a whole is something that belongs to the field of philosophy
rather than to any of the particular sciences. Whether life has a
meaningful purpose or is nothing more than a mere succession of
events is not something that cannot be answered by any amount of
scientific investigations nor do the findings of the scientists have any
bearing on it. This is an area for philosophy where it investigates

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 different hypotheses concerning the nature of purpose. In this way, it
provides a meaningful guide to one’s beliefs with reference to it.

i) Man is not only a thinking animal but a religious one as well. Religious
questions are not scientific ones and therefore, they cannot be
answered by means of experiment and observation. It is for this reason
that philosophy rationalizes our faith. This is because; faith can take us
only up to a certain point beyond which it cannot go. Where our faith
stops, Philosophy takes over and in this way helps to make a connection
between our faith and our actual experiences so as to make them more
meaningful.

j) At the national level, philosophy implies the sum total of principles,

values, standards and culture which define a nation as a nation as a
nation. For example, philosophy may provide the foundational base for
developmental objectives, societal institutions, political culture,
morality and national culture.

k) Philosophy is the foundation of knowledge. It is the standard by which

ideas are integrated and understood.

l) In the corporate world, philosophy is important as it provides the tools

of designing a corporate philosophy.

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Summary

In this topic, we have introduced you to the concept of philosophy, defined

society, discussed the different usages of philosophy, how philosophy begins
and also shown you the importance of studying philosophy for any university
student.

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